AN INTERNSHIP REPORT OF METAL CASTING

INTERNSHIP REPORT

Submitted by

N MADHANKUMAR 19M024

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of

DIPLOMA IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU

APRIL 2021

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PSG POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
(Autonomous and an ISO 9001 certified Institution)
COIMBATORE – 641 004

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 PSG POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
(Autonomous and an ISO 9001 certified Institution)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COIMBATORE – 641 004
CERTIFICATE

N MADHANKUMAR 19M024

This is to certify that the internship report entitled

METAL CASTING
has been submitted by

N MADHANKUMAR
In partial fulfillment for the award of

DIPLOMA IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

of the State Board of Technical Education,
Government of Tamil Nadu.
during the academic year 2020 – 2021

Faculty incharge Head of the Department

Certified that the candidate was examined by us in the internship viva-voce

examination held on ………………….

Internal Examiner External Examiner

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to thank the Almighty God for giving us the strength,
knowledge, ability and opportunity to undertake this project study and to persevere and
complete it with satisfaction.
I am ineffably indebted to our Principal for giving us this opportunity and encouraging
us to accomplish this project.
I am highly indebted to Mr.T.KUMARESAN, Lecturer(Sr.G)/Mechanical for his
valuable guidance and constant supervision. Without his able guidance, this internship would
not have been possible and we shall eternally be grateful to him for his assistance.
I acknowledge with deep sense of reverence, our special gratitude towards our Head of
the Department Dr.V.MOHAN SIVAKUMAR Department of Mechanical Engineering for his
guidance, inspiration and suggestions in our quest for knowledge.
I would like to express our gratitude towards our parents for their tremendous
contribution in helping us reach this stage in our life. This would not have been possible
without their unwavering and unselfish love, cooperation and encouragement given to us at all
times.
I have taken efforts in this internship. However, it would not have been possible
without the kind support and help of many individuals. I would like to extend our sincere
thanks to all of them.
Any omission in this brief acknowledgement does not mean lack of gratitude.

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 ABSTRACT
Since the discovery of the earth’s minerals, metal casting process has played an
important role in society. An integral part of every technological advance, castings have
allowed us to build equipment to feed our people, fight for democracy, build infrastructure and
manufacture cars, trains and airplanes. In general, castings have been and will continue to be
the key ingredient in the recipe for a better way of life. There are various types of casting
process, such as sand-casting, permanent-mould casting, investment casting and die-casting.
Casting is process of producing components through molten metal pouring into mold cavity.
Not many developments in recent decades have changed the understanding of the metalcasting
process as fundamentally as casting process. The main intention of this internship report is to
provide an easy to read and attractive overview of metal casting process, applications of
process, types of cores used in casting, types of tested conducted on casting and its inspection
methods.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

S.NO CHAPTER PG.NO

FRONT PAGE I
CERTIFICATE PAGE II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT III
ABSTRACT IV
TABLE OF CONTENT V
LIST OF FIGURES VIII
1 INTRODUCTION TO METAL CASTING 01
1.1 Introduction to metal casting 01
1.2 Metal history 01
1.3 Casting Terms 02
2 TYPES OF METAL CASTING 06
2.1 Types of casting 06
2.2 Sand casting 07
2.3 Investment casting 08
2.4 Die casting 09
2.5 Low pressure casting 11
2.6 Centrifugal casting 12
2.7 Gravity die casting 13
2.8 Vacuum die casting 15
2.9 Squeezing die casting 15
2.10 Lost foam casting 17
2.11 Continual casting 18
3 TERMINOLOGY AND TOOLS USED IN SAND MOULDING 20

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 3.1 Terminology used in sand moulding 20
3.2 Tools used in sand moulding 21
4 KEY DESIGN ELEMENTS OF SAND CASTING AND
PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND 25
4.1 Design elements of sand casting 25
4.2 Properties of moulding sand 27
5 METHODS OF SAND TESTING 29
5.1 Methods of sand testing 29
5.2 Moisture content test 29
5.3 Clay content test 30
5.4 Grain fitness test 30
5.5 Permeability test 31
5.6 Strength test 31
5.7 Refractoriness test 32
5.8 Mould hardness test 32
6 CORES AND CASTING OF METALS 33
6.1 Meaning of cores 33
6.2 Types of cores 33
6.3 Core materials 35
7 FURNACE – BLAST FURNACE 37
7.1 Introduction 37
7.2 Definition of blast furnace 37
7.3 Section of blast furnace 38
7.4 Main parts of blast furnace 38
7.5 Zones of blast furnace 39
7.6 Construction details of blast furnace 40
7.7 Working procedure of blast furnace 41
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 7.8 Application of blast furnace 42
7.9 Advantages of blast furnace 42
8 INSPECTION, TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROL OF
CASTINGS 43
8.1 Inspection 43
8.2 Mechanical testing 43
8.3 Chemical compositions 44
8.4 Non destructive Testing 45
9 Conclusion 49
BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................................50

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 LIST OF FIGURES
FIG.NO NAME OF THE FIGURE PG.NO
1.1 History of metal casting 1
1.2 Casting terms 2
2.1 Process cycle of sand casting 6
2.2 Investment Casting 7
2.3 Die casting 8
2.4 Low pressure casting 9
2.5 Centrifugal casting 10
2.6 Gravity die casting 13
2.7 Vacuum die casting 15
2.8 Squeezing die casting 15
2.9 Lost foam casting 17
2.10 Continual casting 18
1.1 Key design considerations for sand casting 25
6.1 Pattern, core used for short pipe 33
6.2 Types of cores 35
7.1 Blast furnace 45

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO METAL CASTING
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO METAL CASTING
Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually poured into a
mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The
solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to
complete the process.
Metal Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods known. Casting means
pouring molten metal into a mold with a cavity of the shape to be made, and allowing it to
solidify. When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the mold either by
breaking the mold or taking the mold apart. The solidified object is called the casting. By this
process, intricate parts can be given strength and rigidity frequently not obtainable by any other
manufacturing process. The mold, into which the metal is poured, is made of some heat
resisting material. Sand is most often used as it resists the high temperature of the molten
metal. Permanent molds of metal can also be used to cast products.
1.2 METAL CASTING HISTORY
Metal casting is one of the oldest manufacturing methods known to humankind and a
very direct method of producing metal parts. The first castings can be dated back to ancient
China in the 4th century B.C.

Fig 1.1 History of metal casting

Through the metal casting process, molten metal is poured into a mold that matches the
final dimensions of the finished product. While all metals can be cast, the most predominant

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are iron, aluminum, steel and copper-based alloys. Castings range in weight from less than an
ounce to single parts weighing several hundred tons. Over the years, the development of
the metal casting industry paralleled the American industrial revolution and foundries
developed near growing settlements and cities nationwide. As settlers plowed through the
American prairie, stronger metals were required to cut through the turf, shoe horses, create
buggies and eventually lay the rail tracks that opened the west. Today, iron castings are found
in almost all durable goods and machinery. From the machines that make the vehicles we drive
to the materials found in our homes, we live and travel on cast iron.

1.3 CASTING TERMS:

Fig 1.2 Casting Terms

1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is
formed. Depending upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it is referred
to by various names such as drag – lower molding flask, cope – upper molding flask,
cheek – intermediate molding flask used in three piece molding
2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with the
help of pattern.
3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up the
mold.

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4. Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or
gases. It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.
5. Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface
of the mold cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
6. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to
create openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.
7. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the
molten metal is poured.
8. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches
the mold cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.
9. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the
gate.
10. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
11. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of
its own weight and overcome the metallostatic force.
12. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks
and solidifies. It is also known as “feed head”.
13. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.

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 CHAPTER 2
TYPES OF METAL CASTING
2.1 TYPES OF CASTING
1. Sand casting
2. Investment casting
3. Die casting
4. Low pressure casting
5. Centrifugal casting
6. Gravity die casting
7. Vacuum die casting
8. Squeezing die casting
9. Lost foam casting
10. Continual casting
2.2 SAND CASTING
Sand casting, the most widely used casting process, utilizes expendable sand molds to
form complex metal parts that can be made of nearly any alloy. Because the sand mold must be
destroyed in order to remove the part, called the casting, sand casting typically has a
low production rate. The sand casting process involves the use of a furnace, metal, pattern, and
sand mold. The metal is melted in the furnace and then ladled and poured into the cavity of the
sand mold, which is formed by the pattern. The sand mold separates along a parting line and
the solidified casting can be removed.
Sand casting is used to produce a wide variety of metal components with complex
geometries. These parts can vary greatly in size and weight, ranging from a couple ounces to
several tons. Some smaller sand cast parts include components as gears, pulleys, crankshafts,
connecting rods, and propellers. Larger applications include housings for large equipment and
heavy machine bases. Sand casting is also common in producing automobile components, such
as engine blocks, engine manifolds, cylinder heads, and transmission cases.
2.2.1 PROCESS CYCLE
The process cycle for sand casting consists of six main stages, which are explained below.

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1. Mold-making - The first step in the sand casting process is to create the mold for the
casting. In an expendable mold process, this step must be performed for each casting. A
sand mold is formed by packing sand into each half of the mold. The sand is packed
around the pattern, which is a replica of the external shape of the casting. When the
pattern is removed, the cavity that will form the casting remains. Any internal features
of the casting that cannot be formed by the pattern are formed by separate cores which
are made of sand prior to the formation of the mold. Further details on mold-making
will be described in the next section. The mold-making time includes positioning the
pattern, packing the sand, and removing the pattern. The mold-making time is affected
by the size of the part, the number of cores, and the type of sand mold. If the mold type
requires heating or baking time, the mold-making time is substantially increased. Also,
lubrication is often applied to the surfaces of the mold cavity in order to facilitate
removal of the casting. The use of a lubricant also improves the flow the metal and can
improve the surface finish of the casting. The lubricant that is used is chosen based
upon the sand and molten metal temperature.
2. Clamping - Once the mold has been made, it must be prepared for the molten metal to
be poured. The surface of the mold cavity is first lubricated to facilitate the removal of
the casting. Then, the cores are positioned and the mold halves are closed and securely
clamped together. It is essential that the mold halves remain securely closed to prevent
the loss of any material.
3. Pouring - The molten metal is maintained at a set temperature in a furnace. After the
mold has been clamped, the molten metal can be ladled from its holding container in
the furnace and poured into the mold. The pouring can be performed manually or by an
automated machine. Enough molten metal must be poured to fill the entire cavity and
all channels in the mold. The filling time is very short in order to prevent early
solidification of any one part of the metal.
4. Cooling - The molten metal that is poured into the mold will begin to cool and solidify
once it enters the cavity. When the entire cavity is filled and the molten metal solidifies,
the final shape of the casting is formed. The mold cannot be opened until the cooling
time has elapsed. The desired cooling time can be estimated based upon the wall
thickness of the casting and the temperature of the metal. Most of the possible defects

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 that can occur are a result of the solidification process. If some of the molten metal
cools too quickly, the part may exhibit shrinkage, cracks, or incomplete sections.
Preventative measures can be taken in designing both the part and the mold and will be
explored in later sections.
5. Removal - After the predetermined solidification time has passed, the sand mold can
simply be broken, and the casting removed. This step, sometimes called shakeout, is
typically performed by a vibrating machine that shakes the sand and casting out of the
flask. Once removed, the casting will likely have some sand and oxide layers adhered
to the surface. Shot blasting is sometimes used to remove any remaining sand,
especially from internal surfaces, and reduce the surface roughness.
6. Trimming - During cooling, the material from the channels in the mold solidifies
attached to the part. This excess material must be trimmed from the casting either
manually via cutting or sawing, or using a trimming press. The time required to trim the
excess material can be estimated from the size of the casting's envelope. A larger
casting will require a longer trimming time. The scrap material that results from this
trimming is either discarded or reused in the sand casting process. However, the scrap
material may need to be reconditioned to the proper chemical composition before it can
be combined with non-recycled metal and reused.

Fig 2.1 Process cycle

6 of sand casting
2.3 INVESTMENT CASTING
Investment casting is one of the oldest known metal forming techniques, dating back over
5’000 years ago when beeswax was used to create the pattern. Beeswax back then didn’t allow
the accuracy and intricate shapes we can produce today. Investment castings are used in a huge
array of items, golf clubs are investment cast, aeroplanes use investment cast parts as do cars
and other motor vehicles.

Fig 2.2 Investment Casting

2.3.1 CREATING THE MOULD

To begin the process wax patterns are made by injecting hot molten wax into an
aluminium die, this sets the wax pattern to the exact size and shape of the required part. Many
of these wax moulds are attached to a wax sprue which forms a stem linking all of the
individual moulds together.
Once the sprues are filled with the mould attachments they are dipped into a cleaning
bath to ensure the future layers of shell cling to the mould profile correctly. Before the first
layer of the shell is added the sprue assembly is dipped into a bath of slurry, this will form the
bonding agent to the layer of ceramic powder which is added in either a rainfall sander or a
fluidized sand bed, this process gradually builds up a ceramic shell around the moulds and
sprue, with progressively coarser layers of ceramic coating being added over several coats until
the desired shell thickness is achieved.
After the ceramic thickness is achieved the sprue along with its moulds are oven baked
to both harden the ceramic shell and to melt all of the wax from within it, this will include all

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of the wax moulds and the wax sprue leaving a hollow ceramic shell. The wax moulds once
melted leave a perfect void of the desired mould to be cast, the sprue once melted leaves open
channels for the liquid metal to flow and fill all of the hollow shel. The molten metals are
poured into the now hollow ceramic shell via the filling cup and left to cool off. Once the metal
has cooled sufficiently the ceramic shell is broken up by either being submitted to vibrations or
a water jet.
2.4 DIE CASTING
Die casting is a very commonly used type of permanent mold casting process. It is used for
producing many components of home appliances (e.g rice cookers, stoves, fans, washing and
drying machines, fridges), motors, toys and hand-tools – since Pearl river delta is a largest
manufacturer of such products in the world, this technology is used by many HK-based
companies. Surface finish and tolerance of die cast parts is so good that there is almost no post-
processing required. Die casting molds are expensive, and require significant lead time to
fabricate; they are commonly called dies.
There are two common types of die casting: hot- and cold-chamber die casting.
In a hot chamber process (used for Zinc alloys, magnesium) the pressure chamber
connected to the die cavity is filled permanently in the molten metal. The basic cycle of
operation is as follows: (i) die is closed and gooseneck cylinder is filled with molten metal; (ii)
plunger pushes molten metal through gooseneck passage and nozzle and into the die cavity;
metal is held under pressure until it solidifies; (iii) die opens and cores, if any, are retracted;
casting stays in ejector die; plunger returns, pulling molten metal back through nozzle and
gooseneck; (iv) ejector pins push casting out of ejector die. As plunger uncovers inlet hole,
molten metal refills gooseneck cylinder. The hot chamber process is used for metals that (a)
have low melting points and (b) do not alloy with the die material, steel; common examples are
tin, zinc, and lead.
In a cold chamber process, the molten metal is poured into the cold chamber in each
cycle. The operating cycle is (i) Die is closed and molten metal is ladled into the cold chamber
cylinder; (ii) plunger pushes molten metal into die cavity; the metal is held under high pressure
until it solidifies; (iii) die opens and plunger follows to push the solidified slug from the
cylinder, if there are cores, they are retracted away; (iv) ejector pins push casting off ejector die

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and plunger returns to original position. This process is particularly useful for high melting
point metals such as Aluminum, and Copper (and its alloys).

Fig 2.3 Die Casting

2.5 LOW PRESSURE CASTING
Low pressure air is introduced into a sealed furnace holding a tank of molten metal. The metal
feeds up slowly through a riser tube and into the die cavity. Once the casting has solidified in
the die, air pressure is released, allowing any residue molten metal still in the riser to fall back
into the tank for recycling. When cooled, the casting is removed.
2.5.1 MANUFACTURE:
1. Metal is displaced from the furnace and forced up the riser tube using air at 20–100 kN
m-2, or by evacuation of the mould. “Counter-pressure die casting” is a variation in
which the mould is filled by having a slight pressure differential produced by
controlled leakage from the mould. This slow, smooth and progressive filling of the
die cavity reduces metal turbulence and gives temperature gradients which are
favourable to feeding, thus producing sound, high-quality castings.
2. Riser tubes are usually cast iron and require regular cleaning and renewal of the mould
coating to prevent “sticking” and freezing of the molten metal. Refractory riser tubes
can be used and, although their initial cost is high, they can last up to a year and only

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 need cleaning once every 2 weeks. This cleaning can be carried out hot, thus reducing
the loss in production time.
3. Dies are usually cooled between castings, using air or water sprays, and have die-
coatings similar to those used for gravity die casting.
4. Sand or shell cores can be used in the dies to produce internal cavities, but usually
require a refractory coating to prevent metal penetration under pressure.
5. Castings have no runners or feeders in the true sense, and hence high yields (80–90%)
and low remelt ratios are obtained which, coupled with reduced fettling, gives a
high energy saving.
6. Casting machines are expensive, come in a wide variety of designs, and take up more
floor space than gravity die casting machines.
7. Automatic cycling and casting removal are possible, enabling an unskilled operator to
cope with more than one machine, thus giving a 10–20% increase in production rate.
8. Production rates depend largely on size and complexity of castings, but are similar to
gravity die casting and less than high pressure die casting.
9. Least expensive casting process for relatively high production runs, although using
aluminium alloy dies production runs of 100 castings can be economical with alloys of
zinc and aluminium.
10. Typical products include aluminium alloy wheels, cylinder blocks, guttering and beer
barrels.

Fig 2.4 Low Pressure Casting

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2.6 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
This process can be categorized as similar to that of permanent mold method. Here as the
molten metal is being poured, a permanent metal mold revolves about its axis at high speeds
ranging from 300 to 3000 rpm. This can be in horizontal, vertical or inclined positions. As a
result, the molten metal is centrifugally thrown towards the inside mold wall. There it solidifies
after cooling. It's usually a fine grain casting with a very fine-grained outer diameter.
Molds for centrifugal castings can be divided into three types.
 The Permanent Mold: Made of steel, iron or graphite. Inside surface is coated with a
thin refractory wash to increase mold life. The mold is preheated before coating, so as
to dry the coating and improve the adherence to the mold surface.
 Rammed Mold: It consists of a steel metal flask, lined with a layer of refractory
molding mix. The inside lining is coated with a refractory wash which is baked until
dry and hard.
 Spun or Centrifugally Cast Mold: In the metal flask a predetermined mass of refractory
material in slurry form is poured.
The flask on rotation makes the refractory materials centrifuged onto the wall of the flask. The
rotation is stopped and the liquid portion of the slurry drained off. It leaves the mold with a
refractory coating, to be baked until dry before use.

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 Fig 2.5 Centrifugal Casting

2.7 GRAVITY DIE CASTING

It is a permanent mould casting process, where the molten metal is poured from a
vessel or ladle into the mould. The mould cavity fills with no force other than gravity, filling
can be controlled by tilting the die. Undercuts and cavities can be incorporated into the
component form with the use of sand cores. This process gives a better surface finish than sand
casting as well as better mechanical properties, both due to rapid solidification.
Additionally, this process has a higher casting rate than aluminium sand casting,
however, the metal moulds are a higher cost than sand. Advantages of this process include the
possibility of low gas porosity, and fine grain sizes can be achieved. Compared to sand casting,
this process requires less finishing and fettling and gravity die casting tends to produce a higher
quality product. The Gravity die casting production method is generally less cost effective in
the manufacture of tooling compared with sand casting.
2.7.1 GRAVITY DIE CASTING PROCESS
Gravity die casting is often a manual process, with the molten metal added with the use
of a ladle. However, for some high volume applications it is also possible to use an automated
ladle to pour the molten metal. The speed and the direction of the filling can also be controlled
by tilting the die. Apart from the method by which the molten metal is poured into the die
cavity, and the gravity die material, the casting process is essentially the same as sand casting.
It involves four steps:

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 1. The die is heated and then sprayed with a refractory coating, and closed. The coating
both helps control the temperature of the die during manufacture and it also assists in
the removal of the casting.
2. Molten metal is then manually poured into the die, (although in some cases a machine
can be used) and allowed to solidify.
3. The die is then opened and the cast parts either removed by hand or in some cases
ejector pins are used on the mechanized machines.
4. Finally, the scrap, which includes the gate, runners, sprues and flash, is removed from
the casting(s). The castings are then processed to remove sharp edges and excess
material, then blast cleaned (if required) prior to dispatch to the customer.

Gravity die casting is a natural partner to sand casting, and allows us to offer the customer the
most cost effective route for casting manufacture.

Fig 2.6 Gravity Die Casting

2.8 VACUUM DIE CASTING

Die casting is the process where molten metal is injected into the cavity of a metallic
die, held for a period sufficient for adequate solidification and then released; has been used
widely in various industries, most commonly the automotive and commercial industries.
Because of the rapid cooling rates and fine grain sizes combined with the ability to precision
machine the die cavity and exploit high injection pressures the die casting process has many
advantages over other metal forming processes.

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 These process benefits include improved mechanical properties over conventional
casting processes, good surface finish, short cycle times, high volume capacity, good
repeatability and dimensional stability. The most commonly used alloys in this process are
aluminum, zinc, magnesium and to a lesser extent copper.
There are several types of die casting processes. Various processes are now in use to
achieve both economically and technologically viable castings production. The variety of
methods results from the different ways in which gas can be eliminated from the cavity, how
the injection system works or how much heat is lost during the process.
Through vacuum die casting, it is possible to produce high-quality thin-walled parts
with expected and repeatable mechanical properties, with or without heat treatment or welding.
Vacuum die casting was first used in Japan and it extended rapidly around the world. Vacuum
die casting has some important advantages: the vacuum systems remove the air from the cavity
reducing gas porosity. In addition, very thin sections can be casted easily; good surface
finishing properties and appearance can be obtained with no need for further machining. Using
this technique, casting defects are low and the rejection of the component is reduced. The
general principle is the same as in low-pressure die casting. Depending on the alloy used, the
required properties can be achieved in vacuum die casting even without additional heat
treatment; but whenever such treatment is required; it will produce superficial defects in the
presence of even minor gas porosity, which are usually not tolerated on the final product.
Figure shows a schematic of the Vacuum die casting VDC process. It is important to
note the entire melting, pouring and injection process in conducted under stringent vacuum
controls. The part is exposed to atmosphere only after complete solidification has occurred.

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 Fig 2.7 Schematic of Vacuum Die Casting System
The application of vacuum die casting to super alloy materials offers the potential to
develop novel refined material microstructures for a broad range of alloy compositions. As
would be expected due to the presence of a refined grain size, the mechanical properties of
material traditionally produced via investment casting for turbine blade applications show
improved tensile and reduced stress rupture capability. Wrought high volume fraction γ’ disk
alloys exhibit reduced strength and significantly enhanced stress properties. The highest
temperature capability structural casting alloy (Inco 939) shows improved strength and reduced
stress rupture life. The combination of mechanical property balance ability to fabricate
complex shapes should offer the opportunity to exploit die cast super alloys in niche
applications in the temperature range of 649°C to 816°C if reasonable rupture capability is
required. To be successful, the process must offer an economic as well as technical advantage.
Improvements to casting quality would be required to meet aerospace requirements and it is
highly likely that this could be achieved with investment in the technology.

2.9 SQUEEZE CASTING

Squeeze casting is a combination of casting and forging process. The process can result
in the highest mechanical properties attainable in a cast product. The development of squeeze
casting process can usher in tremendous possibility for manufacturing of components of

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aluminium alloys, which are not properly commercialized as yet. It can also be effective in for
import substitution of critical components.
The process starts when the molten metal is poured into the bottom half of a pre-heated
die. As soon as the metal starts solidifying, the upper half of the die closes and starts applying
pressure during the solidification process. The extent of pressure applied is significantly less
than that in forging. Parts of great detail can be produced. Coring can be used in tandem with
the process to form holes and recesses. The high pressure and the close contact of molten alloy
with the metal die surface results in minimum porosity and improvised mechanical properties.
This process can be used for both ferrous and non-ferrous metals. This technique is very much
suited for making fiber-reinforced castings from fiber cake preform.
Squeeze Casting Process (or squeeze forming) are of two types:
 Direct (liquid metal forging) – This is done in equipment which closely resembles the
forging process. Liquid metal is poured into lower die segment, contained in a
hydraulic press. Upper die segment is closed. A very high pressure of 100 Mpa or more
is applied to the whole cavity until the part gets solidified.
 Indirect Squeeze Casting – This process is very much similar to die casting. It takes
place in a die casting equipment. This equipment van be vertical or horizontal. The melt
which is cleaned and grain -refined is poured in to the shot sleeve of a horizontal or
vertical casting machine. The melt is then injected into the die through relatively large
gates. This is accomplished through relatively slow velocity (less than 0.5m/sec). The
melt in the die cavity is then solidified under pressures, ranging from 55MPa to
300MPa. In this process the parts displays good tensile strength.

Fig 2.8 Squeeze Casting

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2.10 LOST FOAM DIE CASTING
First, a pattern is made from polystyrene foam, which can be done by many different
ways. For small volume runs the pattern can be hand cut or machined from a solid block of
foam; if the geometry is simple enough it can even be cut using a hot-wire foam cutter. If the
volume is large, then the pattern can be mass-produced by a process similar to injection
molding. Pre-expanded beads of polystyrene are injected into a preheated aluminum mold at
low pressure. Steam is then applied to the polystyrene which causes it to expand more to fill
the die. The final pattern is approximately 97.5% air and 2.5% polystyrene. Pre-made pouring
basins, runners, and risers can be hot glued to the pattern to finish it.
Next, the foam cluster is coated with ceramic investment, also known as
the refractory coating, via dipping, brushing, spraying or flow coating. After the coating dries,
the cluster is placed into a flask and backed up with un-bonded sand which is compacted using
a vibration table. The refractory coating captures all of the detail in the foam model and creates
a barrier between the smooth foam surface and the coarse sand surface. Secondly it
controls permeability, which allows the gas created by the vaporized foam pattern to escape
through the coating and into the sand. Controlling permeability is a crucial step to avoid sand
erosion. Finally, it forms a barrier so that molten metal does not penetrate or cause sand
erosion during pouring. Once the sand is compacted, the mold is ready to be poured. Automatic
pouring is commonly used in LFC, as the pouring process is significantly more critical than in
conventional foundry practice.
There is no bake-out phase, as for lost-wax. The melt is poured directly into the foam-
filled mold, burning out the foam as it pours. As the foam is of low density, the waste gas
produced by this is relatively small and can escape through mold permeability, as for the usual
out gassing control.

17
 Fig 2.9 Lost Foam Die Casting

2.11 CONTINUAL CASTING

Continuous cast shapes are produced by introducing molten metal into a vertical or
horizontal mold that has the ability for rapidly chilling the metal to the point of solidification.
The rapid chilling in the mold ensures a fine, uniform grain structure in the solidified metal
with higher physical properties than sand castings. Once solidified, the cast shaped bar is cut to
a desired length. The most common shapes produced are tubes and solids, but square,
rectangular, hexagonal, and many other irregular shapes can also be produced to match a
desired finished part profile.
2.10.1 PROCESS DETAILS
Molten metal from an induction furnace is fed directly into a mold with the required
shape (1). The molten metal enters the die through a series of holes in the upper portion of the
mold. Heat is extracted by the water-cooled jacket surrounding the mold, and the metal
solidifies. The molten metal above the die acts as a riser keeping the die filled and preventing
the formation of shrinkage cavities in the required finished form: bar, tube or special shape (2).
Solidification occurs in the die and then the solidified metal casting exits through the bottom of
the die by means of a continuous process of short intermittent extractions performed by a
mechanical device (3). The product is withdrawn at controlled increments and speed until the
production length is met (4). Lengths are cut off by a traveling saw which moves with the cast
shape. The standard length for continuous cast material is 144 inches (5). Since continuous

18
casting operates as a true gravity fed bottom-flow casting method, the process minimizes the
possible trapping of casual dirt and dross in the casting. Foreign matter in the furnace crucible
floats to the top of the melt so it does not become part of the cast product.
Low casting temperatures combined with the chill mold and directional solidification
inherent in this process promote a homogenous, fine-grained, high-density product with high
yield. A horizontal method of continuous casting has also found some favor in the foundry
industry. The principle is basically the same as it is for the vertical method, except the
equipment stretches out horizontally and is contained on one level. Tube hollows produced by
the horizontal method require somewhat more stock allowance to compensate for the natural
effect of gravity on ovality and straightness. Shapes other than solid round bar and tube
hollows are routinely cast by either method. Rectangular, hexagonal, square, gears with teeth,
and a multitude of other shapes lend themselves to the continuous cast method. This method is
excellent for producing small inside diameters. Continuous cast products can offer cost
advantages over other types of casting if the optimum quantity, shaping, and sizes are chosen.

Fig 2.10 Continual casting

19
 CHAPTER 3
TERMINOLOGY AND TOOLS USED IN SAND MOULDING
3.1 TERMINOLOGY USED IN SAND MOULDING
 Binder – a bonding agent is added to the sand to add strength.
 Chill – this metal insert is used in moulds to provide local chilling and equalise
solidification across the casting.
 Cope – the top half of a mould.
 Core – This sand insert is placed in the mould cavity. It is used to create internal
features or shapes that cannot be made by the mould pattern.
 Drag – the bottom half of a mould.
 Filter – this is part of the running system. The molten metal flow is regulated by the
filter which also removes any impurities– thereby reducing the likelihood of any
casting defects.
 Ladle – this is used to transfer the molten metal from the furnace to the mould.
 Mould – Made from sand, the mould contains the cavity into which the molten metal is
poured to create the casting. It consists of a top (a cope) and a bottom half (drag).
 Pattern – Made out of resin, the pattern is not an exact geometrical copy of the finished
casting. It is made slightly larger than the finished product to allow for metal
contraction during the solidification process.
 Risers – The risers, which form part of the running system compensate for shrinkage as
the molten metal solidifies.
 Running (or gating) system – this series of connected channels conveys the molten
metal to the mould cavity. The running system allows foundry staff to control liquid
flow, turbulence, the cooling rate and shrinkage.
 Sand – this widely available material is used in around 70% of metal casting processes.
It is recycled and reused at Haworth Castings – providing a cost-effective and eco-
friendly approach.
 Sprue – this is part of the running system through which the molten metal enters the
mould.

20
3.2 TOOLS USED IN SAND MOULDING
The tools are:
 Shovel
 Riddle
 Rammers
 Trowels
 Strike-Off Bar
 Vent Wire
 Lifter
 Slick
 Swab
 Bellow
 Gate Cutter
 Sprue Cutter
 Draw Screw
 Mallet
 Gagger
 Rapping Plate
 Clamps
 Sprit Level.

3.2.1 SHOVEL:
A shovel is used for mixing the sand with other ingredients. It is also used for handling the
sand from one place to another in the foundary shop. It consists of a square metal pan fitted
with a wooden handle Fig. 3.1
3.2.2 RIDDLE:
A riddle is used for cleaning the moulding sand. It removes the unwanted material like metal
scrap, iron and other metal parts, pebbles etc., Fig. 3.2.

21
 Fig 3.1 Shovel Fig 3.2 Riddle

3.2.3 RAMMERS:
A rammer is a wood or metal tool used for ramming or packing the sand in the moulding box.
It has two parts peen and butt. Rammers are available in different designs and constructions.
The popular and widely used rammers are peen-rammer, bench-rammer, and floor-rammer etc.,
Fig.3.3

Fig 3.3 Rammers

3.2.4 TROWELS:
A trowel is used for finishing and repairing a mould. It consists of a metal-flat with different
shapes and wooden handle. It is also used for smoothen the mould surfaces, shaping the square
corners, finishing the parting surfaces. It is available in different shapes like rectangular,
triangular, square, round etc., Fig. 3.4

Fig 3.4.Trowels
3.2.5 STRIKE-OFF BAR:
A strike-off bar is used for striking off the excess sand from the mould to provide a smooth
surface. It is a straight bar of wood or steel and usually have rectangular cross-section Fig. 3.5

22
 Fig 3.5. Strike-off bar Fig 3.6 Vent Wire

3.2.6 VENT WIRE:

A vent wire is used to form vents or holes in the rammed sand to provide easy escape of gases
or steam formed during pouring of molten metal. It is a circular or rectangular long needle tool,
pointed edge at one end and handle at the other end.
3.2.7 LIFTER:
A lifter is used for picking up the unwanted dust and damaged parts of the mould. It is a L-
shaped steel tool with long holding shank and a small toe. It is available in thin sections of
various width and lengths, according to the shape of the mould.

Fig 4.7 Lifter

3.2.8 BELLOW:
A bellow is used to blow loose particles of sand from the cavity and surface of the mould.
Sometimes, a compress jet of air is used for this purpose.

Fig 3.8 Bellow

23
3.2.9 GATE CUTTER:
A gate cutter is used for cutting the gate in the mould which acts as a passage for the hot metal.
It is U-shaped piece of thin sheet metal.

Fig 3.9 Gate Cutter Fig 3.10 Sprue Cutter

3.2.10 SPRUE CUTTER:
A sprue cutter is used for creating a run-through or sprue for the molten metal in the cope. It
has tapered cylindrical shape and made from wood.
3.2.11 DRAW SCREW:
A draw screw is used for drawn out the pattern embedded in the moulding sand. It is a pointed
steel rod, with a loop at one end. Wooden mallet is used for striking the draw screw, also called
draw spike.

Fig 3.11 Draw Screw Fig 3.12 Mallet

3.2.12 MALLET:
A mallet is used to loosen the pattern in the mould so that it can be removed easily. It is used
together with draw spike.
3.2.13 SPRIT LEVEL
A sprit level is used to keep sand bed, moulding box and table in horizontal position. It consists
of an air bubble inside a curved glass tube.

Fig 3.13 Sprit

24
 CHAPTER 4
KEY DESIGN ELEMENTS OF SAND CASTING AND
PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND
4.1 DESIGN ELEMENTS OF SAND CASTING
 Draft angle
 Parting line
 Undercuts and cores
 Cross sections
 Wall thickness
 Corners and angles
 Junction design
 Casting allowances
4.1.1 DRAFT ANGLE
Draft angle is the angle applied or allowed on all vertical faces of a pattern to aid easy
removal from the sand mould without damaging its walls. Angle required depends on the
moulding process, cast design and pattern depth inside the mould. Design engineers often
overlook this aspect of sand cast design even though it is critical for a successful cast.
Allowing suitable draft angle and utilizing the tapered surfaces in the design will increase
castability and reduce tooling cost due to increased metal flow and ease of tooling. If it does
not critically affect the functionality of the design, a draft angle as per ISO standards will help
produce cheaper and consistent sand moulds. Generally, foundries as a rule of thumb use 1-1.5o
of draft angle under normal conditions.
4.1.2 PARTING LINE
A parting line in sand casting is the borderline in which draft angles change direction.
Although the foundry will have the knowledge and experience of placing the parting line,
engineering product designers should be aware of parting line placement as it dictates the
quality and the cost of the cast. Parting line should be wide, short, horizontally flat and placed
as low as possible. Change in parting line placement will affect core usage, gating placement,
weight of the cast and dimensional accuracy.

25
4.1.3 UNDERCUTS & CORES
Undercuts in sand casts are features that prevent and stop the pattern from being
removed during the mould making stage. Usage of core sand loose pieces increase production
time and cost. Parts should be designed in such a way that it reduces or eliminates core usage.
Early parting line definition helps to understand the features to avoid undercuts.
4.1.4 CROSS SECTIONS
Uniform cross sections, also referred to as uniform wall thickness is generally
preferred but they are unfeasible in many engineering product designs. The principle
requirement is that not to leave thicker sections of the casting isolated when cooling. The
thicker section takes longer to cool while all the metal around it had already solidified. As the
thicker section continues to solidify it cannot “feed” from the sections around it leading to
defects such as porosity or tearing. It is worth discussing with the foundry about thickness
limitation of your material before deciding.
4.1.5 WALL THICKNESS
In sand casting, volume to surface area ratio is critical in getting even solidification and
to avoid formation of cavities. Solidification is directly proportional to the square of
volume/surface area ratio. Sections in the casting with low volume to surface area will solidify
faster than sections with higher volume to surface area. It is good/ recommended practice to
use ribs and gussets rather than increasing the overall thickness or adding thicker sections in
load-bearing places. These are not only adding strength but also reduce localised thick walls
and aids molten material flow. Isolated heavy sections can also induce stress concentrations
and cause shrinkage and tears.
4.1.6 CORNERS & ANGLES
Cooling characteristics of the cast and mould material have a major influence on the
quality of sand castings. Sharp angles at intersections and corners produce local hot spots and
provide sources of stress concentration. This causes the cast to distort, shrink and tear during
and after the production process, hence should be eliminated by fillet radii.
4.1.7 JUNCTION DESIGN
Since sand casting is a near net shape manufacturing technique, the parts can often be
very complex in shape and contain lots of junctions. These junctions are generally grouped
under five types viz., L, X, V, Y and X-T junctions. They create localised mass

26
concentrations, and these can create defects such as shrinkage, tears and cracks. Ideally, these
junctions should be designed in a way to reduce or eliminate localised mass concentrations.
4.1. 8 CASTING ALLOWANCES
Most metals such as steel, aluminium, magnesium, zinc and copper shrink when they
solidify and need to be considered and managed carefully. The amount of shrinkage depends
on the freezing point of the material and the volume to surface area ratio of the product.
Machining allowance should be added for mating interfaces of two sand cast parts and curved
edges should be avoided at the interface.

Fig 5.1 Key design considerations for sand casting

4.2 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND

Following are the important properties of moulding sand:
 Porosity: Porosity also known as permeability is the most important property of the
moulding sand. It is the ability of the moulding sand to allow gasses to pass through.
Gasses and steam are generated during the pouring of molten metal into the sand cavity.
This property depends not only on the shape and size of the particles of the sand but
also on the amount of the clay, binding material, and moisture contents in the mixture.
 Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness is the property of sand to hold its particles together. It may
be defined as the strength of the moulding sand. This property plays a vital role in
retaining intricate shapes of the mould. Insufficient strength may lead to a collapse in

27
 the mould particles during handling, turning over, or closing. Clay and bentonite
improves the cohesiveness.
 Adhesiveness: Adhesiveness is the property of sand due to which the sand particles
sticks to the sides of the moulding box. Adhesiveness of sand enables the proper lifting
of cope along with the sand.
 Plasticity: Plasticity is the property of the moulding sand by virtue of which it flows to
all corners around the mould when rammed, thus not providing any possibility of left
out spaces, and acquires a predetermined shape under ramming pressure.
 Flow-Ability: Flow-ability is the ability of moulding sand to free flow and fill the
recesses and the fine details in the pattern. It varies with moisture content.
 Collapsibility: Collapsibility is the property of sand due to which the sand mould
collapse automatically after the solidification of the casting. The mould should
disintegrate into small particles of moulding sand with minimum force after the casting
is removed from it.
 Refractoriness: Refractoriness is the property of sand to withstand high temperature of
molten metal without fusion or soften. Moulding sands with poor refractoriness may
burn when the molten metal is poured into the mould. Usually, sand moulds should be
able to withstand up to 1650°C.

28
 CHAPTER 5
METHODS OF SAND TESTING
5.1 METHODS OF SAND TESTING
The moulding sand after it is prepared should be properly tested to see that require
properties are achieved. Tests are conducted on a sample of the standard sand. The moulding
sand should be prepared exactly as it is done in the shop on the standard equipment and then
carefully enclosed in a container to safeguard its moisture content. Sand tests indicate the
moulding sand performance and help the foundry men in controlling the properties of
moulding sands. Sand testing controls the moulding sand properties through the control of its
composition.
The following are the various types of sand control tests:
 Moisture content test
 Clay content test
 Grain fitness test
 Permeability test
 Strength test
 Refractoriness test
 Mould hardness test
5.2 MOISTURE CONTENT TEST:
Moisture is the property of the moulding sand it is defined as the amount of water
present in the moulding sand. Low moisture content in the moulding sand does not develop
strength properties. High moisture content decreases permeability.
Procedures are:
 20 to 50 gms of prepared sand is placed in the pan and is heated by an infrared heater
bulb for 2 to 3 minutes.
 The moisture in the moulding sand is thus evaporated.
 Moulding sand is taken out of the pan and reweighed.
 The percentage of moisture can be calculated from the difference in the weights, of the
original moist and the consequently dried sand samples.

29
5.3 CLAY CONTENT TEST:
Clay influences strength, permeability and other moulding properties. It is responsible
for bonding sand particles together.
Procedures are:
 Small quantity of prepared moulding sand was dried
 Separate 50 gms of dry moulding sand and transfer wash bottle.
 Add 475cc of distilled water + 25cc of a 3% NaOH.
 Agitate this mixture about 10 minutes with the help of sand stirrer.
 Fill the wash bottle with water up to the marker.
 After the sand etc., has settled for about 10 minutes, Siphon out the water from the
wash bottle.
 Dry the settled down sand.
 The clay content can be determined from the difference in weights of the initial and
final sand samples.
Percentage of clay content = (W1-W2)/(W1) * 100
Where, W1-Weight of the sand before drying,
W2-Weight of the sand after drying.
5.4 GRAIN FITNESS TEST:
The grain size, distribution, grain fitness are determined with the help of the fitness
testing of moulding sands. The apparatus consists of a number of standard sieves mounted one
above the other, on a power driven shaker. The shaker vibrates the sieves and the sand placed
on the top sieve gets screened and collects on different sieves depending upon the various sizes
of grains present in the moulding sand. The top sieve is coarsest and the bottom-most sieve is
the finest of all the sieves. In between sieve are placed in order of fineness from top to bottom.
Procedures are:
 Sample of dry sand (clay removed sand) placed in the upper sieve
 Sand is vibrated for definite period
 The amount of same retained on each sieve is weighted.
 Percentage distribution of grain is computed.

30
5.5 PERMEABILITY TEST:
The quantity of air that will pass through a standard specimen of the sand at a particular
pressure condition is called the permeability of the sand.
Following are the major parts of the permeability test equipment:
 An inverted bell jar, which floats in a water.
 Specimen tube, for the purpose of hold the equipment
 A manometer (measure the air pressure)
Steps involved are:
 The air (2000cc volume) held in the bell jar is forced to pass through the sand
specimen.
 At this time air entering the specimen equal to the air escaped through the specimen
 Take the pressure reading in the manometer.
 Note the time required for 2000cc of air to pass the sand
 Calculate the permeability number
 Permeability number (N) = ((V x H) / (A x P x T))
Where,
V-Volume of air (cc)
H-Height of the specimen (mm)
A-Area of the specimen (mm2)
P-Air pressure (gm / cm2)
T-Time taken by the air to pass through the sand (seconds)
5.6 STRENGTH TEST:
Measurements of strength of moulding sands can be carried out on the universal sand
strength testing machine. The strength can be measured in compression, shear and tension. The
sands that could be tested are green sand, dry sand or core sand. The compression and shear
test involve the standard cylindrical specimen that was used for the permeability test.
 Green compression strength: Green compression strength or simply green strength
generally refers to the stress required to rupture the sand specimen under compressive
loading. The sand specimen is taken out of the specimen tube and is immediately (any
delay causes the drying of the sample which increases the strength) put on the strength

31
 testing machine and the force required to cause the compression failure is determined.
The green strength of sands is generally in the range of 30 to 160 KPa.
 Green shear strength: With a sand sample similar to the above test, a different adapter
is fitted in the universal machine so that the loading now be made for the shearing of
the sand sample. The stress required to shear the specimen along the axis is then
represented as the green shear strength. It may vary from 10 to 50 KPa.
 Dry strength: This test uses the standard specimens dried between 105 and 1100 C for
2 hours. Since the strength increases with drying, it may be necessary to apply larger
stresses than the previous tests. The range of dry compression strengths found in
moulding sands is from 140 to 1800 KPa, depending on the sand sample.
Steps involved are:
 Specimen is held between the grips
 Apply the hydraulic pressure by rotating the hand wheel
 Taking the deformation use of the indicators.
5.7 REFRACTORINESS TEST:
The refractoriness is used to measure the ability of the sand to withstand the higher
temperature.
Steps involved are:
 Prepare a cylindrical specimen of sand
 Heating the specimen at 1500 C for 2 hours
 Observe the changes in dimension and appearance
 If the sand is good, it retains specimen share and shows very little expansion. If the
sand is poor, specimen will shrink and distort.
5.8 MOULD HARDNESS TEST:
Hardness of the mould surface can be tested with the help of an “indentation hardness
tester”. It consists of indicator, spring loaded spherical indenter. The spherical indenter is
penetrates into the mould surface at the time of testing. The depth of penetration w.r.t. the flat
reference surface of the tester.
Mould hardness number = ((P) / (D – (D2-d2))
Where,
P- Applied Force (N), D- Diameter of the indenter (mm), d- Diameter of the indentation (mm)

32
 CHAPTER 6
CORES AND CASTING OF METALS
6.1 MEANING OF CORES:
Core is a pre-prepared shape of the mould. It is used to provide internal cavities,
recesses, or projections in the casting. It is usually positioned into a mould after the removal of
the pattern.
A core is usually made of the best quality sand and is placed into desired position in the mould
cavity. Core prints are added to both sides of the pattern to create impressions that allow the
core to be supported and held at both ends.

Fig 6.1 Pattern, core used for short pipe

When the molten metal is poured, it flows around the core and fill the rest of the mould cavity.
Cores are subjected to extremely severe conditions, and they must, therefore, possess very high
resistance to erosion, exceptionally high strength, good permeability, good refractoriness, and
adequate collapsibility. Special vent holes are provided on the core to allow gasses to escape
easily. Sometimes, cores are reinforced with low carbon steel wires or even cast-iron grids (in
case of large cores) to ensure stability and resistance to shrinkage.
6.2 TYPES OF CORES:
 Green Sand Core: A core formed by the pattern itself, in the same sand used for the
mould is known as green sand core. The pattern is so designed that it provides the core
of green sand. The hallow part in the pattern produces the green sand core.
 Dry Sand Core: A core is prepared separately in core boxes and dried, is known as dry
sand core. The dry sand cores are also known as process cores. They are available in
different sizes, shapes and designs as per till requirement.

33
Some common types of dry-sand cores are:
 Horizontal Core: The horizontal core is the most common type of core and is
positioned horizontally at the parting surface of the mould. The ends of the core rest in
the seats provided by the core prints on the pattern. This type of core can withstand the
turbulence effect of the molten metal poured.
 Vertical Core: The vertical core is placed vertically with some of their portion lies in
the sand. Usually, top and bottom of the core is kept tapered but taper on the top id
greater them at bottom.
 Balance Core: The balance core extends only one side of the mould. Only one core
print is available on the pattern for balance core. This is best suitable for the casting has
only one side opening. This is used for producing blind holes or recesses in the casting.
 Hanging Core: The hanging core is suspended vertically in the mould. This is
achieved either by hanging wires or the core collar rests in the collar cavity created in
the upper part of the mould. This type of core does not have bottom support.
 Drop Core: The drop core is used when the core has to be placed either above or below
the parting line. This core is also known as wing core, tail core, chair core, etc.
 Kiss Core: The kiss core is used when a number of holes of less dimensional accuracy
is required. In this case, no core prints are provided and consequentially, no seat is
available for the core. The core is held in position approximately between the cope and
drag and hence referred as kiss core.

34
 Fig 6.2 Types of cores

6.3 CORE MATERIALS:

The compositions of core material are the mixture of sand, binders and additives. Core
sands are silica, zircon, Olivine etc. and core binders are core oils, resins, molasses, dextrin
etc., are generally used for preparation of core materials. Sand contains more than 5% clay
reduces not only permeability but also collapsibility and hence not suitable for core making.
The commonly used core sand is a mixture of following items:
 Core Sand: The sand may be green sand for smaller castings and mixture of fire clay,
green sand and betonies for heavier casting. The cores are oven backed to dry away its
moisture. The dry sand cores are strong than green and cores. Also, the sand with
rounded grains is best suitable for core making as they have better permeability than the
angular grains sand.
 Oil Sand: Oil sand can be used for almost any sand casting application. A typical
composition of oil sand is: Sand 95 — 96% Cereal flour 1 — 1.05% Core oil 1 —
1.5% Water 1 — 2% Bentonite 0.1—0.3%. Oil sand is very popular in core making
because:
o They get good strength
o They provide excellent surface finish.
o They have better collapsibility after baking.

35
 o The backed oil sand cores are very hard and not easily damaged in handling of
mould.
 Resin Sand: These are thermosetting or thermoplastic binders such as rosin, phenol,
urea, furan, formaldehyde etc. are used to obtain good bonds to sand. They are
becoming common in use due to their high strength, low gas formation, excellent
collapsibility, resistance to moisture absorption, better dimensional accuracy to casting,
etc.
 CO2 – Sodium Silicate Sand: Silica sand and sodium silicate (3-4%) is rammed in the
core and then CO2 gas is passed through sand to make the core hard. Such types of
cores are used for very large castings. They do not need to drying and hence is very fast
method of core making,
 Core Binders: Natural sand has not sufficient binding properties and hence some
binders are used to improve the binding strength of core sand. The functions of binders
are to hold the sand grains together and to provide better strength to the core.

36
 CHAPTER 7
FURNACE – BLAST FURNACE
7.1 INTRODUCTION
A blast furnace is a special type of cylindrical furnace, which is basically used for the
purpose of smelting. So, the industrial metals can be extracted from their ores like iron, pig
iron, or copper. The word ‘blast’ gives the idea of combustion air which is forcefully supplied
or produced to the atmospheric pressure above. In past times, furnaces were used to produce
only iron by using charcoal. Soon after the shortage of wood because of deforestation, coal was
suggested to be used for the purpose. Since coal contains Sulphur which makes iron quiet
brittle, it was assumed to be wastage for the iron life. However, in 17th century Abraham
Darby accomplished his mission to produce such furnace which can be used for smelting iron
using coke as fuel. His achievement was marvellous which increased the trade of iron and
finally lead to the Industrial Revolution.
7.2 DEFINITION OF BLAST FURNACE:
It is defined as a metallurgical furnace which is used to extract metals primarily from its
ores of iron and copper. The fuel contains a mixture of flux that is particularly limestone where
iron ore is available, and coke is supplied and pumped through the top of the furnace. On the
other hand, the bottom of the furnace is attached with a series of parallel pipes that transfer hot
blast air which is enriched with oxygen. As soon as the hot air is allowed to enter, the oxide ore
is reduced to convert it into impure metal. As both the material is mixed, the chemical reaction
takes place causing the molten metal to fall down where it is tapped off and collected. The
waste of the material which is basically ‘slag’ goes at the top of the furnace where it is piped
off. The molten metal and this slag are the end products of this procedure. These flow of both
the products in opposite directions along with different combustion gases are termed as
countercurrent exchange. However, there are similar procedures used for various purposes
including blowing houses to obtain tin, lead and can be extracted by smelting mills and
similarly, iron is obtained by bloomer furnace. These all are classified as blast furnaces.
Nevertheless, this term is used for a very limited purpose as for smelting iron ore. This
smelting would help for the production of pig iron, which is a majorly used material in the
processing of iron and steel production.

37
7.3 SECTION OF BLAST FURNACE:
A Blast Furnace is consists of the following sections: Furnace Proper, Cast House, Stoves,
Raw Material Storage Section, Raw Material Charging Section, Gas Cleaning Point , Slag
Dumping Area, Pulverised coal Inoculation
 Furnace Proper: It is the total furnace area where we inject the hot metal with the slag
which is generated from the raw material.
 Cast House: In the cast house, hot metal with slag flowing through a channel where it is
divided into two forms, one is hot metal and another one is slag and then further going
to the iron and slag side sequentially of the Furnace.
 Stoves: Stoves are used to heat the air which is provided by the high-speed blower.
 Raw Material Storage Section: In this section raw material are stored, it designed so
carefully that raw material can easily be transferred from this section.
 Raw Material Charging Section: As the name denotes it is a charging station. Here in
this section, we can see a hopper through which the raw material enters the furnace.
 Gas Cleaning Point: As we use several types of fuel to generate the heat, in this
scenario also there is a lot of burned gas is generated inside the blast furnace, so we
need to have point or section, from which we can easily extract the burned gases.
 Slag Dumping Area: In a blast furnace, while the process of extracting the iron has
occurred at that time, we also get slag or impurities. To remove this we use two types of
method. One is using of a high-pressure water jet, which blends with the slag or
impurities then we send the mixture to the granulation plan, secondly if it is unable to
granulate in the granulation plant then we make a separate area where we dumped the
slag.
 Pulverised coal Inoculation: In this section, we charge the crushed coal dust so that it
can easily take the fire.
7.4 MAIN PARTS OF BLAST FURNACE:
A blast consisted of the following parts: Hoppers, Adjustable Gates, Rotating Chute, Fire brick,
Combustion, Gas burner, Carbon brick, Taphole, Tuyere
 Hopper: It is a cone-shaped funnel which is used for pouring the raw material which
comes from the raw material storage section.

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  Adjustable gates: To control the flow and quantity of the raw material we need to use
the adjustable gate. It can be controlled manually, however, in modern blast furnaces it
is opened or closed electronically.
 Rotating Chute: It is used to blend the raw materials and more importantly, it prevents
the escape of furnace gas while charging the raw materials
 Fire brick: Fire clay bricks are used to protect the furnace shell. It is made of ceramic
material, it can withstand high temperature and its thermal conductivity is very low.
 Combustion Chamber: It is a chamber where the combustion of the fuel occurred.
 Gas Burner: To generate the fire we need a burner, so inside the combustion chamber,
a gas burner is fitted.
 Carbon Brick: The outside of the combustion chamber is made by Carbon brick
because it has more capability to resist the withstand the internal heat of the combustion
chamber. It is a composite refractory material, with more slag resistance capability and
high thermal conductivity and low expansibility of carbon.
 Taphole: Through the tap hole, we can draw the molten material outside the furnace.
 Tuyere: It is a pipe, by which we supply the air to the furnace. To generate the air we
can use high-pressure blowers.
7.5 ZONES OF BLAST FURNACE:
In the blast furnace, we can see there are four main zones.
1. Stack
2. Barrel
3. Bosh
4. Hearth
 Stack Zone: It is the top zone of a Blast furnace, covered by Fire Brick. In this section
hot gases rise from the combustion chamber and flow upwards to heat the newly come
raw material from the hoppers.
 Barrel Zone: It comparatively more heated on then stack. It is also called a reduction
zone, where chemical relations have occurred.
 Bosh Zone: It is an intermediate zone between Heart (Bottom) and Bosh. It is the
hottest part of the furnace because in this section the proximity to the reaction between

39
 air and coke is very close. Some portion of bosh is covered by thick fire clay bricks and
some portion is covered by carbon brick.
 Hearth Zone: It is the bottom portion of the blast furnace. In heart zone, hot gases are
coming from one side and fresh atmospheric gases come from the other side through
the Tuyere.
7.6 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF BLAST FURNACE:
The blast furnace is constructed in the form of a tall structure, placed with special kind
of bricks (Fire Clay bricks) which are resistant to decomposition by any of the environmental
attacks. These bricks are the outlines to enable the expansion of charged materials. As soon as
melting starts to occur, these brick heat and reduces in size. The complete procedure is built
with the help of various materials and compartments to start processing. These include Hot
blast from Cowper stoves, exhaust gases, reduction zone of ferric oxide (stack), a long column
containing ore, limestone, and coke, pre-heating zone, melting zone (bosh), reduction zone of
ferrous oxide (barrel) and feed of ore, coke, and limestone. These components have different
features and purposes, which are discussed later in the article. The detailed construction of
blast furnace is categorized into two zones which are physical zones and chemical zones. In the
physical zone, the structural system of this blast furnace is divided into five sections that
include bosh, shaft, belly, hearth, and tuyeres. On the other hand, the chemical zone is also
subdivided into five regions which are stack zone, cohesive or softening zone, active coke
zone, raceway (or tuyere) zone, and hearth zone.

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 Fig 7.1 Blast furnace

1. Hot blast from Cowper stoves 2. Melting zone 3. Reduction zone of ferrous oxide 4.
Reduction zone of ferric oxide 5. Pre-heating zone 6. Feed of ore, limestone and coke 7.
Exhaust gases 8. Column of ore, coke and limestone 9. Removal of slag 10. Tapping of molten
pig iron 11. Collection of waste gases
7.7 WORKING PROCEDURE OF BLAST FURNACE:
The working phenomenon of this blast furnace is very simple. In order to smelt iron
from its ores, first of all, limestone flux, coke, and iron ore are introduced into the top face of
the furnace. They are allowed to enter with very precision order so that gas flow and other
chemical reactions can be controlled effectively. The gas which is very hot and dirty is
pressurized and supplied to exit point of the furnace through its throat whereas ‘bleeder valves’
helps protect the sudden gas pressure exerted at the top of the furnace. The exhaust gas
contains coarse particles that are deposited in the ‘dust catcher’ so that they can be disposed of.

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On the other hand, a ‘venturi scrubber’ is provided to flow the gas through it and later the gas
passes from the gas cooler for the purpose of decreasing the temperature of the cleaned gas.
The bottom half of the furnace possesses water cooler copper tuyeres, bustle pipe and the
equipment to collect slag and liquid iron. This compartment is generally termed as ‘cast
house’. A tap is inserted in the refractory clay plug so that to make the flow of the liquid iron
and slag through a ‘skimmer’ which spates iron and slag. The advanced giant blast furnaces
usually have four tap holes and two cast houses. As soon as the slag and pig iron is collected,
the refractory clay is freed from the tap hole.
7.8 APPLICATION OF BLAST FURNACE:
 There are numerous applications of blast furnaces that are being practiced in various
big as well as small industries mostly.
 In general, it is used to produce Pig iron from its ore.
 It is used in process plants.
 The slag of the blast furnace has hydraulic properties which are used in cement as a
additives
 Slag also helps in soil stabilization.
7.9 ADVANTAGES OF BLAST FURNACE:
 The blast furnaces help to save fuel from 82 to 87 MJ/t-HM which are installed in the
industries. In Japan, it was observed that around 0.125 GJ/t-pig iron has been saved in a
1 Mt/y by only recovering 50% of the stove flue gases.
 Hot blast stoves are generally used to recuperate heat which helps to reduce energy
demand by 0.26 GJ/t-HM and globally, it is used to decrease the energy potential by
0.15 EJ/y. whereas, it is assumed that maximum energy that can be saved is about 0.3
GJ/t-pig iron.
 Furthermore, the coke rate and tuyere level injections are reduced by using the
increased top pressure of about 0.6 Bar Gauge in the blast furnace. These high
pressurized furnaces help to produce electricity around 0.35 GJ/t-HM provided that the
recovery turbines are installed.
 Similarly, coke consumption is feasible by using blast furnaces by 26% of coke
saving/ton. For this, blast furnace having a top gas recycling service will be preferred.
While on the other hand, if this furnace is combined with dry de-dusting gas, then it

42
 will reduce water consumption by 9 Nm3/tH and increase the power generation system
by 30%.
 Moreover, if blast furnace is used with biomass, PCI can be substituted fully by
charcoal which will be merely 45% of the carbon input. When blast furnace gases are
released they are improved and recovered which also helps in saving energy by 35%
MJ/t-HM to 70% MJ/t-HM. Hence, the total, energy-saving amount which is made
possible by these blast furnace procedures is of about 0.4 GJ/t-HM.

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 CHAPTER 8
INSPECTION, TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROL OF
CASTINGS
8.1 INSPECTION
True success in producing a quality casting depends on control of the entire casting
operation. Quality is the responsibility of the metalcasting facility, starting with the raw
materials that are used, but the customer and supplier must agree on what the critical part and
process variables are. This leads to the inspection and testing needed. The inspection and
testing of castings can be grouped into five categories:
 Casting finish.
 Dimensional accuracy.
 Mechanical testing.
 Chemical composition.
 Casting soundness.
8.2 MECHANICAL TESTING
Hardness testing is the most commonly used procedure for mechanical property
evaluation. It quickly provides a numerical value and is usually nondestructive. Hardness
numbers are closely related to several key properties of metal alloys, such as machinability and
wear resistance. For a known grade of alloy, hardness is a useful indicator of tensile properties.
A common hardness test for castings is the Brinell hardness test, using a 10-mm diameter
carbide ball indenter and a 3,000-kg load. The Brinell impression is large enough in area to
provide a dependable average hardness. Rockwell hardness tests, which make smaller indenter
impressions, may also be satisfactory if the median of several values is used.
Tensile and impact testing is conducted on test specimens of standardized dimensions.
These specimens may be cut from special test coupons produced as part of a casting or from
cut specimens taken from selected castings set aside for destructive mechanical testing. Tensile
and Charpy impact are the two most common types of mechanical testing. Tensile testing
provides ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, elongation and reduction of area data. Charpy
impact testing determines the amount of energy absorbed during fracture and involves both
ductility and strength.

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 Service load testing can be conducted on an entire casting to evaluate its properties. For
castings that must carry a structural load, a test load can be applied in a fixture while
measuring the deflection. Pressure-containing parts can be hydraulically tested to a proof load
or to destruction. Rotating parts, such as clutch plates, can be spin tested. Service-type tests on
components check the soundness of the casting, as well as its properties and its appropriateness
for the design.
8.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
The performance properties of an alloy are determined to a significant degree by the
chemical composition of the alloy, with minor alloying elements often having a significant
effect. This has lead to the practice of specifying casting alloys by using ASTM, Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE) and AMS alloy specifications. These alloy specifications provide
a commonly accepted chemical composition for a wide range of different alloys. Depending on
the sensitivity of a given alloy’s properties to variations in chemical composition, chemical
analysis of the alloy may be called for in a given specification. The chemical analysis is
commonly done on a sample of molten metal poured into a special mold and then evaluated by
spectrographic atomic absorption or x-ray florescence analysis.
8.4 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
The performance of metal components can be markedly affected by the presence of
both internal and surface flaws, which may not be readily apparent in a simple visual
inspection. Nondestructive testing (NDT) consists of a variety of physical inspection methods
that are used to determine the integrity of a casting without causing physical damage to it. This
differs from the destructive testing methods that render the casting useless. A combination of
NDT methods may be required to document the soundness and quality of a casting. No matter
whether the customer, an industrial regulation or the metalcasting facility’s internal standards
require NDT, the process provides the metalcasting facility and the buyer with a measure of
quality assurance.
Five NDT methods commonly are used in the metalcasting industry:
 Magnetic particle testing,
 Liquid penetrant testing,
 Ultrasonic testing,
 Radiographic testing,

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  EDDY current testing.
8.4.1 MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
Magnetic particle testing detects linear surface and near surface discontinuities in
ferromagnetic materials using the principles of magnetization. Typically, a high-amperage,
low-voltage current is passed through the casting, which in turn establishes a magnetic field. If
a discontinuity (crack or other type of linear indication) is present, it will disrupt the magnetic
field and result in a flux. Electromagnetic yokes, another form of magnetic particle inspection
equipment, induce the magnetic field without a current. This method of magnetization is
performed after inspection when there is concern about the surface condition of the casting (a
finish machined surface). Traditional magnetic testing can cause arcing or burning of the
casting surface because it is part of the actual electrical current flow circuit. Magnetic particle
testing dictates the following four steps:
 Magnetize the casting to be inspected
 Apply an inspection medium of fine iron particles while the casting is magnetized.
 Inspect the casting surface for any flux leakage fields.
 Clean the casting of any inspection residue and demagnetize.
Magnetic particle testing has the advantage of being quick and simple in principle and
application. It is highly sensitive to the detection of shallow (0.003 in.) surface cracks and
other linear indications. In addition, the indications appear on the actual casting. This method
may sometimes work through contaminant layers and thin coating thickness.
Magnetic particle testing has the limitation of being applicable only to ferrous materials, and it
provides limited potential for the detection of subsurface indications (0.0034–007 in.).
8.4.2 LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING
Liquid penetrant testing can detect surface discontinuities in both ferrous and
nonferrous castings. This method uses the principle of capillary action—the ability of liquids to
travel to or be drawn into surface openings. The most critical step in this process is pre-
cleaning the casting. Because the penetrant physically enters the discontinuity, the opening of
the discontinuity must be free of any material that could inhibit the penetrant’s movement.
Grease, oil, sand, welding slag or painted/anodized surfaces can inhibit the penetrant material
from entering the discontinuity. In nonferrous castings, another concern is any process that
could smear the casting surface and close the discontinuity opening. Nonferrous castings that

46
have undergone a machining process prior to penetrant inspection are usually pre-cleaned by
an acid etch process that chemically removes 0.001 to 0.002 in. of material. Two types of
penetrant—visible and fluorescent—can be used. Visible dye penetrants are usually red and
require only ambient light for inspection. Fluorescent dye penetrants are green/yellow and
require the use of an ultraviolet light. The fluorescent penetrant method is capable of detecting
finer discontinuities.
8.4.3 ULTRASONIC TESTING
Ultrasonic testing is a method that uses high-frequency sound waves to detect surface
and subsurface discontinuities in both ferrous and nonferrous castings. It also can be used to
gauge the thickness of a casting. Because ultrasonic testing allows investigation of the cross-
sectional area of a casting, it is considered a volumetric inspection method. The frequency of
the sound in this method is not audible to the human ear. In the ultrasonic testing method, an
ultrasonic transducer transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy in the form of sound
pressure waves. The generated sound pulse initiates at the transducer, travels through the
casting and is reflected by both the back wall of the casting and any internal discontinuities that
may be present. The transducer senses the reflected sound wave and converts it into an
electrical signal. The transit time, amplitude and shape of the sound wave are monitored and
measured. This inspection method is similar to the ultrasound used by fishermen to determine
the depth of a body of water or to locate fish.
8.4.4 RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
Radiographic testing is a method that uses x-ray or gamma energy to pass ionizing radiation
through a casting to reveal internal discontinuities on a film medium. X-rays are electronically-
produced ionizing radiation. Gamma rays are the product of a nuclear disintegration from a
radioactive isotope that produces ionizing radiation. The radiographic testing inspection
method can be used on both ferrous and nonferrous castings. This inspection method makes
use of ionizing radiation to penetrate the cross-sectional area of a casting and expose a piece of
radiographic film. The concept is similar to how an x-ray of a broken bone is performed at the
hospital. Because this inspection method examines the cross-sectional area of a casting, it is
also known as a volumetric inspection method.
When discontinuities such as cracks, gas, shrinkage or unfused chills or chaplets are present in
a casting, the casting absorbs less radiation and more radiation reaches the film. This increased

47
film exposure to the radiation ultimately produces an image of the discontinuity on the film.
Some of the new techniques developed for medical use have been applied to the inspection of
castings. An electronic image enhancement system provides a real-time image on a cathode ray
tube; as a casting is passed through the X-ray beam, the image can be viewed for possible
soundness. The changing angle of the view also provides the observer with a three-dimensional
perspective into the casting to assist in differentiating between surface and centerline
discontinuities. This system is applicable to routine inspection but can only be effectively used
at present on castings of not more than one inch in metal thickness. Heavier sectioned castings,
and any castings that require an inspection record, must be radiographed on film.
8.4.5 EDDY CURRENT TESTING
Eddy current testing is an NDT method that utilizes an induced low energy electrical current in
a conductive ferrous or nonferrous casting and observes the interaction between the casting and
the current. The observation is performed with electronic equipment designed to measure the
inspection method variables. In principle, an AC current is applied through coil windings that
are located in a probe or coil housing. The alternating current creates an expanding and
collapsing magnetic field in a longitudinal direction across the coil windings. The magnetic
lines of force created extend into the casting, which in turn induces the flow of eddy currents
(low energy electrical currents). The induced eddy currents generate their own magnetic field,
which interacts with the test coil magnetic field. When a discontinuity is present, it alters the
characteristics of the eddy current magnetic field, which then alters the interaction between the
two magnetic fields. This altered interaction is displayed on the eddy current instrument
display. Eddy current testing is accurate for the detection of small flaws or material changes
that may not be detected with other inspection methods. The discontinuities in the casting will
yield an immediate response on the monitoring equipment. This inspection method can be
readily adapted to high-speed automatic scanning equipment. However, the eddy current
inspection method requires a vast amount of knowledge and experience to properly establish
inspection techniques and interpret the results. Each method has advantages and limitations,
but none can provide complete assessment of mechanical properties, chemical composition,
casting soundness or proof tests for maximum service loads. Therefore, a combination of NDT
methods may be required to document the soundness and quality of a casting.

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 CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION
I herby conclude that, learnt lot regarding metal during this internship period and one of
in that is die casting molds tend to be expensive as they are made from hardened steel-also the
cycle time for building these tend to be long. Also the stronger and harder metals such as iron
and steel cannot be die-cast in the past. However, by the developing of the numerical
simulations system and optimization techniques, these issues are no longer impede the pace of
progress in the modern world. Numerical simulations and optimization techniques can help
foster the success and viability of the foundry industry for many years to come. The more
capability and accuracy that is built into our simulation tools, the better and more efficient
casting can be produced.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Mahi Sahoo and Sudhari Sahu., 2014, “Principles of metal casting,” Mc Graw Hill., Third
Edition
2. Serope Kalpakjian and Steve R.Schmid., 2014, “Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials” Pearson., Fith edition
3. Online platform – https://cursa.app/en/

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