Chapitre II - Les signes de la main dans la méthode Kodály

In 1950, after both Zoltan Kodaly and Béla Bartok had becn working on
codifying and recording the folk music of Hungary, Kodaly came to the
realization that musical education is important for children, and it must begin
at an age when children start making their own music,that is,in the nursery.
"The result of this discovery was that he set up the first of the Kodaly Music
Schools in Budapest.
An impotant pillar of Kodaly's educational conception is the role of singing in musical
education as a whole. Deeper musical culture has developed only where singing was its basis . . ."
wrote Kodaly."The roots of musicare in singing."(L. Dobszay,1972). Why did Kodaly want at all
costs to strengthen the leading rolo of singing ? One reason was that in this way he wanted to
bring into the foreground the leading role of hearing,the culture of hearing."The development of
inner hearing is the final aim of all musical professional study," he writes.22"Our every musical
manifestation must be led by an inner conception,hearing and imagination, and this is trained by
singing:free singing without any instrument is the true and profound school of musical
abilities.'23
“Music is so much a sui generis manifestation of the human soul that to interpret it in
another language is not possible.'”27 Kodaly considers it invidious if in the course of study
programme music and conceptual know ledge gain too large a place:“the pupil pays attention to
the elements outside of the music 28. He thinks that music only enters into us and lives in us ,if
through work - that is practical music making-we open up our souls to it. Thus if we can reach
music only in this way, only with pure musicality, if only practical music making leads us to an
understanding of it, then how can the road to music open up for chhild? Through singing:“the
human voice, the free and yet the most beautiful instrument，available to everyone, can be the
fertile soil for music culture extending to the general masses.'30

Chapitre III - Introduction de la cognition musicale incarnée

Traditional views in philosophy of mind and cognitive science depict the mind as an information
processor, one whose connections with the body and the world are of
little theoretical importance. On the contrary, mounting empirical evidence shows
that bodily states and modality-specific systems for perception and action underlie
information processing, and that embodiment contributes to various aspects and effects of
mental phenomena. 这就是具身认知，它强调了心智或认知对身体及其感觉运动系统的依赖
性，它认为身体的构造和状态、身体的物理属性及其大脑与身体的特殊感觉—运动通道对
认知具有塑造作用.具身认知研究充分利用了神经科学的方法和技术、数据和结论, 给传统
心理研究提供一个认识心智的新视角 . La recherche de l’expérience musicale s’inspire de la
cognition incarnée, elle porte sur the role of action-perception couplings in musical activities.
Embodied music cognition has become an influential paradigm in music research. The paradigm
holds that music cognition is strongly determined by corporeally mediated interactions with
music. The integration of novel technologies and analysis methods inspired empirical research
advancing knowledge regarding the role of embodiment in music perception and musical
signification processes. In this chapitre, we give an overview of the relation entre l'esprit et la
matière, and introduce the core concepts that define the character of the paradigm.
This article will briefly review and discuss some of this evidence and what it implies. By
challenging main stream accounts of mind and cognition, embodiment views offer new ways of
conceptualizing knowledge and suggest novel perspectives on cognitive variation and mind-body
reductionism.

3.1
认知 , 或者从更宽泛的意义上讲心智 , 与物理属性的身体之间究竟是什么性质的关系？
这个问题困扰了人类几千年 . The views on mind/matter relationships can be traced back to
ancient Greek philosophers such as Pythagoras, Aristoxenes, Plato and Aristotle. In the western
philosophical tradition 自古希腊以来的西方文化中, 二元论思想一直占据主导地位 the fact
that we have bodies has been mostly regarded as irrelevant or peripheral to the understanding of
knowledge and cognition.柏拉图是二元论思想的最早代表, 笛卡尔从认识论上确证了心、物
二元世界的存在。传统认知心理学承袭了身心分离的二元论传统 , 视心智为独立于身体感
觉运动系统的抽象符号信息加工。二元论的基本特征是主张心物、身心、主客的二元对立
心理、意识、主体构成了二元对立的一方 , 物质、身体、客体构成了对立的另一方.
在二元对立的西方传统文化中 , 身体在真理的追求和知识的获得中一直处于被贬斥和
受压抑的地位。或许这一贬低身体的倾向在柏拉图那里表现得最为明显。柏拉图在其对话
录《斐多》篇中指出 :“ 身体给了我们爱、欲望、恐惧等各种不真实的东西 , 其结果是我们
几乎从来没有机会对各种事物进行思考 …… 事实似乎是 , 只要我们活着 , 就要尽可能地
避免同身体的接触与联系 , 除非绝对的必要。这样我们才能不断地、最大程度的接近知识
”(Hamilton & Cairns, 1961, p.49). 柏拉图把身体和灵魂对立起来 , 且认为身体充满了肉欲、
情色等使人分心的东西 , 因此成为思维和认识的障碍。在哲学实践中 , 为了摆脱肉欲的干
扰 , 就要远离肉体 , 甚至要 “ 消灭肉体 ”, 以解放灵魂。因此 , 哲学家的任务就是 “
练习死亡 ” 。只有肉体灭亡了 , 灵魂才能解脱 , 才能变 得纯洁 , 也才能通达真理。这一
对身体和灵魂的区分 , 以及对身体的排斥和鞭挞对西方文化思想产生了持续冲击。亚里士
多德、奥古斯丁、笛卡尔、洛克和康德等人哲学思想都受到这种二元论思想的影响。
17 世纪的法国哲学家笛卡尔从认识论的角度对身体和心智的关系进行了深入思考 . Il
pense que the mind is disembodied. It consists of mental substance,while the body consists of
physical substance (George Lakoff, Mark Johnson, 1999, p392).但是身体的物质属性却是通过心
智中的观念实现的 : 当我们的意识指向身体时 , 身体就变成了一个物质实体 , 成为认识的
对象. 我思故我在(p401).
Cartesian dualism, the view that minds is constituted by a fundamentally different kind of
substance than are bodies, evolved into an epistemological tradition that has informed various
strands of cognitive science (Lucia Foglia, Robert A. Wilson, 2013). One of these strands that has
been particularly influential in the cognitive sciences is computationalism, the claim that
cognition is, in essence, the manipulation of abstract information via formal rules.
 Quelle est la nature de la relation entre la cognition, ou dans un sens plus large, l'esprit, et la
matière? Cette question a tourmenté les humains pendant des milliers d'années. Les opinions sur
cette question remontent aux philosophes de la Grèce antique, tels que Pythagore, Aristoxène,
Platon et Aristote. 柏拉图是二元论思想的最早代表, the fact that we have bodies has been
mostly regarded as irrelevant or peripheral to the understanding of knowledge and cognition.
Dans la tradition philosophique occidentale, la pensée dualiste a toujours été dominante. 笛卡
尔从认识论上确证了心、物二元世界的存在。传统认知心理学承袭了身心分离的二元论传
统 , 视心智为独立于身体感觉运动系统的抽象符号信息加工。二元论的基本特征是主张心
物、身心、主客的二元对立。心理、意识、主体构成了二元对立的一方 , 物质、身体、客
体构成了对立的另一方.
Dans la culture occidentale traditionnelle de dualism, le corps s’est déprécié dans la
poursuite de la vérité et l'acquisition de la connaissance. Cette tendance à dévaloriser le corps est
peut-être plus évidente chez Platon. Dans ses Dialogues, PHAEDO, Platon déclare : " In the first
place, the body provides us with innumerable distractions in the pursuit of our necessary
sustenance, and any diseases which attack us hinder our quest for reality. Besides, the body fills
us with loves and desires and fears and all sorts of fancies and a great deal of nonsense, with the
result that we literally never get an opportunity to think at all about anything...We are in fact
convinced that if we are ever to have pure knowledge of anything, we must get rid of the body
and contemplate things by themselves with the soul by itself (Hamilton & Cairns, 1961, p.49).
Platon opposait le corps à l'âme et considérait que le corps était plein de distractions comme la
luxure et l'érotisme, et donc un obstacle à la pensée et à la connaissance. Pour échapper aux
distractions de la chair, il faut se détourner du corps, voire "éliminer le corps" afin de libérer
l'âme. Ainsi, ce n'est que lorsque le corps est détruit que l'âme peut être libérée et que l'on peut
atteindre la vérité. Cette séparation entre le corps et l'esprit a eu un impact sur la pensée
culturelle occidentale. Aristote, Augustin, Descartes et d'autres ont été influencés par cette
pensée dualiste.
Le philosophe français Descartes du XVIIe siècle a profondément réfléchi à la relation entre
le corps et l'esprit du point de vue de l'épistémologie. His famous conclusion is that when he
thinks, he exists (Meditations on First Philosophy, John Cottingham, 1996, p190). The mind is
disembodied. It consists of mental substance,while the body consists of physical substance
(George Lakoff, Mark Johnson, 1999, p392). 人是心灵和肉体的复合体，是有理性和意识的动
物，它的全部本质是心灵;而人的肉体则像其他动物一样，不过是一种复杂的、无意识的机
器，our bodies have nothing to do with what we essentially are。心的特点是能思维, 但没有广
延, 物或身的特征是有广延,但却不能思维, 虽然二者交互影响, 但是其功能是独立的, 分属两
个世界。
Cartesian dualism, the view that minds is constituted by a fundamentally different kind of
substance than are bodies, evolved into an epistemological tradition that has informed various
strands of cognitive science (Lucia Foglia, Robert A. Wilson, 2013). Descartes’ ideas have shaped
much of philosophy from his time to ours. Many of his conclusions are still with us in
contemporary philosophical theories, and they were the basis for much of first-generation
cognitive science. One of these conclusions that has been particularly influential in the cognitive
sciences is computationalism, the claim that cognition is, in essence, the manipulation of abstract
information via formal rules.
Descartes’ ideas: Thought is formal, just as mathematics is. Mathematics is about form, not
content; because of its formal nature, mathematical knowledge can be certain.
It is virtually impossible to conceptualize the mind without metaphor (George Lakoff, Mark
Johnson, 1999, p391). 计算机隐喻
自 20 世纪 50 年代‘认知革命’发生以来,… …其间,认知研究经历了一次深刻的范式转
变,即从基于计算隐喻和功能主义观念的‘第一代认知科学’向基于具身心智 (embodied
cognition)观念的‘第二代认知科学’的转变. 第二代认知科学(second generation cognitive
science)这一提法自认知语言学家拉考夫(G. Lakoff)和约翰森(M. Johnson)在他们的名著《肉
身的哲学:具身心智及其对西方思想的挑战》(Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied mind and
its challenge to Western thought,1999, p77)[1]中首次出现, 第二代认知科学’将认知主体视为
自然的、生物的、活动于日常环境中的适应性的主体,认知就发生于这样的状况中。”并且
指出:“概括起来,‘第二代认知科学’倡导的认知观念是:认知是具身的(embodied)、情境的
(situated)、发展的(developmental)和动力学的(dynamic).
3.1.1 embodied of second generation cognitive science
心智的具身性是第二代认知科学的核心特征 It is, of course, obvious that
embodiment is of central interest to embolie cognition. What does it mean to say that
concepts and reason are embodied? Proponents of the embodied cognition thesis
emphasize the active and significant role the body plays in the shaping of cognition
and in the understanding of an agent's mind and cognitive capacities. In philosophy,
embodied cognition holds that an agent's cognition, rather than being the product of
mere (innate) abstract representations of the world, is strongly influenced by aspects
of an agent's body beyond the brain itself (Lucia Foglia et Robert A. Wilson, 2013).
Its findings reveal the central role of our embodied umderstanding in all aspects
of meaning and in the structure and content of our thought. Meaning has to do with
the ways in which we function meaningfully inn the world and make sense of it via
bodily and imaginative structures (Philosophy in the flesh). E. Thelen, 认知是具身的,
就是说认知源于身体与世界的相互作用 ( Schoner et al. Dynamics of embodiment:
A field theory of infant preservative reaching).
Likewise, Merleau-Ponty argues that perception and representation always occur
in the context of, and are therefore structured by, the embodied agent in the course of
its ongoing purposeful engagement with the world. Representations are therefore
‘sublimations’of bodily experience, possessed of content already, and not given
content or form by an autonomous mind;and the employment of such
representations“is controlledby the acting bodyitself, by an ‘I can’ and not an ‘I think
that’ ([59,pp. 108–109],see also [33]). The most immediate point is fairly
straightforward: the content and relations of concepts—that is, the structure of our
conceptual schema—is primarily determined by practical criteria, rather than abstract
or logical ones (Embodied Cognition: A field guide). 认 知 ( 理 性 ) 不 是 非 具 身 的
(disembodied),相反,它源自我们的大脑、身体和身体经验的本性;认知结构本身来
自于我们具身化的细节,即人类的视觉、运动系统以及一般的神经绑定(binding)
机制的细节. J.Dewey, 我们的身体经验(bodily experience)是我们能“意谓”、
“思考”、“知道”和“交流”之一切的最初的基础.
G. Lakoff 从概念的隐喻性、空间关系概念的形成、“基本”范畴的作用、
概念范畴化过程以及镜像神经元的发现等方面进一步阐述认知的具身性.
3.1.2 situated
3.1.3 developmental
Another important dimension of embodiment, and animportant part of the
physical grounding project, is the evolutionary history of the agent. Lakoff and
Johnson pensent que Reason is evolutionary.
3.1.4 dynamic
The second generation cognitive science is dynamic.

Chapitre 4. Le processus et le mécanisme de la production de la hauteur

4.1 影响产生准确音高的因素有哪些？Pitch perception？
首先，Il y a un investigation provided further evidence that a relationship might
exist between pitch perception and pitch production.15 Amir et al15 designed the
study to determine whether greater auditory perception skills, as seen in musicians,
were related to how accurately a person produced pitches. Thirteen musicians and 13
nonmusicians participated. A significant positive correlation was found; this implies
that persons with better perceptual skills produced pitches more accurately than did
persons with poorer perception skills. \The development of control over voicing
parameters such as pitch, loudness, and sound duration are closely linked with
auditory perception abilities: the absence [e.g., congenital deafness1] or alteration
[e.g., experimental manipulations] of auditory perception during this early period
results in deviant vocal productions 【 Relationships between vocal pitch perception
and production: a developmental perspective，Elizabeth S. Heller Murray & Cara E.
Stepp】.
然 而 ， 那 么 对 于 一 年 级 的 小 学 生 ， 这 种 关 系 依 然 存 在 吗 ？ Based on
previous work indicating that children of many diferent ages can have adult-like pitch
discrimination abilities37,40,43 【 Relationships between vocal pitch perception and
production: a developmental perspective ， Elizabeth S. Heller Murray & Cara E.
Stepp】.
4.2 视听觉，视动觉对 perceive the pitch accurately/或对 PD 和 Pmatching 的影响
多模态感知能够提高 la perception de la hauteur 的准确性，从而就能提高产
生音高的准确性

声 带 声 道 结 构 ， 肌 肉 如 何 运 动 实 现 人 发 声 ， 发 声 的 生 理 基 础 , （ L’imitation de la
hauteur/physiologie bases de la production de la hauteur 喉咙运作机制，生理神经基础(5.1)

Dans l'expérience de (vigourentrainment effect) ((Leman, et al., 2013), Leman asked subjects to
walk in synchrony with musical excerpts having the same tempo but different musical expression.
The speed of walking is determined by two parameters, namely, the pace and the stride length,
and the pace is fixed due to the synchronisation with the music. Therefore, the only parameter
that could influence the speed is the stride length, which is an effect of the muscle strength. The
study showed that some music has an activating effect in that subjects walk faster, while other
music has a relaxing effect in that subjects walk slower. Vigourentrainment, or the adaptation of
muscle strength to music, depends on the expressive characteristics of the music. These can be
defined in terms of acoustical features, showing that binary and ternary arrangements of the
musical meter play an important role. This study revealed that music perception has an influence
on the strength or vigour of movements

Characteristic of internal models is that they allow intended or perceived sensory states to be
transferred into corresponding motor commands (inverse modeling), and vice versa, to predict
the sensory outcomes of planned actions (forward modeling) (Maes, P.-J., Leman, M., Palmer, C.,
& Wanderley, M. M.).

Concernant l’effet de la musique sur l’action, further evidence coming from the experiment in
favour of embodiment has been documented in studies that address synchronisation and
entrainment (see also Repp & Su, 2013). Entrainment in the biomusicological sense refers to the
synchronization of organisms to an external perceived rhythm such as human music and dance.
Strong empirical evidence has been provided for the existence of different entrainment effects,
which all involve a pre-reflective adaptation of human movement to music (MARC LEMAN,
PIETER-JAN MAES, 2014). De ce point de vue( 逻辑问题）, on peut supposer que la perception
audiovisuelle a un entrainment effects sur la production de la hauteur.

that music-driven gesturing may facilitate musical perception (Maes, Leman, et al., 2014).
An internal model can negotiate the perception/action interface in two ways.
In addition, the inverse model generates an efference copy of the action, which is the expected
outcome, and sends that copy as input to the forward model, which is the second way in which
an internal model guides action.
The particular influence of these predictions on the perception of music differs depending on the
nature of the auditory information, or audio-visual information.
In order to imitate pitches of a melody accurately while singing, one must be able to map pitch
height onto the control of laryngeal muscles in a way that leads to accurate reproduction of the
sequence from either long-term memory,or in imitating a model
Forward internal models represent an information flow from action to perception, in the sense
that they allow the prediction of the likely sensory outcome of a planned or executed action. The
forward model allows singers to judge whether their motor output differed from the output they
intended to produce. In such cases, the singer may adjust the target F0 while continuing to
generate pitch
The model that can negotiate the perception/action called internal models (Fig.1). First, the
internal model can generate an inverse model of a motor gesture based on the anticipated (goal-
based) perceptual outcome of that action. With respect to pitch production, the inverse model
allows the communicator to adjust vocal fold tension based on the desired fundamental
frequency (F0) of the output. This process, for example, allows a singer to produce the correct
pitch in advance of any auditory feedback .
focus on the intersection between the dimension of pitch in the auditory modality, and laryngeal
tension in the motor modality.