Dme I

Design for Impact and Fatigue Loads
MODULE 2
Design for impact AND FATIGUE LOADS
2.1 Impact Load
The loads which vary in magnitude or direction or both in magnitude and direction are called
dynamic loads. Inertia load, variable load and impact load are some of the examples of dynamic
load.
A load is said to be an impact load when it is applied with some initial velocity.
Stresses produced by variable loads are termed dynamic stresses. Machines that are subjected
to impact loads are forging machines, presses used for blanking operations, etc.
2.2 Impact Stress

If a moving body strikes another body, the second body is subjected to an impact which is
equal to the kinetic energy of the moving body. The stress produced in the member due to this effect
is called impact stress.
2.3 Impact Energy

If the weight of moving body is ‘W’ and its velocity is ‘v’ then kinetic energy
1W 2
KE  v (1) (3.8)
2 g
For stress calculations it is convenient to express the impact energy as if it was produced by a
v2
falling body. If ‘h’ is the height of fall and ‘v’ is the velocity of fall, then h  (2) (3.10)
2g
Substituting in equation (1), the impact energy of the falling body = Wh (3) (3.9)
The total work done by the falling body can also be calculated by using equation (3) if ‘h’
includes both the height of fall before contact and the deformation of the body.
2.4 Effect of Sudden Loads

Let, W = Suddenly applied load
δ = Deformation in the member due to the sudden load
E = Modulus of Elasticity
A = Area of cross-section
l = Length of member
σ1 = Stress induced in the member due to the sudden load
Then work done due to the sudden load = W × δ
1
Strain Energy, U  P where P is the force at which δ is produced
2
 1 A     1 A   1 
1 1 l
U 
2 2  E
Design of Machine Elements - I Page 1

1  12 Al  P  Pl l
U  1       1 
2 E  A  AE E
Now equating the strain energy to work done
1  12 Al
 W 
2 E
 1l
=W 
E
2W
 1 
A
Thus the stress and the strain are twice that of those developed by a gradually applied load. In
other words suddenly applied load is equivalent to twice the static load.
2.5 Axial Impact on Bars (Derivation of instantaneous stress due to axial

impact)
The stress produced in the member due to the falling load is known as impact stress. Consider
a load ‘W’ is dropped from a height ‘h’ on the end of a vertical bar as shown in Fig. 1 which
produces instantaneous deformation e’ or δmax and stress σ’ or σmax.
Fig. 1
Let A = Cross – sectional area of bar

E = Young’s modulus of the material of the bar
l = Length of bar
δmax or δi or e’ = Deformation of the bar due to impact
σ’ or σmax or σi = Stress induced in the bar due to impact
h = Height through which the load falls (Height of fall)
P = Force at which the deformation e’ is produced
δst or e = Static deformation due to the weight ‘W’

W = Weight of the falling body

The work done by the falling body is equal to its change in potential energy.
Workdone  W  h  e ' or W (h   max )
Since the energy gained by the system is equal to the potential energy lost by the weight
1 l
Pe '  W  h  e ' where P   ' A & e '   ' (1)
2 E
Substituting these values in equation (1)
 ' A   '   W  h   ' 

1 l l
2  E  E
Al 2 Wl
 '   ' Wh  0
2E E
2
Wl Wl   Al 
    4   Wh
E E  2E 
 ' 
 Al 
2 
 2E 
Wl E
 1  2 Ah
 E Wl Wl
Al E
E
W W 2 AhE
  1
A A Wl
Considering positive sign
W 2hEA 
 ' 1  1  
A Wl 
W 2hEA 
or  max   i  1  1   (3.11a)
A Wl 
 2h 
 '   1  1  
 e 
 2h 
or  max   i   st 1  1   (3.11c)
  st 
l
Now multiplying both sides of the equation 3.11(a) by the equation becomes
E
l W l  2hEA 
'  1  1  
E A E Wl 
 2h 
 e '  e 1  1  
 e 

Wl
Where, e or δst = Static deformation =
AE
 2h 
or  max   i   st 1  1   (3.12b)
  st 
 2h   
The quantity 1  1   or 1  1  2h  is called the impact factor, because it converts the
 e    st 
effect of a falling weight to an equivalent static force.
2.6 Impact & Bending (Derivation of instantaneous stress due to impact

bending)
Consider a weight W is dropped from a height ‘h’ on a simply supported beam as shown in
Fig. 2 which produces instantaneous deflection y’ and stress σb’.
Fig. 2
Let, A = Cross – sectional area of the beam

I = M.I. of the beam
M = B.M. of the beam
l = Length of the beam
δmax or y’ = Deformation of beam due to impact
δst or y = Static deflection due to the weight ‘W’
σbmax or σbi or σb’ = Stress induced in the beam due to impact
σbst or σb = Bending stress due to the static weight ‘W’
h = Height through which the weight falls
W = Weight of the falling body
The work done by the falling weight  W  h  y ' or W  h   max  (1)
Let ‘We’ be the equivalent static load which produces the same amount of deflection y’, then
1
Strain energy  We y ' (2)
2
Equating the two equations

1
We y '  W  h  y '
2
We  2W
 h  y '
(3)
y'
The deflection of the beam under the static equivalent load We at the centre is given by
Wel 3
y'  (4)
48EI
Substituting the value of ‘We’ in equation (4)
2W  h  y ' l 3
y'  (5)
y' 48EI
Wl 3
But,  y  Static deflection due to weight W
48 EI
∴ Equation (5) becomes,
2  h  y '
y'  y
y'
y '2  2hy  2 y ' y
i.e., y '2  2 yy ' 2hy  0
2y  2y  4 1 2hy 
2
y' 
2 1
Taking positive sign,
2h
2 y  2 y 1
2 y  4 y  8hy
2
y
y' 
2 2
 2h 
2 y 1  1  
 y   2h 
  y 1  1  
2  y 
 2h 
or  max   st 1  1   (3.27)
  st 
8Ec
Multiplying both sides of Equation (3.27) by , the equation becomes,
l2
8Ec 8Ec  2h 
y ' 2
 y  2 1  1  
l l  y 
 2h 
i.e.,  b '   b 1  1  
 y 
 2h 
or  bmax   bi   bst 1  1   (3.26c)
  st 


 2h  
 2h 
Impact factor  1  1   or 1  1  

 y  
  st 
2.7 Impact & Torsion

The same equations can also be used when a force causing torsion is applied with impact. In
this case the deformation ‘e’ means angular deflection θ in radians and the travel ‘h’ of the force
must also be expressed in radians. Hence the equations used for torsion and impact are,
 2h 
Impact shear stress,  ' or  max   1  1   (3.31)
 r 
Angular deflection under impact action,
 2h 
 ' or  max   1  1   (3.32)
 r 
 or  st ;  or  st
2.8 Effect of Inertia

When a body having weight W strikes another body of weight W’, some of the impact energy
is used to overcome the inertia of the weight W’ and to accelerate that weight. Now according to law
of collision of two perfectly inelastic bodies, impact energy Wh is reduced to nWH. The value of n is
less than one and is given by,
1  am
n (3.58)
1  bm 
2
W'
Where a and b are the constants obtained from Table 3.2 (DDHB) and m  .
W
If the inertia effect is considered, then the stresses and deformations may be obtained by
substituting ‘nh’ instead of ‘h’ in equations (3.11c), (3.11a), (3.12b), (3.26c), (3.27), (3.31) and
(3.32) of DDHB.
Review Examples:
1. A steel rod is 1.5m long. It has to resist longitudinally an impact 2.5kN falling under gravity
at a velocity of 0.9925m/sec. Maximum computed stress is limited to 150MPa. Design the
diameter of rod. (June/July – 13 – 2006 Scheme)
Given: - l = 1.5m; W = 2.5kN; v = 0.9925m/sec; σ’ = 150MPa
Solution: -

Fig. 3
Assume E = 206.8 × 103N/mm2

Height of fall is obtained using velocity v, i.e.,
v 2 0.99252
h  (3.10)
2 g 2  9.81
 h  0.05m  50mm
W 2hEA 
Impact stress,  '  1  1   (3.11a)
A Wl 
2.5 103  2  50  206.8 103  A 

150   1  1  
A  2.5 103 1500 
0.06 A  1  1  5.515 A
 0.06 A  1  1  5.515 A
Squaring on both sides,
3.6 103 A2  0.12 A  1  1  5.515 A
3.6 103 A2  5.635 A  0
3.6 103 A  5.635
 A  1565.28mm 2

i.e., d 2  1565.28
4
∴ Diameter of rod, d  44.64mm 45mm
2. A rectangular cross-section bar 200mm long is subjected to an impact by a load of 1kN that
falls on to it from a height of 10mm from rest. Determine the cross-section dimension of
rectangular bar, if the allowable stress of the material of the bar is 125N/mm2. Assume the
thickness or depth is twice width. Also find the deformation due to impact.
Given: - l = 200mm; W = 1kN; h = 10mm; σ max or σ’ = 125N/mm2; d = 2b
Solution: -
Assume E = 207 × 103N/mm2

Fig. 4
W 2hEA 
For longitudinal impact,  ' or  max  1  1   (3.11a)
A Wl 
1000  2 10  207 103  A 

125  1  1  
A  1000  200 
0.125 A  1  1  20.7 A
 0.125 A  1  1  20.7 A
0.0156 A2  0.25 A  1  1  20.7 A
0.0156 A2  20.95 A
 A  1342.95mm 2
A  b  d  b  2b  1342.95
 b  25.91mm
Take, width of bar, b  26mm
Thickness of bar, d  52mm
Deformation due to impact,
l 200
e ' or  max   '  125 
E 207 103
  max  0.1208mm
3. A weight of 20kN falls from a height of 30mm on a vertical pole of 6m long having diameter
of 30mm. The pole is fixed at the lower end. Modulus of elasticity may be taken as 206GPa.
Determine the maximum instantaneous stress produced and maximum instantaneous
deflection. (June/July – 14 – 2006 Scheme)
Given: - W = 20kN; l = 6m; h = 30mm; d = 30mm; E = 206GPa
Solution: -
d2 
Area, A    30   706.86mm 2
2
4 4

Fig. 5
Maximum instantaneous stress,

W 2hEA 
 max  1  1   (3.11a)
A Wl 
20 103  2  30  206 103  706.86 

 1  1  
706.86  20 103  6 103 
  max  271.37 N / mm 2
Maximum instantaneous deflection,
 2h 
 max   st 1  1   (3.12b)
  st 
Wl 20 103  6 103
 st    0.824mm
EA 206 103  706.86
 2  30 
 max  0.824 1  1  
 0.824 
  max  7.9mm
4. A weight of 1kN is dropped from a height of 50mm at the free end of a cantilever beam of
effective length 300mm. Determine the cross section of the cantilever beam of square c/s if
the allowable stress in the material of the beam is limited to 80MPa.
Given: - W = 1kN; h = 50mm; l = 300mm; 𝜎b’ = 80MPa; b = d (∵ Square cross-section)
Solution: -
Fig. 6

Assume E = 206GPa
Maximum bending moment, M b  Wl  1000  300  3105 N  mm
Wl 3
From Table 2.8 (DDHB), maximum static deflection for cantilever beam, y   st 
3EI
bd 3 b 4
From Table 2.7 (DDHB), for rectangular cross section, I  
12 12
1000  3003
y 
 b4 
3  206 103   
 12 
524.27 103
y 
b4
Mb d b
Bending stress due to static load,  b  c where c  
I 2 2
3  105 b 18 105
b   
b4 2 b3
12
Impact stress due to bending,
 2h 
b   b 1  1  
max
 y 
 
18  10  5
2  50 
80  1  1  
b 3
 524.27  103 
 b4 
4.444 105 b3  1  1  1.9074 104 b4

 4.444 10 5
b3  1  1  1.9074 10 4 b 4
1.975 109 b6  8.888 10 5 b3  1  1  1.9074 10 4 b 4
1.975 109 b3  8.888 105  1.9074 104 b
∴ Width of beam = Depth of beam, b  311mm
5. A cantilever beam of width 50mm, depth 150mm is 1.5m long. It is struck by a weight of
1000N that falls from a height of 10mm at its free end. Determine the following, (i) Impact
factor, (ii) Instantaneous maximum deflection, (iii) Instantaneous maximum stress,
(iv) Instantaneous maximum load. Take E = 20.6 × 104N/mm2.
Given: - b = 50mm; d = 150mm; l = 1.5m; W = 1000N; h = 10mm; E = 20.6 × 104N/mm2
Solution: -
Maximum bending moment, M b  Wl  1000 1500  1.5 106 N  mm

Wl 3
From Table 2.8 (DDHB), maximum static deflection for cantilever beam, y   st 
3EI
Fig. 7
bd 3 50 1503
From Table 2.7 (DDHB), for rectangular cross section, I  
12 12
 I  14.0625 106 mm 4
1000 15003
y   0.388mm
3  20.6 104 14.0625 106
i) Impact factor:
2h 2 10
IF  1  1   1 1  8.25
y 0.388
ii) Instantaneous maximum deflection:
y ' or  max  y  Impact factor = 0.388  8.25  3.2mm
iii) Instantaneous maximum stress:
Mb 1.5 106  150 
b  c 6    8 N / mm
2
I 14.0625 10  2 
 b ' or  b
max
  b  Impact factor  8  8.25  66 N / mm2
iv) Instantaneous maximum load:
W '  W  Impact factor  1000  8.25  8250 N
6. A machine member can be considered as a simply supported beam of 1m length. Cross-

section of the beam is 60mm × 60mm square. Determine the instantaneous maximum
deflection and bending stress if a mass of 15kg falls from a height of 250mm at the mid-point
of the beam made of steel. (Dec. – 2012 – 2010 Scheme)
Given: - l = 1m; b = 60mm; d = 60mm; M = 15kg; h = 250mm
Solution: -
Fig. 8

Assume E = 207GPa
From Table 2.8 (DDHB), for simply supported beam with central load,
Wl Mgl 15  9.81 1000
Maximum BM, M b   
4 4 4
 M b  36.79  103 N  mm
From Table 2.7 (DDHB), for rectangular cross-section moment of inertia,
bd 3 60  603
I   1.08 106 mm 4
12 12
From Table 2.8 (DDHB), Maximum deflection due to the static load,
Wl 3 Mgl 3 15  9.8110003
 st or y   
48EI 48EI 48  207 103 1.08 106
  st  0.0137mm
Static bending stress,
Mb 36.79 103  60 
 b or  b  c  
st
I 1.08 106  2 
  bst  1.0219 N / mm 2
Maximum impact stress due to bending,
 2h   2  250 
b   bst 1  1    1.0219 1  1   (3.26c)
max
  st   0.0137 
  bmax  196.25 N / mm 2
Maximum impact deflection due to bending,
 2h   2  250 
 max   st 1  1    0.0137 1  1   (3.27)
  st   0.0137 
  max  2.63mm
7. A weight 600N drops through a height of 20mm and impacts the center of 300mm long
simply supported circular cross section beam. Find the diameter of the beam and the
maximum deflection, if the allowable stress is limited to 90MPa. Neglect the inertia effect
and take E = 200GPa. (Dec.-09/Jan.-10 – 2006 Scheme, June/July – 14 – 2010 Scheme)
Given: - W = 600N; h = 20mm; l = 300mm; 𝜎bmax = 90MPa; E = 200GPa
Solution: -
From Table 2.8 (DDHB), for simply supported beam with center load,
Wl 600  300
Maximum BM, M b  
4 4
 M b  45  103 N  mm

d4
From Table 2.7 (DDHB), for circular cross section, I 
64
Fig. 9
Wl 3 600  3003
 st  
48 EI d4
48  200 103 
64
108 10 3
 st 
d4
M 45 103  d 
 bst  b c   
I d4 2
64
1.44 106
 bst 
d3
 2h 
b   bst 1  1   (3.26c)
max
  st 
 
1.44 10  6
2  20 
90  1  1  
d 3
 108 103 
 d4 
1.963 104 d 3  1  1  1.164 103 d 4

3.853 108 d 6  3.926 104 d 3  1  1  1.164 103 d 4
3.853 108 d 3  1.164 103 d  3.926  104  0
∴ Diameter of beam, d  173.97mm 174mm
108 103
 st 
 1744
  st  3.75  10 5 mm
Maximum deflection,

 2h   2  20 
 max   st 1  1  5
  3.75 10 1  1  
  st   3.75 105 
  max  0.038mm
8. A 5kg block is dropped from a height of 200mm on to a beam as shown in Fig. 10. The
material has an allowable stress of 50MPa. Determine the dimensions of the rectangular c/s
whose depth is 1.5 times the width. Take E = 70GPa.
Fig. 10
Given: - M = 5kg; h = 200mm; 𝜎bmax = 50MPa; d = 1.5b; E = 70GPa; l = 1.2m; a = 0.4m; b = 0.8m
Solution: -
From Table 2.8 (DDHB), for simply supported beam with eccentric load,
Wab Mgab 5  9.81 400  800
Maximum BM, M b   
l l 1200
 M b  13080 N  mm
From Table 2.7 (DDHB), for rectangular cross section,
bd 3 b 1.5b 
3
I   0.28125b 4
12 12
 5  9.81 400  800 
2 2
Wa 2b2 Mga 2b2
 st   
3EIl 3EIl 3  70 103   0.28125b4  1200 
70867.3
 st 
b4
M 13080
 bst  b c    0.75b 
I 0.28125b 4
34880
 bst 
b3
 2h 
b   bst 1  1  
max
  st 

 
34880  2  200 
50  1  1  70867.3 
b3  
 b4 
1.433 103 b3  1  1  5.644 103 b4

2.05 106 b6  2.866 103 b3  1  1  5.644 103 b 4
2.05 106 b3  5.644 103 b  2.866 10 3  0
 b  52.72mm
∴ Depth of beam, d  79.08mm (∵ d = 1.5b)
9. A beam of 300mm depth ‘I’ section is resting on two supports 5m apart. It is loaded by a
weight of 5000N falling through a height ‘h’ and striking the beam at mid-point. Moment of
inertia of the section is 9.6 × 107mm4. Modulus of elasticity E = 21 × 104N/mm2. Determine
the permissible value of ‘h’ if the stress is limited to 130N/mm2.
Given: - d = 300mm; l = 5m; W = 5000N; I = 9.6 × 107mm4; E = 21 × 104N/mm2; 𝜎bmax = 130N/mm2
Solution: -
Fig. 11
For simply supported beam with center load from Table 2.8 (DDHB),
Wl 5000  5000
Maximum BM, M b  
4 4
 M b  6.25  106 N  mm
Maximum deflection due to static load from Table 2.8 (DDHB),
Wl 3 5000  50003
 st  
48EI 48  21104  9.6 107
  st  0.646mm
Mb 6.25 106  300 
b  c    9.766 N / mm
2
I 9.6 10  2 
7

 2h 
b   b 1  1  
max
  st 

 2h 
130  9.766 1  1  
 0.646 
13.31  1  1  3.096h
∴ Height of fall, h  48.62mm
10. An unknown weight falls through 20mm on to a collar rigidly attached to the lower end of a
vertical bar 2m long and 500 sq. mm section. If the maximum instantaneous extension is
known to be 2mm, what are the corresponding stress and the value of the unknown weight?
Take E = 200GPa. (Dec.-13/Jan.-14 – 2010 Scheme)
Given: - h = 20mm; l = 2m; A = 500mm2; 𝛿max = 2mm; E = 200GPa
Solution: -
Fig. 12
Impact Stress  max  max  l

Modulus of Elasticity, E   
Impact Strain  max  max
l
  2000
200 103  max
2
  max  200 N / mm 2
Also, Impact stress from a direct load,
W 2hEA 
 max  1  1  
A Wl 
W  2  20  200 103  500 

200  1  1  
500  W  2000 
105 2  106
1  1
W W
1010 2 105 2 106
  1  1 
W2 W W

1010 2.2 106


W2 W
 W  4545.45N
11. The brasses of an automobile engine connecting rod have worn, so as to allow play which
gives shock loading equivalent to a weight of 5886N falling through a height of 0.2mm. The
connecting rod is 250mm long and has a cross sectional area of 3 × 10-4m2. Determine the
stress induced in the connecting rod. Compare the maximum stress induced with that of a
static load of 5886N. (June/July – 13 – 2010 Scheme)
Given: - W = 5886N; h = 0.2mm; l = 250mm; A = 3 × 10-4m2
Solution: -
From Table 2.10 (DDHB), for Brass, E = 106GPa
Impact stress,
W 2hEA  5886  2  0.2 106 103  3 104 106 
 max  1  1   1  1  
A Wl  3 104 106  5886  250 
  max  80.55 N / mm 2
Static stress,
W 5886
 st  
A 3 104 106
  st  19.62 N / mm 2
Impact Stress 80.55
  4.1
Static Stress 19.62
12. A weight of 2kN falls through a height of 2mm and strikes the collar as shown in Fig. 13. The
diameter of the steel bar is 30mm and the length of the bar is 500mm. Take E = 200GPa.
Determine,
i) Stress induced in the bar neglecting inertia of the bar
ii) Stress induced in the bar if the load acts statically and compare
iii) Change in length of bar before the impact stress exceeds 125MPa
iv) Increase in height of fall before the impact stress exceeds 125MPa
v) Stress induced in the bar considering the inertia of the bar. Specific weight of the bar
material is 78kN/m3
Fig. 13

Given: - W = 2kN; h = 2mm; d = 30mm; l = 500mm; E = 200GPa; γ = 78kN/m3

Solution: -
i) Neglecting the inertia of the bar:
Impact stress,
  
2  2  2 105   30 
2
W  2hEA  2000  
 max  1  1   1  1  4  (3.11a)
2000  500
A Wl 
 30   
2
4  
  max  70.17 N / mm 2
ii) Comparison:
Static stress,
W 2000
 st    2.829 N / mm 2
A  30 2
 
4
Impact Stress 70.17
  24.8
Static Stress 2.829
iii) Let ‘l1’ be the length of bar for the impact stress of 125MPa:
  
2  2  2 105   30 
2
2000  
125  1  1  4 
 2000  l1
 30   
2
4  
282.74 103
44.18  1  1 
l1
282.74 103
1864.5  1 
l1
 l1  151.72mm
∴ Change in length  l  l1  500  151.72  348.28mm (Reduction in length)
iv) Let ‘h1’ be the height of fall for the impact stress of 125MPa:
  2 
2  h1  2 105   30  
2000  4
125  1  1  
   
 30   2000 500
2
4  
44.18  1  1  282.74h1
1864.5  1  282.74h1
 h1  6.59mm
∴ Increase in height of fall  h1  h  6.59  2  4.59mm

v) Considering inertia of the bar:

Weight of bar = Volume × Specific weight of bar material
  
i.e., W '   A  l     d 2  l     302  500  78  106
4  4
 W '  27.567 N
W ' 27.567
m   0.0138
W 2000
1  am
n (3.58)
1  bm 
2
From Table 3.2 (DDHB), for longitudinal impact on bar,

1 1
a  and b 
3 2
1
1   0.0138 
n  3  0.9909
2
 1 
1   0.0138  
 2 
∴ Equivalent height of fall, he  nh  0.9909  2  1.9818mm
∴ Impact stress considering the inertia of the bar,
  
2 1.9818  2  105   30 
2
W 2he EA  2000  
 max  1  1   1  1  4 
Wl   30 2  2000  500 
A
   
4 
  max  69.866 N / mm 2
2.9 Resilience and Toughness

Two important properties that resist the impact loading are (i) Resilience and (ii) Toughness.
The ability of a material to absorb energy in the elastic range is called resilience. Since it
absorbs energy in the elastic range, it gives up the energy, when forces are removed. It is also called
as strain energy as it is measured by the amount of deformation or strain. The ability of a material to
absorb energy and deform plastically before fracture is called toughness. Ductile materials offer
greater resistance to impact than brittle materials.
2 v
Resilience  max (3.59)
2E
Where v = volume = Al
The strain energy stored per unit volume is called modulus of resilience.
2
 Modulus of Resilience  max
2E (3.60)

Review Examples:
13. A steel rope runs at a speed of 2.5m/sec between the rails of a narrow-gauge road. The weight
of a loaded car which must be connected to and pulled by this rope is 8kN. Area of c/s of the
rope is 100mm2. The length of rope between the driving pulley and the point where the car is
hooked is 300m. Determine the stress induced in the rope by the impact of hooking in the car.
Modulus of elasticity of the rope is 200GPa.
Given: - v = 2.5m/s; W = 8kN; l = 300mm; E = 200GPa; A = 100mm2
Solution: -
Kinetic energy,
Wv 2 8000  2.52
K  (3.8)
2g 2  9.81
 K  2548.42 N  m
Resilience in tension,
 max
2
v  max
2
Al  max
2
100  3 105
U  
2E 2E 2  2 105
U  75 max
2
Equating impact energy to resilience,

2548.42 103  75 max
2
∴ Impact stress,  max  184.33 N / mm 2
14. Determine the maximum torsional impact that can withstand without permanent deformation
by a 100mm cylindrical shaft 5m long and made of SAE 1045 annealed steel (τy = 179.5MPa
and G = 82.7GPa). Factor of safety = 3. (May/June – 10 – 2006 Scheme)
Given: - d = 100mm; l = 5m; FOS = 3; τy = 179.5MPa; G = 82.7GPa
Solution: -
y 179.5
e    59.83N / mm2   max
FOS 3
Resilience in shear,
 2  2  
 max
2
 d l   59.83  1002   5000 
 2
v 4  4 
U  max

2G 2G 2  82.7 103
 U  849.89  103 N  mm
Since the maximum torsional impact is equal to the resilience,
Maximum torsional impact  849.89 103 N  mm
15. An elevator car carrying a load of 10kN is descending by means of a steel rope at a speed of
1m/sec. The cross-section area of the rope is 400mm2. The rope is suddenly brought to rest by

braking after 30seconds of decent. Calculate the stress induced in the rope due to sudden
stoppage, if the young’s modulus for the rope is 80000MPa.
Given: - W = 10kN; v = 1m/sec; A = 400mm2; t = 30secs.; E = 80000MPa
Solution: -
v 1
Acceleration, a   m / sec 2
t 30
Now, v 2  u 2  2as
1
12  0  2  s (Initial velocity, u = 0)
30
∴ Distance descended by the elevator before sudden stoppage, s = l = 15m
Kinetic energy,
Wv 2 10 103 12
K  (3.8)
2g 2  9.81
 K  509.684 N  m
This energy will be absorbed by the steel rope.
∴ Resilience in tension,
 max
2
v  max
2
Al  max
2
 400 15 103
U  
2E 2E 2  80 103
U  37.5 max
2
Equating impact energy to resilience,

509.684 103  37.5 max
2
∴ Impact stress,  max  116.58 N / mm 2
Important Equations
Type of Load Impact Stress Impact Deflection Remarks

 2h   2h  W Wl
Axial  max   st 1  1    max   st 1  1    st  ;  st 
  st    st  A AE
Mb
 b  c;
2h   2h  st
I
Bending b   bst 1  1    max   st 1  1  
max
 st    st   st  Depending upon

beam & load
 2h   2h  Mt
Torsion  max   st 1  1    max   1  1    st  c
 r   r  J

Questions from university Q.P.:

1. Briefly explain the impact strength of a bar subjected to axial, bending and torsional loading.
2. Derive Soderberg’s design equation for members subjected to variable stresses.
3. Derive the Soderberg’s equation for designing of a machine element with change in cross
section, to sustain loads that fluctuate between two limits.
a  1
4. Derive the Soderberg’s equation, K ft  m 
ABC en  y N
Where, Kft is effect of stress concentration
A is the load factor
B is the size factor
And C is the surface finish factor
5. Derive Soderberg’s equation for ductile material.
6. Explain the significance of Goodman and Soderberg relations.
7. Explain briefly the following:
i) High cycle and low cycle fatigue
ii) Stress concentration and its effects
8. Define endurance limit. State and explain the factors for modifying it.
9. Explain stress versus number of cycles (S-N) curve for ferrous and non-ferrous metals with
the aid of experimental sketch and characteristic curves.
10. Explain endurance limit and endurance strength with the help of S-N diagram.
11. Explain cumulative fatigue damage.
12. Derive Goodman’s equation.
13. Explain with the neat sketches, the different types of varying stresses.
14. Write a note on S-N diagram.
15. List the factors affecting the endurance limit.
Exercise:
1. A cantilever beam of span 800mm has a rectangular cross-section of depth 200mm. The free
end of the beam is subjected to a transverse load of 1kN that drops on to it from a height of
40mm. Selecting C40 steel (σy = 328.6MPa) and factor of safety = 3, determine the width of
rectangular cross-section.
(b = 79.45mm)
2. A steel cantilever beam of rectangular cross section is loaded 400mm from the support. The
width of the beam is 15mm and depth is 20mm. Determine the maximum bending stress in the
beam, when a weight of 100N is dropped on the beam through a height of 5mm. Take
E = 210GPa. (Dec. – 2010 – 2006 Scheme)
2
(𝛔bmax = 171.72N/mm )
3. An unknown weight falls through 10mm on a collar rigidly attached to the lower end of a bar
3m long and 600mm2 in section. If the maximum instantaneous extension is 2mm, what is the
corresponding stress and the value of unknown weight? Take E = 200kN/mm2.
(June/July – 11 – 2006 Scheme, Dec. – 2011 – 2006 Scheme)

(W = 6666.67N)
4. A machine element in the form of a cantilever beam has a rectangular cross section of 40mm
width and 120mm depth. The span of the beam is 600mm. A transverse load of 5kN falls from
a height of ‘h’ at the free end of the beam. Determine a safe value for ‘h’ limiting the
maximum normal stress induced in the machine element, due to impact, to 120MPa. The
modulus of elasticity of the material of the beam is 210GPa.
(h = 1.05mm)
5. A mass of 500kg is being lowered by means of steel wire rope having cross sectional area
250mm2. The velocity of the weight is 0.5m/sec. When the length of the extended rope is
20m, the sheave gets stuck up. Determine the stresses induced in the rope due to sudden
stoppage of the sheave. Neglect friction. Take E = 190GPa.
(Dec.-14/Jan.-15 – 2010 Scheme)
3 2
(K = 62.5 × 10 N-mm; 𝛔max = 68.92N/mm )

Fundamentals of Mechanical Engineering Design
MODULE 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN
1.1 Machine Design
It is the art of developing new ideas for the construction of machines and expressing those
ideas in the form of plans and drawings.
OR
It is defined as the use of scientific principles, technical information and imagination in the
description of a machine or a mechanical system to perform specific functions with maximum
economy and efficiency.
In designing machine components, it is necessary to have a good knowledge in many areas
such as Mathematics, Engineering Mechanics, Strength of Materials, Theory of Machines, Workshop
Processes and Engineering Drawing.
1.2 Classifications of Machine Design

The machine design may be classified as follows:
i) Adaptive Design: - In most cases, the designer’s work is concerned with adaption
of existing designs. This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and
can be attempted by designers of ordinary technical training. The designer only
makes minor alternation or modification in the existing designs of the product.
ii) Development Design: - This type of design needs considerable scientific training
and design ability in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by
adopting a new material or different method of manufacture. In this case, though
the designer starts from the existing design, but the final product may differ quite
markedly from the original product.
iii) New Design: - This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and
creative thinking. Only those designers who have personal qualities of a
sufficiently high order can take up the work of a new design.
The designs, depending upon methods used, may be classified as follows:
i) Rational Design
ii) Empirical Design
iii) Industrial Design
iv) Optimum Design
v) System Design
vi) Element Design
vii) Computer Aided Design

1.3 Phases of Design Process or General Procedure
NEED (AIM)
SYNTHESIS (MECHANISMS)
ANALYSIS OF FORCES
MATERIAL SELECTION
DESIGN OF ELEMENTS
(SIZE AND STRESSES)
MODIFICATION
DETAILED DRAWING
PRODUCTION
i) Recognition of need: - First of all, make a complete statement of the problem,

indicating the need, aim or purpose for which the machine is to be designed. For
example if a designer wants to design a new lathe machine, first he has to collect
information about the existing lathe machines, has to write down what are the
drawbacks of those machines and how the new design overcomes the drawbacks.
ii) Synthesis (Mechanisms): - Select the possible mechanism or group of
mechanisms which will give the desired motion. There are number of mechanisms
are existing, depending upon the application proper mechanism is to be selected.
While selecting a mechanism importance must be given to strength, accuracy of
motion, efficiency and cost. For example designer has to select a proper
mechanism for tail stock to move.

iii) Analysis of forces: - Find the forces acting on each member of the machine and
the energy transmitted by each member. The various forces are:
a) Forces or load due to the energy transmitted by the parts and dead weight
b) Forces due to frictional resistance
c) Inertia forces due to changes in velocity
d) Centrifugal forces due to procedures in manufacturing, etc.
For example in lathe machine, due to tool post externally its dead weight acts
as load on the frame.
iv) Material selection: - Select the material best suited for each member of the
machine. Materials are classified widely, while selecting a material, consideration
must be given to the life of various parts, availability, application and cost. For
example tool holder of lathe machine can be made from any material say Gold,
Diamond, Steel, so on, but as a designer anyone has to select a material which is
easily available, life span of the part and cost.
v) Design of elements (Size and Stresses): - Find the size of each member of the
machine by considering the force acting on the member and the permissible
stresses for the material used. It should be kept in mind that each member should
not deflect or deform than the permissible limit.
vi) Modification: - Modify the size of the member to agree with the past experience
and judgement to facilitate manufacture. The modification may also be necessary
by consideration of manufacturing to reduce overall cost.
vii) Detailed drawing: - Draw the detailed drawing of each component and the
assembly of machine with complete specification for the manufacturing processes
suggested. A detailed drawing must be clear, concise and complete. It must have
enough views and cross-section to show all the details. Every dimension must be
given, so that there will be no scope for guess work.
viii) Production: - The component, as per the drawing, is manufactured in the
workshop.
1.4 Classification of Engineering Materials

i) Metals and their alloys such as iron, steel, copper, aluminium, etc.
ii) Non-metals such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc.
The metals may be further classified as: (a) Ferrous Metals and (b) Non-ferrous Metals.
The ferrous metals are those which have iron as their main constituent such as cast iron,
wrought iron, steel, etc.
The non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main constituent
such as copper, aluminium, brass, tin, zinc, etc.
1.5 Choice or Selection of Engineering Material

The choice of materials depends upon the following factors:
i) Availability of the materials
ii) Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service (life span)
iii) The cost of the materials

1.6 Mechanical Properties of Materials

The important mechanical properties of the materials are:
i) Elasticity: - It is the property by virtue of which a material deformed under the
load is enabled to return to its original dimension when the load is removed. If a
body regains completely its original shape, it is said to be perfectly elastic. This
property is desirable for materials used in tools and machines.
ii) Plasticity: - It is the converse of elasticity. It is the property of a material which
retains the deformation produced under load permanently. This property of the
material is necessary for forging, stamping images on coins and in ornamental
work.
iii) Ductility: - It is the property of a material which permits a material to be drawn
out longitudinally to a reduced section under the action of tensile force. The
property of ductility is utilized in wire drawing. The commonly used ductile
materials are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.
iv) Brittleness: - It is the property of a material opposite to that of ductility i.e., lack of
ductility. A material is said to be brittle when it cannot be drawn out by tension to
smaller section. This property is usually undesirable. Examples of brittle materials
are cast iron, high carbon steel, concrete, stone, glass, ceramic materials, etc.
v) Malleability: - It is the property of a material which permits the material to be
extended in all directions without rupture (i.e., to be rolled or hammered into thin
sheets). This property is utilized in forging, hot rolling, drop stamping, etc. The
commonly used malleable materials are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and
aluminium.
vi) Toughness: - It is the property of a material which enables it to absorb energy
without fracture (i.e., to resist fracture due to high impact loads). This property is
desirable in parts subjected to shock and impact loads.
vii) Hardness: - It is the ability of material to resist indentation or surface abrasion. It
embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching,
deformation and machinability, etc.
viii) Strength: - It is the ability of the material to resist the externally applied forces
without breaking or yielding.
ix) Stiffness: - It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The
modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness in axially loaded members.
x) Resilience: - It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock
and impact loads. This property is important for spring materials.
xi) Creep: - When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a
longer period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called
creep. This property is considered in designing internal combustion engines,
boilers and turbines.
1.7 Design Considerations

Based on the circumstances and the need, quite a number of characteristics must be
considered in designing a part. Some of the important characteristics are as follows:
i) Strength xiii) Corrosion

ii) Safety xiv) Weight

iii) Stiffness xv) Noise
iv) Surface Finish xvi) Flexibility
v) Shape xvii) Control
vi) Size xviii) Lubrication
vii) Styling xix) Maintenance
viii) Utility xx) Liability
ix) Reliability xxi) Volume
x) Cost xxii) Friction
xi) Life xxiii) Processing
xii) Wear xxiv) Thermal Properties
1.8 Codes and Standards

Code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture and construction of
something. The main purpose of code is to achieve a specified degree of safety, efficiency and
quality. Example: - ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (B&PVC) and the AWS D1.1 Structural
Welding Code – Steel. The B&PVC covers pressure-related equipment from refineries and unfired
pressure vessels to nuclear power generation, and the AWS D1.1 Code covers welded structures of
all types.
Standard is the set of specifications for parts, materials or processes intended to achieve
uniformity, efficiency and a specified quality. Examples of Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
performance standards are the ASTM Standard E709, Standard Guide for Magnetic Particle Testing,
and ASTM E1444, Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle Testing.
Simply, Codes are the minimum requirements and attributes which are directly concerned
with (influencing) human life and civilization and the Standards are the technical ways towards
fulfilling them. Codes are supplements for law and Standards are approaches to meet Code.
The organizations and societies listed below have established specifications for standards and
safety or design codes:
i) Aluminum Association (AA)
ii) American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA)
iii) American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
iv) American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
v) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
vi) British Standards Institution (BSI)
vii) American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
viii) Institution of Mechanical Engineers (I. Mech. E)
ix) National Bureau of Standards (NBS)
x) American Welding Society (AWS)
xi) International Standards Organisation (ISO)
xii) American Society of Metals (ASM)
xiii) Antifriction Bearing Manufacturers Association (AFBMA)
xiv) American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)
xv) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
(Page No. xv & 1.2 DDHB Vol. I)

1.9 Standardization
Standardization aims at establishing mandatory or obligatory norms or standards to which the
different types, grades, parameters such as length, diameter, etc., quality characteristics, test
methods, rules of marking, packing, storage of finished items, raw materials and semi-finished
articles should confirm. The main purpose of standardization is to minimize variety. Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS) has standardized a number of items for the benefit of designers. They are:
i) Rules for preparing drawings
ii) Symbols and notations for mechanical quantities and their units
iii) Engineering materials, their chemical composition, mechanical properties, method
of heat treatment and methods of mechanical testing
iv) Dimensions and preferred sizes of various machine components
v) Fits and tolerances for various machine elements from assembly considerations
The advantages for the standardized parts are:
i) Standardized products have better quality and are more reliable
ii) As the standardized parts are easily available for replacement, maintenance is easy
iii) Service life for the standardized parts is higher
iv) Time and effort required to manufacture a new machine is less with the use of
standard components
1.10 Factors Influencing the Selection of a Suitable Material for a

Machine Element
The broad classification of the engineering materials are given below. From this list study the
basic characteristics of each metal and select the proper one:
Engineering Materials
Metallic Non – Metallic

(Plastic, Rubber,
Leather, Wood, Glass,
Ceramic and Carbon)
Ferrous Non – Ferrous
(Iron & its alloys such
as Cast Iron, Carbon
Steel & Alloy Steels)
Copper Others Light Weight Metals and Anti – friction White Metals
Alloys (Rare metals and their Alloys alloys Bearing (Ni, Silver &
their alloys) (Zn, Al, Mg & their alloys) Metals their alloys)

All materials have certain inherent characteristics which must be considered for the selection
of a particular design. The factors to be taken account are yield & ultimate strength, stiffness,
ductility, toughness, resistance, ductile to brittle transition, oxidation, friction characteristics,
hardenability, weldability, wear resistance, creep resistance, fatigue resistance and specific weight,
etc. The material selected should be readily available in required quantity. Sometimes multiple
choices may be possible and the cost and maintenance of the finished product decides the final
choice.
After selecting a proper material, the final selection of a material for the design is based on
the most economical production method. The following chart gives the brief account of various
manufacturing process from the designer’s point of view.

MANUFACTURING METHODS
CASTING FORGING FORMING MACHINING JOINING OTHERS
Design of Machine Elements - I

i) Sand Casting i) Smith Forging i) Hot Working i) Turning, Drilling, i) Arc Welding i) Powder
ii) Permanent ii) Die Forging ii) Cold Working Milling, Shaping, ii) Resistance Metallurgy
Mould Casting such as Rolling, Planing, Broaching, Welding ii) Non –
iii) Investment Extrusion, Drawing, Shearing, etc. iii) Forge Welding Traditional
Casting Stamping, etc. ii) Gear Cutting iv) Gas Welding Machining
iv) Die – casting iii) Thread Cutting v) Thermal Welding
v) Centrifugal iv) Grinding & vi) Soldering &
Casting Finishing Brazing
vii) Electron Beam
& Laser Welding
viii) Adhesives
Page 8
1.11 Load
It is defined as any external force acting on a machine part. The following four types of loads
are important, they are:
i) Dead or Steady Load: - A load is said to be dead or steady load when it does not
change in magnitude or direction, such as the weights of materials and components
of the structure itself (the framing, the flooring material, roofing material, etc.), and
the weights of fixed service equipment (plumbing, HVAC, etc.)
ii) Live or Variable Load: - A load is said to be a live or variable load when it
changes continually, such as people walking around a building or movable objects
such as a flower pot on a deck.
iii) Suddenly Applied or Shock Load: - A load is said to be a suddenly applied or
shock load when it is suddenly applied or removed. Example: - When a rock
climber falls he will exert a shock load on him as he falls, a person slowly sitting
on a chair, placing a television on a table and placing a bundle of books on a table,
etc.
iv) Impact Load: - A load is said to be an impact load when it is applied with some
initial velocity. Example: - Force applied in an accident, hammering, lathi charge,
striking ball with bat and jumping on the chair, etc.
1.12 Stress
When a body is acted upon by external force or load, internal resisting force is set up, such a
body is said to be in a state of stress, hence stress is the resistance offered by the body to
deformation.
The following are the important types of stresses:
i) Normal Stress
a) Tensile Stress b) Compressive Stress
ii) Shear Stress or Tangential Stress
iii) Bearing Stress
iv) Bending Stress
v) Twisting or Torsional Stress
1.13 Strain
When a force or load acts on a body it undergoes deformation. This deformation per unit
length is known as unit strain or simply strain.
Strain may be
i) Tensile Strain
ii) Compressive Strain
iii) Volumetric Strain
iv) Shear Strain
v) Superficial Strain
1.14 Elastic Limit

When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation. If the
external force is removed the body comes back to its original shape and size. The body will regain its

previous shape and size only when the deformation caused by the external force is within a certain
limit. The value of the force corresponding to this limit is called limiting force. The value of stress
corresponding to this limiting force is known as the elastic limit of the material.
1.15 Hooke’s Law

It states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional
to the strain i.e., the ratio of stress to the corresponding strain is a constant within the elastic limit.
∴ Stress α Strain
The above relation holds good for materials within proportional limit, once it crosses
proportional limit the elasticity decreases up to elastic limit. At that time above relation can be
rewritten as
Stress = Constant × Strain

  E (Where, E = Young’s Modulus)
e
1.16 Poisson’s Ratio

When a body is subjected to direct stress, it undergoes deformation in the direction of load
and at right angles to the direction of load. There is an increase in length in the direction of load but
decrease in the lateral direction. The strain in the direction of load is known as longitudinal strain and
the strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known as lateral strain.
The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is defined as Poisson’s ratio and is a
constant. It is normally denoted by 1/m or μ or ν. The value of m for most of the material lies
between 3 and 4 or in other words the value of μ or ν lies between 0.25 to 0.33.
1.17 Stress – Strain Diagram

The Fig. 1 shows the stress – strain diagram for mild steel.
Fig. 1: Stress – Strain Diagram for Mild Steel (Fig. 1.1 DDHB Vol. I)

i) Proportional Limit (P): - From O to P the curve is a straight line i.e., stress is
directly proportional to strain. Therefore it is clear that Hooke’s law holds good up
to the point P and this point is known as proportional limit. It is defined as a point
at which the stress begins to deviate from the straight line.
ii) Elastic Limit (E): - Up to the point E the material will regain its shape and size,
after removal of the load. It means that the material has elastic properties up to the
point E. This point is known as elastic limit.
iii) Yield Point (Y & Y’): - If the material is stressed beyond the point E, the plastic
stage will reach i.e., on the removal of load, the material will not be able to recover
its original shape and size.
At point Y there is an increase in strain without appreciable increase in load.
Thus the curve drops down to the point Y’. With the increase in load the strain
increases and is practically constant in the region Y’. This phenomenon of increase
in strain without any appreciable increase in load is called yielding. The point Y is
called upper yield point and the point Y’ is called lower yield point.
iv) Ultimate Stress (U): - Between the points Y and U the ductile extension takes
place. Here the relationship between stress and strain depends upon the rate of
loading also. During the extension the cross-sectional area decreases uniformly all
over the length such that the volume remains constant. At the point U, the stress
attains its maximum value which is known as ultimate point. The stress at this
point is known as ultimate stress. It is defined as the maximum stress obtained by
dividing the maximum value of the load reached to the original cross-sectional area
of the test specimen.
v) Breaking Stress (R): - After the maximum load is reached, local yielding takes
place and a neck or waist is formed. As the cross-sectional area decreases
considerably the load carrying capacity of the specimen reduces and hence in the
portion UR the strain increases for decrease in stress. Even though the nominal
stress is decreasing, the true stress which is equal to the load divided by actual
cross-sectional area at neck will be continuously increasing. At point R the
specimen breaks. The stress at this point is called breaking stress and the
corresponding load is called breaking load.
1.18 Stress – Strain Curves for Other Materials
Fig. 2: Stress – Strain Diagram for Aluminium Alloy Fig. 3: Stress – Strain Diagram for Rubber

Fig. 4: Stress – Strain Diagram for Brittle Material

(Fig. 1.2 DDHB Vol. 1)
Fig. 5: Stress – Strain Diagram for Common Steel
Materials
1.19 Stresses Induced due to Normal and Shear Load

In actual practice at any point in a strained material combination of tensile, compressive and
shear stresses i.e., different stresses may act on planes. Hence it is necessary to find the resultant
stresses which may be greater than the applied ones and also the planes on which they act. The
systems in which direct stresses and shear stresses act simultaneously are called combined stresses or
compound stresses.
1.20 Methods for Determining Stresses on Oblique Section (i.e., Inclined

Plane)
The stresses on oblique section are determined by the following methods:
i) Analytical Method
ii) Graphical Method
The following three types of stressed conditions in an element are considered:
i) Uni-axial Stress
ii) Bi-axial Stress
iii) General two dimensional stress system
To find the stresses acting on an inclined plane in a stressed material, consider a plane
inclined at an angle θ to the known plane and then find the normal and tangential (shear) stresses on
this plane.
1.21 Sign Convention

i) Tensile stress is considered as positive
ii) Compressive stress is considered as negative
iii) Angle θ is considered positive when it is in the anticlockwise direction
iv) A shear stress acting on the positive face of an element is considered positive and
negative if it acts in the negative direction of the axes i.e., shear force acting x-face
giving rise to ccw couple is treated as positive and cw couple is treated as negative
v) σn is positive in tension

vi) σt is positive when it tends to produce ccw rotation of the element and negative
when it tends to produce cw rotation of the element
(a) (b)
Fig. 6: Sign Conventions; (a) Positive Stress (b) Negative Stress
1.22 Principal Stresses and Principal Planes

Principal planes are the planes on which only normal stresses will act with zero shear stress.
The normal stress across the principal plane is known as principal stress.
At any point in a strained material, under three dimensional stress system, there are three
such planes mutually orthogonal to each other, which carry only direct stresses and no shear stress.
Out of these, the plane carrying the maximum normal stress is called the major principal plane and
the normal stress acting on that plane is called the major principal stress. The plane carrying the
minimum normal stress is known as minor principal plane and the corresponding normal stress
acting on that plane is called the minor principal stress. In a plane stress or two dimensional stress
system, the third principal stress is zero.

STATIC STRESSES
1.23 Static Load
Static loads are those which are applied to a structure gradually increasing from zero to its
maximum value. After reaching the final value, the load does not change in magnitude or direction or
point of application with time and hence the acceleration occurring can be neglected. Examples: - A
plate on a table, a person standing still, a stationary car, a house and weight of a roof on the posts of
a house, etc.
1.24 Simple Stresses

Stresses produced by shear, tension and compression are called simple stresses when they are
considered independently. A simple stress is considered to be distributed uniformly over the cross-
section of the part on which the force is applied.
1.25 Compound Stress

Stresses produced by torsion and bending are termed as compound stresses, because torsion
and bending produce normal and tangential stresses in the same plane simultaneously.
1.26 Torsional Stress

The stress produced in a member twisted by a couple is pure shear, but its intensity on any
fibre depends on the distance of the fibre from the center line of twisted member.
1.27 Torsional Strength

It is defined as the torque per unit maximum shear stress.
Mt
 Torsional Strength 

Where, Mt = Torque and τ = Maximum shear stress
1.28 Torsional Rigidity

It is the torque required to produce unit angle of twist in a specified length of shaft.
Mt
 Torsional Rigidity 

1.29 Torsional Flexibility

It is the reciprocal of torsional rigidity, which is equal to the angle of twist per unit torque.
1.30 Polar Moment of Inertia

Moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to the plane of an area is known as polar
moment of inertia.
The general expression for torsion is,

M t G 
  (2.86)
J L r
Where, Mt = Applied torque in N-mm
J = Polar moment of inertia in mm4
G = Modulus of rigidity in N/mm2
θ = Angle of twist in radians
L = Length of shaft in mm
r = Radius of shaft in mm
τ = Maximum shear stress in N/mm2
9550 N 9550 P
Mt   (2.87b)
n n
Where, Mt in N-m
9550 103 N
Mt 
n
Where, Mt in N-mm
N = P = Power in kW
n = Speed in rpm

J d 4 for Solid circular shaft
32

J   d o 4  di 4  for Hollow circular shaft
32
Where, d = Diameter of solid shaft
do = Outer diameter of hollow shaft
di = Inner diameter of hollow shaft
J/r = J/c = Polar section modulus (Table 2.2)
The assumptions made while deriving the general expression for torsion are,
i) The material of the shaft is homogeneous and isotropic
ii) The twisting along the shaft is uniform
iii) The shaft is uniform circular cross-section through out
iv) Normal cross-sections of the shaft which are plane before twist remain plane after
twist
v) Material of the shaft follows Hooke’s law
1.31 Bending Stress

A beam is a structural member on which a system of external loads acts at right angles to its
longitudinal axis. Due to these external loads, bending moments and shear forces are setup at any
point along the length of the beam. Hence the beam has to resist the action of bending moment and
shear force. The longitudinal stress produced at any section to resist the bending is known as the
bending stress or flexure.

1.32 Simple Bending or Pure Bending

When a beam is bend due to the application of constant bending moment without being
subjected to shear or torsion or axial loads, then it is said to be in a state of pure bending or simple
bending.
The general expression for bending is,
Mb b E
  (2.90)
I c R
Where, Mb = Maximum bending moment in N-mm
I = Moment of Inertia in mm4
σb = Maximum bending stress in N/mm2
c = Distance of neutral axis from the extreme fiber in mm
E = Modulus of Elasticity in N/mm2
R = Radius of neutral layer or Radius of curvature in mm
The product EI is called the flexural rigidity of the beam.
Ec
Being stress,  b  . This equation is called flexural formula.
R
The assumptions made while deriving the general expression for bending are:
i) The beam is subjected to pure bending
ii) The material of the beam is isotropic and homogeneous
iii) Plane section remains plane even after bending
iv) The beam is initially straight and every layer of it is free to expand or contract
v) The value of Modulus of Elasticity is the same in tension and compression
vi) The beam material is stressed within elastic limit and thus obeys Hooke’s law
vii) The radius of curvature of beam is very large when compared to its depth
1.33 Section Modulus

It is defined as the ratio of moment of inertia of a section about the neutral axis to the
distance of the outer most layer from the neutral axis. It is denoted by Z.
I
Z 
c (Table 2.7)
1.34 Working Stress

When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower than the maximum or
ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes place. This stress is known as working stress or
design stress or allowable stress.
1.35 Factor of Safety (FOS)

It is defined as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress. For ductile material,
where the yield point is clearly defined, hence the factor of safety is based on yield stress.
For simple tension or compression,

Maximum Stress
FOS 
Working or Design Stress
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎𝑦 )
∴ 𝐹𝑂𝑆 =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎)
For pure shear,

𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝜏𝑦 )
𝐹𝑂𝑆 =
𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
For brittle material, where the yield point is not well defined, the factor of safety is based on
ultimate stress.
For simple tension,
Ultimate Stress in Tension  ut 
FOS 
Working Stress in Tension  t 
For simple compression,
Ultimate Stress in Compression  uc 
FOS 
Working Stress in Compression  c 
Since the ultimate stress in tension and compression are not equal in brittle materials, it is
necessary to have separate equations for the factor of safety in tension and in compression.
1.36 Factors Influencing Selection of Appropriate Value for the Factor of

Safety
The selection of a proper factor of safety to be used in designing any machine component
depends upon number of factors. They are,
i) Variation in material properties
ii) Type of loading and stress
iii) Effect of machining or forming processes or mode of manufacture
iv) Effect of time and environment in which the device is expected to operate
v) Effect of size in material strength properties
vi) Effect of wear upon the functions and life of a machine member
vii) Specific requirements for life and reliability
viii) Effect of heat treatment upon the physical properties of material
ix) Overall concern for human safety
1.37 Eccentric Loading

An external load whose line of action is parallel but does not coincide with the centroidal axis
of the machine component is known as an eccentric load. It is shown in Fig. 7. The distance from the
centroidal axis of the machine component and the point of application of load is called eccentricity
and is denoted by ‘e’. Due to the eccentric load the stresses produced in the body are,
i) Direct stress due to F
ii) Bending stress due to the bending moment or couple F × e

Fig. 7
F
Direct Stress,  (Compressive)
A
Bending Moment, Mb  F  e
Mb
Bending stress at the edge AB = ci (Compressive)
I
Mb
Bending stress at the edge CD = co (Tensile)
I
F Mb
Combined stress at AB =  ci (Compressive)
A I
Mb F
Combined stress at CD = co  (Tensile)
I A

Fig. 8
Review Examples:
1. Fig. 9 shows a C.I. Link. The link material has maximum normal stress of 65MPa. Check the
design to transmit a steady tensile load of 50kN and comment on your recommendation.
Fig. 9
Given: - Tensile Load, F = 50 × 103N; Allowable Normal Stress, σ = 65MPa (Tensile)

Solution: -
i) Consider the section at A-A:
Cross-sectional area at A-A = (75×20) – (40×20) = 700mm2
Induced tensile stress at A-A,
F 50 103
 ind A A
   71.43 N/mm2 > σall (65N/mm2)
A 700

ii) Consider the section at B-B:

Cross-sectional area at B-B = 20 × 45 = 900mm2
Induced tensile stress at B-B,
F 50 103
 ind BB    55.56 N/mm2 < σall (65N/mm2)
A 900
Since the induced tensile stress at section A-A is greater than the maximum normal stress
(i.e., 65N/mm2) of the link material, the link cannot be able to transmit the steady tensile load of
50kN.
2. A beam of uniform rectangular cross-section is fixed at one end and carries a load 1000N at a
distance of 300mm from the fixed end. The maximum bending stress in the beam is 80N/mm2.
Find the width and depth of beam. If depth is twice that of width.
Given: - F = 1000N; σ = 80N/mm2; l = 300mm; h = 2b
Solution: -
Fig. 10
bh3 b  2b 
3
2
From Table 2.7 (DDHB), for rectangular cross-section, I    b4
12 12 3
h 2b
And c   b
2 2
Mb b E
The general expression for the bending is,   (2.90)
I c R
Mb
∴ b  c
I
 3 10 
5
80  b
2 4
 b 
3 
∴ b = 17.784mm
Take width of beam, b  18mm
∴ Depth of beam, h  36mm
3. Design a shaft to transmit 10kW at 2000rpm. It is made of 37Mn2steel. Deflection in the shaft
is not to exceed 1˚ per meter length.

Given: - N = P = 10kW; n = 2000rpm; θ = 1° per meter length; Shaft material = 37Mn2steel

Solution: -
From Table 1.11 (Old DDHB), for 37Mn2steel, σy = 431.5MPa
Assume FOS = 3
y
431.5
∴ Working or Allowable Normal Stress,     143.83 N/mm2
FOS 3
Allowable stress in shear,   0.5  0.5143.83  71.92 N/mm2
From Table 2.10 (DDHB), for Carbon Steel, G = 79MPa
9550 P 9550 10 103
Torque, M t   (2.87b)
n 2000
 M t  47750 N  mm
M t G 
The general expression for torsion is,   (2.86)
J L r
For strength:
Mt 

J r
d4 d
Where, J  and r 
32 2
47750 71.92

d4 d
32 2
 d  15mm
For stiffness or rigidity:
M t G

J L
Where θ in radians and L = 1m
 
47750
 79 10   1 180
3



d4 1000
32
∴ d = 24.37mm
(Select the bigger value and for standard diameter, from Table 14.6 (DDHB))
∴ Diameter of the shaft, d  25mm
4. Determine the extreme fibre stresses at the critical section of a machine member loaded as
shown in Fig. 11. Also show the distribution of stresses at this section.
(Dec. – 2012 – 2010 Scheme)

Fig. 11
Given: - P = 50kN
Solution: -
Here the applied load is an eccentric load since the load is acting parallel to the cg axis and
away from it. Due to the eccentric load the stresses produced in the body are,
i) Direct stress due to P and
ii) Bending stress due to the bending moment or couple P × e
Consider the cross section NA of the machine member as shown in Fig. 23(a)
a x  a x  a3 x3
x 1 1 2 2
a1  a2  a3
100  25 
25   50   25 
   25  50   25    100  25   25  50  
  2   2  2 
100  25   25  50   100  25
 x  50mm
∴ ci = Distance of neutral axis (NA) from the innermost fibre = 50mm

co = Distance of NA from the outermost fibre = 50mm
e = Eccentricity = Distance of cg from the load = 150 + 50 = 200mm
I = Total moment of inertia of the section about the cg

= MI of section (1) about cg + MI of section (2) about cg + MI of section (3) about cg
100  253  25    25  503
2
2
  100  25  50        25  50  50  50 
 12  2    12 
100  253 2
  100  25  87.5  50 
 12 
 I  7.55 106 mm 4
A = Area of cross section of the section  a1  a2  a3  100  25   25  50   100  25
 A  6250mm 2

Bending moment, M b  P  e  50 103  200

 M b  10  106 N  mm
For the given load, bending stress at the inner fibre is tensile and outer fibre is compressive.
Direct stress is tensile throughout.
∴ Combined stress at inner most fibre,
P M
 i  Direct Stress  Bending Stress   b ci
A I
50 103 10 106  50
 
6250 7.55 106
  i  74.225 N / mm 2 (Tensile)
Combined stress at the outermost fibre,
P Mb
 o  Direct Stress  Bending Stress   co
A I
50 103 10 106  50
 
6250 7.55 106
  o  58.225 N / mm 2 (Compressive)
Fig. 11(a)

5. Determine the required thickness ‘b’ of the steel bracket at section A-A, when loaded as
shown in Fig. 12 in order to limit the maximum tensile stress to 70MPa.
(June – 2012 – 2006 Scheme)
Fig. 12
Given: - F = 4500N; σ = 70MPa

Solution: -
The given load is an eccentric load. Therefore due to this load the body is subjected to,
i) Direct stress due to F and
ii) Bending stress due to Bending moment or couple F × e
e = Eccentricity = 50mm
∴ Bending moment, M b  F  e  4500  50  22.5 104 N  mm
Area of cross-section at section A-A = 50×b
b  503
Moment of inertia about the cg of the section, I 
12
50
Distance of NA from the extreme fibre, ci  co  c   25mm
2
∴ Combined maximum tensile stress at the inner fibre = Direct tensile stress + Bending stress
F M
  bc
A I
4500 22.5 104  25
70  
50  b b  503
12
90 540
70  
b b
 b  9mm
Hence the thickness required to limit the stress to 70MPa is 9mm.
6. A wall bracket of rectangular cross-section whose depth is twice of width carries a load of
60kN as shown in Fig. 13. Find the required width and depth of cross-section taking
allowable stress as 90MPa. (June/July – 14 – 2006 Scheme)

Fig. 13
Given: - F = 60kN; σ = 90MPa; h = 2b

Solution: -
Resolving the given force into two components as shown in Fig. 13(a).
Fig. 13(a)
FV  F sin 60   60 103  sin 60  51961.52 N

FH  F cos 60   60 103  cos 60  30000 N
i) Consider the vertical component:
MbV  FV  420  51961.52  420
 M bV  21.82  106 N  mm
M bV
 1  c
I
bh3 b  2b 
3
2
I   b4
12 12 3
h 2b
c  b
2 2
21.82 106 32.73 106
 V  b
2 4
b b3
3
Due to this vertical bending moment, tensile stress is induced on the upper
surface & compressive stress is induced on the bottom surface.

ii) Consider the horizontal component:

The horizontal component of the given load is an eccentric load. Therefore due
to this load the steel bracket is subjected to,
a) Direct stress due to FH and
b) Bending stress due to the Bending moment or couple FH × e
M bH  FH  e  30000  300  9 106 N  mm
A  bh  b  2b  2b 2
Direct stress due to FH is tensile throughout and the bending stress due to the
couple on the upper surface is tensile and bottom surface is compressive.
∴ Combined stress on the upper surface,
F M
 H  H  bH c
A I
30000 9 106  b
 
2b 2 2 4
b
3
15000 13.5 106
 H   (Tensile)
b2 b3
∴ Total tensile stress on the upper surface,
  V   H
32.73  106 15000 13.5  106  46.23  10   15000b
6
90    
b3 b2 b3 b3
i.e., 90b3  15000b  46.23 106
 b  80.78mm
∴ Width of bracket, b  81mm
Depth of bracket, h  162mm
7. A bracket shown in Fig. 14 is subjected to a pull of 15kN at 60˚ to the vertical. Determine the
maximum tensile stress in the bracket. (Dec. – 2010 – 2006 Scheme)
Fig. 14
Given: - F = 15kN; h = 75mm; b = 25mm

Solution: -
Resolving the given force into two components as shown in Fig. 14(a).
FV  F cos 60  15 103  cos 60  7500 N
FH  F sin 60  15 103  sin 60  12990.38N
Fig. 14(a)
i) Consider the vertical component:

Bending moment due to vertical component,
M bV  FV 120  7500 120  9 105 N  mm
M bV
Bending stress due to bending moment is,  1  c
I
bh3 25  75 
3
Where, I    8.789  105 mm 4

12 12
h 75
c   37.5mm
2 2
9 105  37.5
 1 
8.789 105
  V  38.4 N / mm 2
Due to this vertical bending moment, tensile stress is induced on the upper
surface & compressive stress is induced on the bottom surface.
ii) Consider the horizontal component:
The horizontal component of the given load is an eccentric load. Therefore due
to this load the steel bracket is subjected to,
a) Direct stress due to FH and
b) Bending stress due to the Bending moment or couple FH × e
 M bH  FH  e  12990.38  60  7.794 105 N  mm
e = 60mm
A  bh  25  75  1875mm 2
Direct stress due to FH is tensile throughout and the bending stress due to the
couple on the upper surface is tensile and bottom surface is compressive.
∴ Combined stress on the upper surface,

FH M bH
2   c
A I
12990.38 7.794 105  37.5
 
1875 8.789 105
  H  40.18 N / mm 2 (Tensile)
∴ Total tensile stress on the upper surface,
   V   H  38.4  40.18
   78.58 N / mm 2
(Note: - Maximum stress is acting on upper surface because, on upper surface due to both vertical
and horizontal components tensile stress is acting, whereas on bottom surface due to vertical and
horizontal components tensile and compressive stresses are acting respectively. As on upper surface
both are tensile we are adding the stresses compared to the bottom surface which contains one
tensile and one compressive stress that we have to subtract. This makes upper surface carry more
stress compared to the bottom surface)
8. A cantilever circular rod of diameter 50mm and length 300mm. Find out the values of
principal stress and maximum shear stress under the following conditions:
i) Applying an axial load of 20kN
ii) Applying 4kN load at end, acting downwards creating bending stresses
iii) Applying a torque of 1.5kN-m (June/July – 13 – 2006 Scheme)
Given: - d = 50mm; F = 20kN; Mt = 1.5kN-m
Solution: -
Fig. 15
The shaft is subjected to axial, bending and torsional load. Here the critical points are A & B.
F 20 103
t    10.186 N / mm 2 (Tensile at A & B)
A   502
4
b 
Mb
c
 4000  300    50   97.78 N / mm2 (Tensile at A & Compressive at B)
  
I  504  2 
64
Mt 1.5 106  50 
 r     61.11N / mm 2

J  50  2 
4
32

i) Consider the point A:

Normal stress at A,    t   b  10.186  97.78
   107.966 N / mm 2 (Tensile)
Shear stress at A,   61.11N / mm 2
Maximum principal stress,
  
2 2
107.966  107.966 
 max      2      61.11
2
2 2 2  2 
  max  135.52 N / mm 2 (Tensile)
Minimum principal stress,
  
2 2
107.966  107.966 
 min      2      61.11
2
2 2 2  2 
  min  27.56 N / mm 2 (Compressive)
 
2 2
 107.966 
Maximum shear stress,  max      2     61.11
2
2  2 
  max  81.54 N / mm 2
ii) Consider the point B:
Normal stress at B,    t   b  10.186  97.78
   87.594 N / mm 2 (Compressive)
Shear stress at B,   61.11N / mm 2
Maximum principal stress,
   87.594  87.594 
2 2
 max      2      61.11
2
2 2 2  2 
  max  31.39 N / mm 2 (Tensile)
Minimum principal stress,
   87.594  87.594 
2 2
 min      2      61.11
2
2 2 2  2 
  min  118.98 N / mm 2 (Compressive)
   87.594 
2 2
Maximum shear stress,  max     2     61.11

2
 
2  2 
  max  75.18 N / mm 2

9. A 50mm diameter steel rod supports a 9kN load and in addition is subjected to a torsional
moment of 100N-m as shown in Fig. 16. Determine the maximum tensile and the maximum
shear. (June/July – 09 – 2006 Scheme,
Dec.-13/Jan.-14 – 2010 Scheme, Dec.-14/Jan.-15 – 2010 Scheme)
Fig. 16
Given: - d = 50mm; F = 9000N; Mt = 100N-m

Solution: -
The critical stress is at point A. The given load 9000N is an eccentric load.
∴ Due to this load, the steel rod is subjected to,
i) Direct stress and
ii) Bending stress due to the Bending moment or couple F × e
F M
∴ Combined stress at A,    b c
A I
i.e.,  
9000

 9000  28  50 
   
 502  504  2 
4 64
   25.12 N / mm2 (Tensile)
M
Shear stress at A due to the torque,   t r 
100 10   50 
3
  
J  504  2 
32
   4.074 N / mm 2
  
2 2
25.12  25.12 
∴ Maximum normal stress at A,  max      2      4.074
2
2 2 2  2 
  max  25.76 N / mm 2 (Tensile)
 
2 2
 25.12 
Maximum shear stress at A,  max     2     4.074
2
2  2 
  max  13.2 N / mm 2

10. A bar of 50mm diameter fixed at one end is subjected to a torsional load of 1kN-m in addition
to an axial pull of 15kN. Determine the principal stresses and maximum shear stress if the
length of the shaft is 250mm.
Given: - d = 50mm; Mt = 1kN-m; F = 15kN
Solution: -
The shaft is subjected to axial and torsional load as shown in Fig. 29. Here the critical points
are on the outer surface of the member.
Fig. 17
F 15 103
Direct stress due to axial load,     7.64 N / mm 2 (Tensile)
A   502
4
Mt 1106  50 
Shear stress due to torsional load,   r    40.744 N / mm 2

J  504  2 
32
∴ Maximum normal stress or Major principal stress,
  
2 2
7.64  7.64 
 max  1       2      40.744
2
2  
2 2  2 
  max   1  44.74 N / mm 2 (Tensile)
Minimum normal stress or Minor principal stress,
  
2 2
7.64  7.64 
 min   2      2      40.744
2
2  
2 2  2 
  min   2  37.1N / mm 2 (Compressive)
Maximum shear stress,
 
2 2
 7.64 
 max     2     40.744
2
 
2  2 
  max  40.92 N / mm 2
11. Determine the maximum normal and maximum shear stress at section A-A for the crank
shown in Fig. 18, when a load of 10kN, assumed concentrated, is applied at the centre of the
crank pin. Neglect the effect of transverse shear.

Fig. 18
Given: - F = 10kN
Solution: -
Resolving the given force into two components,
Vertical component of force, FV  10000sin 30  5000 N
Horizontal component of force, FH  10000cos30  8660.254N
i) Consider the vertical component of force (FV):
Bending moment due to vertical component,
M bV  FV   38  25  25  5000  88  44 104 N  mm
Due to the vertical component, the section A-A is subjected to bending stress
and transverse shear. Since the transverse shear is neglected.
Bending stress due to vertical bending moment,
Mb M bV  d  44 104  75 
V  V c  
 4  2    
I d  754  2 
64 64
  V  10.62 N / mm 2
ii) Consider the horizontal component of force (FH):
Due to the horizontal component, the section A-A is subjected to,
a) Direct stress due to bending moment and
b) Shear stress due to the twisting moment
Bending moment at section A-A due to the horizontal component of force,
M bH  FH   38  25  25  8660.254  88  762102.352 N  mm
Twisting moment at section A-A due to the horizontal component of force,
Mt  FH 125  8660.254 125  1.0825 106 N  mm

Bending stress due to M bH ,

M bH M bH  d  762102.352  75 
H  c 
 4  2    
I d  754  2 
64 64
  H  18.4 N / mm 2
Shear stress due to Mt,
Mt M t  d  1.0825 106  75 
 r 
 4  2    
J d  754  2 
32 32
   13.07 N / mm 2
Since M bV and M bH are at right angles to each other, the total or resultant
bending stress is the vector sum of 𝜎V and σH.
∴ Total or Resultant bending stress,    V2   H2  10.622  18.42
   21.245 N / mm 2
∴ Maximum normal stress,
  
2 2
21.245  21.245 
 max      2      13.07
2
2 2 2  2 
  max  27.465 N / mm 2 (Tensile)
 
2 2
 21.245 
 max     2     13.07
2
2  2 
  max  16.842 N / mm 2
1.38 Stress Concentration

It may be defined as the localization of maximum stress due to irregularities or abrupt change
of cross section. The cause of this highly localized or accumulation of stress is termed as stress
raiser.
The principal cause of stress raisers are some sort of discontinuities. They are;
i) Geometric discontinuities such as holes, notches, fillets, grooves, shoulders, keyways,
threads, internal defects such as cracks, voids, non-metallic inclusions, etc.
ii) Load discontinuities
iii) Material discontinuities
In Fig. 19 the magnitude of σt is uniform at all the sections, i.e., xx, yy, … etc. This is shown
by the force flow lines a-a, b-b, etc. running parallel to the edge of plate or load axis. Now if a hole is
drilled on the plate as shown in Fig. 20 the force flow lines near the discontinuity (i.e., hole) gets
clustered and is not parallel to the edges. Hence accumulation of stress near the change of cross
section (i.e., hole) or clustering of stress lines at the point of discontinuity is known as stress
concentration.

Fig. 19 Fig. 20
1.39 Stress Concentration Factor

Stress concentration is measured by stress concentration factor. It is defined as the ratio of
maximum stress to nominal stress.
 max
For axial and bending load, stress concentration factor, K 
 nom
 max
For torsional load, stress concentration factor, K 
 nom
Nominal stress:
F
For axial load,  nom 
A
Mb
For bending load,  nom  c
I
M
For torsional load,  nom  tr
J
The factor K𝜎 or K𝜏 is usually called the theoretical stress concentration factor. It only
depends on the type and size of discontinuity. The actual stress concentration factor (Kσa) is different
from theoretical stress concentration factor, as it depends on material and type of load.
The actual stress concentration factor and theoretical stress concentration factor (form stress
factor) are connected by the relation, K a  1  q  K  1
Where, q = Notch sensitivity or Index sensitivity
K𝜎 = Theoretical stress concentration factor
K𝜎a = Actual stress concentration factor
The magnitude of ‘q’ depends upon the material and type of loading. It is less for ductile
materials and more fore brittle materials.
1.40 Determination of Stress Concentration Factor

The theoretical stress concentration factor is determined by two methods,
i) Mathematical analysis based on ‘Theory of Elasticity’ and
ii) Experimental methods
The following are some of the methods used to determine stress concentration factor
experimentally.

i) Photo-elasticity
ii) Soap film method
iii) Plaster model
iv) Electrical strain gauge method
v) Electric analogy for torsion
vi) Membrane analogy for torsion
vii) Grid method
viii) Finite element method
ix) Brittle coating method
1.41 Method of Reducing Stress Concentration or Mitigation of Stress

Concentration (Page No. 4.24 to 4.28 DDHB Vol. I)
Since fatigue failures almost invariably originate at stress raisers, the matter of minimizing
stress concentration is utmost importance. A clear concept of stress concentration helps the designer
to identify the stress raisers and thereby taking the necessary steps to minimize the stress
concentration. The following are some of the methods used to minimize the stress concentration.
1.41.1 Drilling Additional Holes (Figs. 4.26 (i) (d) & (f) Page No. 4.25 (DDHB))
When a plate having a hole at the centre as shown in Fig. 21(a) is loaded axially, the stress
gets accumulated at the change of cross section (i.e., near the hole) and this is a bad design. This
accumulation of stress can be reduced to some extent by drilling two more additional small holes as
shown in Fig. 21(b), such that the flow lines becomes more uniform and thus a better design.
Fig. 21(a): Bad Design Fig. 21(b): Preferred Design

1.41.2 Using Fillets Instead of Shoulders (Figs. 4.26 (i) (j) & (l) Page No. 4.26 (DDHB))
When a plate having shoulders (sharp corners) as shown in Fig. 22(a) is loaded axially, the
stress gets accumulated near the shoulder and leads to stress concentration, hence a bad design. This
can be reduced by providing fillets (round corners) instead of sharp shoulders as shown in Fig. 22(b).
Fig. 22(a): Bad Design Fig. 22(b): Preferred Design
1.41.3 Use of Multiple Notches (Figs. 4.26 (i) (p) & (q) Page No. 4.26 (DDHB))
When a plate consisting of a ‘U’ notch as shown in Fig. 23(a) is loaded axially, the stress gets
accumulated near the change of cross-section (i.e., near the notch) and hence a bad design. By

providing two more additional notches as shown in Fig. 23(b), the crowding of force flow lines near
the ‘U’ notch can be reduced resulting in a better design.
Fig. 23(a): Bad Design Fig. 23(b): Better Design
1.41.4 Using Larger Diameter Threaded Length (Figs. 4.26 (v) (c) & (d) Page No. 4.28
(DDHB))
Fig. 24(a): Bad Design Fig. 24(b): Better Design
1.41.5 Removal Unwanted Material (Figs. 4.26 (i) (g) Page No. 4.25 (DDHB))
Fig. 25
1.41.6 Using Under Cut Shoulders (Figs. 4.26 (iv) (d) Page No. 4.27 (DDHB))
Fig. 26: Preferred Design
Review Examples:
12. Determine the maximum stress induced in the following cases taking stress concentration into
account:
i) A rectangular plate 50mm wide, 8mm thick and with a central hole of 10mm is loaded
in axial tension of 14.7kN

ii) A stepped shaft, stepped down from 45mm to 30mm with a fillet radius of 6mm is
subjected to a twisting moment of 98N-m (June/July – 2013 – 2010 Scheme)
Solution: -
i) F = 14.7kN; h = 8mm; w = 50mm; d = 10mm
Fig. 27
d 10
  0.2
w 50
d
From Fig. 4.5 (DDHB), for  0.2 ,
w
Stress concentration factor, K  2.5
F 14.7 103
 nom  
 w  d  h  50  10  8
  nom  45.94 N / mm 2
 max
K 
 nom
 max
2.5 
45.94
∴ Maximum stress,  max  114.84 N / mm 2
ii) D = 45mm; d = 30mm; r = 6mm; Mt = 98N-m
Fig. 28
r 6
  0.2
d 30
D 45
  1.5
d 30
r D
From Fig. 4.19 (4.19A) (DDHB), for  0.2 and  1.5
d d
Stress concentration factor, K  1.25

 nom 
Mt
c
 98 10   30 
3
  
J
 30   2 
4
32
  nom  18.49 N / mm 2
 max
K 
 nom
 max
1.25 
18.49
∴ Maximum shear stress,  max  23.1N / mm 2
13. A notched flat plate shown in Fig. 29 is subjected to bending moment of 10N-m. Determine
the maximum stress induced in the member by taking the stress concentration into account.
Fig. 29
Given: - Mb = 10N-m; D = 60mm; r = 10mm; h = 10mm

Solution: -
d  D  2r  60   2 10   40mm
r 10
  0.25
d 40
D 60
  1.5
d 40
r D
d d
Mb Mb 10  103
 nom  c 
I hd 2 10  402
6 6
  nom  3.75 N / mm 2
 max
Also, K 
 nom
 max
1.575 
3.75

∴ Maximum stress induced,  max  5.906 N / mm 2
14. A bar of rectangular section is subjected to an axial pull of 500kN. Calculate its thickness if
the allowable tensile stress in the bar is 200MPa.
Fig. 30
Solution: -
To find the required thickness of the given plate, select two sections, one across the hole i.e.,
A-A and the other across the notch i.e., B-B.
i) Consider the section A-A:
w = 220mm; d = 30mm
d 30
  0.1364
w 220
d
From Fig. 4.5 (DDHB), for  0.1364 ,
w
 max
Also, K 
 nom
200
2.65 
 nom
  nom  75.472 N / mm 2
F
w  d h
500 103
75.472 
 220  30  h
 h  34.868mm
ii) Consider the section B-B:
D = 220mm; r = 30mm
d  D  2r  220   2  30   160mm
r 30
  0.1875
d 160

D 220
  1.375
d 160
r D
d d
 max
Also, K 
 nom
200
2.04 
 nom
  nom  98.039 N / mm 2
F
dh
500 103
98.039 
160  h
 h  31.875mm
∴ Thickness of plate, h = 34.868mm, say 35mm (Adopt the larger value)
15. Find the value of the maximum stress induced on the fillet if the stress concentration factor
for the filled flat box shown in Fig. 31 having a D/d ratio of 1.2. Also determine the factor of
safety if the flat box is made of steel having a yield stress of 640N/mm2. Thickness of the box
is 25mm.
Fig. 31
D
Given: - h = 25mm; r = 10mm; F = 120kN;  1.2 ; σyt = 640N/mm2
d
Solution: -
D  d  2r   2 10   20mm
1.2d  d  20mm
 d  100mm ; D  120mm
r 10 D
Now,   0.1 and  1.2
d 100 d
r D
d d


F F 120 103
For axial load,  nom   
A h  d 25 100
  nom  48 N / mm 2
 max
Now, K 
 nom
 max
1.8 
48
 yt 640
FOS  
 max 86.4
∴ FOS, n  7.4074
16. Find the diameter of the hole, in Fig. 32 if the stress concentration factor at the hole is to be
same as at the fillet.
Fig. 32
Solution: -
Consider two sections, one across the hole and the other across the fillet.
i) Consider the section across the fillet:
D = 85mm; d = 50mm; r = 5mm
r 5
  0.1
d 50
D 85
  1.7
d 50
r D
d d
ii) Consider the section across the hole:
w = 85mm; d = Diameter of hole
Since the stress concentration at the hole is same as that of fillet, K  2.18
Now, from Fig. 4.5 (DDHB), for K  2.18

d
 0.5
w
d
 0.5
85
∴ Diameter of hole, d  42.5mm
17. A flat plate subjected to a tensile force of 5kN is shown in Fig. 33. The plate material is grey
cast iron having σu value of 200MPa. Determine the thickness of the plate. Factor of
safety is 2.5. (May/June – 2010 – 2006 Scheme,
June/July – 2014 – 2010 Scheme, Dec.-15/Jan.-16 – 2010 Scheme)
Fig. 33
Given: - F = 5kN; σu = 200MPa; FOS = 2.5

Solution: -
u 200
Maximum allowable stress =  max  
FOS 2.5
  max  80 N / mm 2
Consider two sections, one across the hole and the other across the fillet.
i) Consider the section across the fillet:
D = 45mm; d = 30mm; r = 5mm
r 5
  0.167
d 30
D 45
  1.5
d 30
r D
d d
 max
K 
 nom
80
1.8 
 nom

  nom  44.44 N / mm 2
F F 5 103
For axial load,  nom   
A h  d h  30
5 103
44.44 
h  30
∴ Thickness of plate, h  3.75mm
ii) Consider the section across the hole:
w = 30mm; d = 15mm
d 15
  0.5
w 30
d
From Fig. 4.5 (DDHB), for  0.5
w
 max
Also, K 
 nom
80
2.18 
 nom
  nom  36.7 N / mm 2
F F
For axial load,  nom  
A w  d h
5 103
36.7 
 30  15 h
 h  9.08mm
∴ Thickness of plate, h  9.08mm (Say 9.5mm) (Adopt the larger value)
18. A grooved shaft shown in the Fig. 34 is to transmit 5kW at 120rpm. Determine the diameter
of the shaft at the groove if it is made of C15 steel (σy = 235.4MPa). Factor of safety is 2.
Fig. 34
Given: - N = 5kW; n = 120rpm; σy = 235.4MPa; FOS = 2

Solution: -
Maximum allowable normal stress,
y 235.4
 max    117.7 N / mm2
FOS 2
 117.7
 max  max   58.85 N / mm 2
2 2
r 0.1d
Now,   0.1
d d
D 1.4d
  1.4
d d
r D
d d
 max
Also, K 
 nom
58.85
1.49 
 nom
  nom  39.497 N / mm 2
9550 N 9550  5 103

Mt  
n 120
 M t  397.917 10 N  mm
3
For torsional load,

M
 nom  t c
J
397.917 103  d 
39.497   
 4 2
d
32
 d  37.1mm
19. A round rod of diameter 1.2d has a semicircular groove of diameter 0.2d. The rod is
subjected to a bending moment of 10kNm. The material of the rod is C30 steel
(σy = 294N/mm2). Determine a safe value for ‘d’. Factor of safety is 2.
0.2d
Given: - Mb = 10kNm; σy = 294N/mm2; n = 2; D = 1.2d; r   0.1d
2
Solution: -
D 1.2d
  1.2
d d

r 0.1d
  0.1
d d
Fig. 35

y 294
 max    147 N / mm2
n 2
r D
d d
 max
Also, K 
 nom
147
1.885 
 nom
  nom  77.984 N / mm 2
For bending load,
M
 nom  b c
I
10 106  d 
77.984 
 4  2 
d
64
∴ Diameter of rod, d  109.3mm 110mm
20. A stepped shaft of circular cross section shown in Fig. 36 is made of 20Mn2 steel
(σy = 431.5MPa). Determine the value of ‘d’ and the fillet radius, so that the maximum stress
will be limited to a ratio corresponding to a factor of safety of 2.5.
Fig. 36
Given: - σy = 431.5MPa; FOS = 2.5; F = 30kN

Solution: -
y 431.5
 max    172.6 N / mm2
FOS 2.5
r 0.1d
  0.1
d d
D 1.2d
  1.2
d d
r D
d d
 max
Also, K 
 nom
172.6
1.62 
 nom
  nom  106.54 N / mm 2
M b   30 103   250  7.5 106 N  mm

For bending load,
M
 nom  b c
I
7.5 106  d 
106.54 
 4  2 
d
64
 d  89.5mm 90mm
∴ Diameter at the fillet, d = 90mm
Fillet radius, r = 9mm
21. A round stepped shaft is made of brittle material cast iron FG260 and subjected to a bending
moment of 15N-m as shown in Fig. 37. The stress concentration factor at the fillet is 1.5.
Determine the following: (i) Step diameter, (ii) Magnitude of stress at fillet and (iii) Factor of
safety. (June – 2012 – 2006 Scheme)
Fig. 37
Given: - FG260; Mb = 15N-m; K𝜎 = 1.5

Solution: -
From Table 1.4 (Old DDHB), for FG260 σst = 260MPa
D  d  0.25d  0.25d  1.5d
D
 1.5
d
D
From Fig. 4.21 (4.21A) (DDHB), for K𝜎 = 1.5 and  1.5
d
r
 0.16
d
r 2
⟹ d 
0.16 0.16
 d  12.5mm
Mb M 15  103
 nom  c  b3 
d 
I
12.5 
3
32 32
  nom  78.23 N / mm 2
 max
We know that, K 
 nom
 max
1.5 
78.23
  max  117.34 N / mm 2
 st 260
FOS  
 max 117.34
 FOS  2.22
22. A stepped shaft of diameters ratio 1.2 has a filler radius of 1/10 of the smaller diameter. It is
required to transmit 60kW at 1200rpm. Find the suitable diameter of the shaft taking
allowable shear stress as 60MPa. (June/July – 14 – 2006 Scheme)
D r 1
Given: -  1.2 ;   0.1 ; N = 60kW; n = 1200rpm; τmax = τall = 60MPa
d d 10
Solution: -
Fig. 38

r D
d d
 max
K 
 nom
60
1.33 
 nom
  nom  45.113 N / mm 2
9550 N 9550  60 103

Mt  
n 1200
 M t  477.5  103 N  mm
Mt
We know that,  nom  r
J
477.5  103
45.113 
d3
16
∴ Diameter of shaft, d  37.78mm
23. A round shaft of 50mm diameter is subjected to a bending moment of 100Nm. If a transverse
circular hole of 10mm diameter is drilled on the shaft, determine the maximum stress induced
on the shaft.
Given: - d = 10mm; D = 50mm; Mb = 100Nm
Solution: -
Fig. 39
d 10
  0.2
D 50
d
D
Stress concentration factor, K  2
I   D3   dD 2     50    10   50  
3 2
    

c  32   6   32   6 


I
  8105.18mm3
c
Mb 100 103
For bending load,  nom  c
I 8105.18
  nom  12.34 N / mm 2
 max
Now, K 
 nom
 max
2
12.34
24. A rectangular plate of 50mm wide with a circular hole of diameter 10mm in the centre
subjected to a bending moment of 10Nm. If the thickness of the plate is 10mm, determine the
maximum stress induced in the plate.
Given: - w = 50mm; d = 10mm; Mb = 10Nm; h = 10mm
Solution: -
Fig. 40
d 10
  0.2
w 50
d 10
 1
h 10
d d
From Fig. 4.6 (DDHB), for  0.2 and  1
w h
6M b 6  10 103
 nom  
 w  d  h 2  50  10 10 2
  nom  15 N / mm 2
 max
Now, K 
 nom

 max
1.9 
15
∴ Maximum stress induced,  max  28.5 N / mm 2
25. A flat bar shown in Fig. 41 is subjected to an axial load of 100kN. Assuming that the stress in
the bar is limited to 200N/mm2, determine the thickness of bar.
(Dec.-17/Jan.-18 – 2015 Scheme)
Fig. 41
Given: - F = 100kN
Solution: -
i) Consider the section A-A:
w = 160mm; d = 20mm
d 20
  0.25
w 160
d
w
 max
K 
 nom
200
2.65 
 nom
  nom  75.472 N / mm 2
F F
 nom  
A w  d h
100 103
75.472 
160  20 h
 h  9.464mm
ii) Consider the section B-B:
D = 160mm; d = 160-40 = 120mm; r = 20mm
D 160
  1.33
d 120

r 20
  0.167
d 120
D r
d d
 max
K 
 nom
200
2.1 
 nom
  nom  95.238 N / mm 2
F
 nom 
hd
100 103
95.238 
h 120
 h  8.75mm
iii) Consider the section C-C:
D = 160mm; d = 140mm; r = 10mm
r 10
  0.0714
d 140
D 160
  1.143
d 140
r D
d d
 max
K 
 nom
200
1.87 
 nom
  nom  106.95 N / mm 2
F
 nom 
hd
100 103
106.95 
h 140
 h  6.679mm
∴ Thickness of plate, h  9.464mm 9.5mm (Adopt the larger value)
26. A stepped shaft shown in Fig. 42 is subjected to a transverse load. The shaft is made of steel
with ultimate tensile strength of 400MPa. Determine the diameter ‘d’ of the shaft based on
the factor of safety of 2.

Fig. 42
Given: - F = 8kN; σu = 400MPa; FOS = 2

Solution: -
 400
 max  u   200 N / mm2
FOS 2
Taking moments about ‘A’,
RB  500  8 103   350
 RB  5600 N
Also, RA  RB  8000
RA  5600  8000
 RA  2400 N
i) Consider the right fillet:
Since the possibility of failure is at the fillet, bending moment at the right fillet
M b  RB  25  5600  25  14 104 N  mm
r d 5
  0.2
d d
D 2d
 2
d d
r D
From Fig. 4.21 (4.21A) (DDHB), for  0.2 and 2
d d
 max
K 
 nom
200
1.44 
 nom
  nom  138.89 N / mm 2
Mb
For bending load,  nom  c
I

14  104
138.89 
d3
32
 d  21.73mm
ii) Consider the left fillet:
Bending moment at the left fillet,
M b  RA  250  2400  25  6 105 N  mm
r d 10
  0.1
d d
D 2d
 2
d d
r D
From Fig. 4.21 (4.21A) (DDHB), for  0.1 and 2
d d
 max
K 
 nom
200
1.74 
 nom
  nom  114.94 N / mm 2
Mb
 nom  c
I
6  105
114.94 
d3
32
 d  37.6mm
∴ Diameter of shaft at the fillet d = 37.6mm (Say 38mm) (Adopt the larger value)
27. Load F on a simply supported shaft shown in Fig. 43 is 4000N. Find the radius of fillet at left
if the maximum stress at the left fillet is same as that of the right fillet. Notch sensitivity
q = 0.95. (June/July – 2016 – 2010 Scheme)
Fig. 43
Given: - F = 4000N; q = 0.95

Solution: -
Taking moments about A
4000  700  RB 1200
 RB  2333.33N
Also, RA  RB  4000
RA  2333.33  4000
 RA  1666.67 N
Bending moment at the right fillet, Mb  RB  300  7 105 N  mm
Bending moment at the left fillet, Mb  RA  300  5 105 N  mm
i) Consider the right fillet:
D 75
  1.5
d 50
r 10
  0.2
d 50
r D
d d
Mb 7 105
 nom  c  57.04 N / mm 2

I
 50 
3
32
Actual Stress Concentration Factor,
K a  1  q  K  1  1  0.95 1.42  1  1.399 1.4
 max
K a 
 nom
 max
1.4 
57.04
  max  79.9 N / mm 2
ii) Consider the left fillet:
M 5 105
 nom  b c   40.744 N / mm 2

I
 50 
3
32
Maximum allowable stress at the left fillet is same as that of the right fillet
 max  79.9 N / mm 2
 max 79.9
K a    1.96
 nom 40.744
K a  1  q  K  1
1.96  1  0.95  K  1

 K  2.01 2
D
From Fig. 4.21 (4.21A) (DDHB), K  2 and  1.5
d
r
 0.055
d
∴ Radius of fillet at left,
r  0.055d  0.055 50
 r  2.75mm
Questions from university Q.P.:

1. Briefly explain the important mechanical properties.
2. Define standards and codes.
3. What is mechanical engineering design? State the steps involved in mechanical engineering
design.*
4. Explain the phase of Design with neat flow Diagram.
5. Explain the importance of standards in design. Give examples.
6. Draw the stress – strain curve for mild steel and cast iron. Name the salient points.
7. What is standardization? What are advantages of standardization?
8. Write brief note on general procedure used in design.*
9. Discuss factors influencing the selection of a suitable material for a machine element.
10. Draw stress-strain diagram for mild steel subjected to tension. Explain the significance of
salient points.
11. What are the basic requirements of machine elements? Explain briefly.*
12. Explain briefly the selection of factor of safety in engineering design.
13. Explain briefly the selection of materials in the process of machine design.
14. Draw the stress-strain diagram for a ductile material and a brittle material and show the
salient points on them.
15. Identify the following engineering materials giving specifications:*
i) FG350 ii) FeE300 iii) C35Mn75 iv) X20Cr18Ni2
16. Give any three examples of stress raisers and show how the stress concentration can be
reduced in these cases.
17. What is stress concentration? What are the factors affecting the stress concentration? Explain.
18. What is the stress concentration factor? What are the methods to determine stress
concentration factor?
19. Explain the following:
i) Notch sensitivity*
ii) Stress concentration factor
* Refer APPENDIX – 1

Exercise:
1. A steel saw blade 1mm thick is bent into an arc of a circle of 500mm radius. Determine the
flexural stress induced and the bending moment required to bend the blade, which is 15mm
wide. Take E = 210GPa.
(σb = 210N/mm2; Mb = 525N-mm)
2. Design a spindle of milling machine to transmit 15kW at 1000rpm. The angular twist is not to
exceed 0.5˚ per metre length. The material for the spindle is C45 steel. The outside diameter
of the spindle is twice that of inside diameter. Take factor of safety = 2.
(Mt = 143250N-mm; For strength, do = 20.66mm; For stiffness or rigidity, do = 38.76mm)
3. Determine the required thickness of the steel bracket at section A-A when loaded as shown in
Fig. 44, in order to limit the tensile stress to 100N/mm2.
Fig. 44
(h = 7mm)
4. A mild steel bracket shown in Fig. 45 is subjected to a pull of 10kN. The bracket has a
rectangular cross-section whose depth is twice the width. If the allowable stress for the
material is 80N/mm2, determine the c/s of the bracket.
Fig. 45
(b = 36.5mm; h = 73mm)

5. A circular rod of diameter 50mm is subjected to loads as shown in Fig. 46. Determine the
nature and magnitude of stresses at the critical points.
(Dec. – 2011 – 2006 Scheme, June/July – 2015 – 2010 Scheme)
Fig. 46
(For point A – 𝛔max = 87.687N/mm2, 𝛔min = -18.932N/mm2 & 𝛕max = 53.31N/mm2; For
point B – 𝛔max = 21.996N/mm2, 𝛔min = -75.471N/mm2 & 𝛕max = 48.734N/mm2)
6. A circular rod of 60mm diameter is subjected to loads as shown in Fig. 47. Determine the
nature and magnitude of stresses at the critical points.
Fig. 47
(For point A – 𝛔max = 74.273N/mm2, 𝛔min = 0 & 𝛕max = 37.14N/mm2; For point B –
𝛔max = 0, 𝛔min = -67.2N/mm2 & 𝛕max = -33.6N/mm2)
7. A circular rod of 60mm diameter is subjected to bending load and torsional load as shown in
Fig. 48. Determine the nature and magnitude of stresses at the critical points.
Fig. 48
(For point A – 𝛔max = 114.45N/mm2, 𝛔min = -43.72N/mm2 & 𝛕max = 79.085N/mm2; For
point B – 𝛔max = 70.732N/mm2, 𝛔min = -114.45N/mm2 & 𝛕max = 79.085N/mm2)
8. Determine the maximum normal stress and maximum shear stress at section A-A for the
crank shown in Fig. 49, when a load of 10kN is assumed to be concentrated at the centre of
crank pin.

Fig. 49
(𝛔max = 29.46N/mm2; 𝛕max = 18.6N/mm2)
9. Determine the maximum stress in the following cases taking stress concentration into
account.
i) A rectangular plate of 50mm x 80mm with a hole of 10mm diameter in the centre is
loaded in axial tension of 10kN. Thickness of the plate is 10mm
ii) A circular shaft of 45mm diameter stepped down to 30mm diameter having a fillet
radius of 6mm subjected to a twisting moment of 150Nm
((i) 𝛔max = 62.5N/mm2; (ii) 𝛕max = 35.37N/mm2)
10. Determine the maximum stress induced in the semicircular grooved shaft shown in Fig. 50, if
it is subjected to –
i) An axial load of 40kN,
ii) A bending moment of 400N-m,
iii) A twisting moment of 500N-m.
Take the stress concentration into account.
(Dec.-09/Jan.-10 – 2006 Scheme, June/July – 2018 – 2010 Scheme)
Fig. 50
((i) 𝛔max = 44.2N/mm2; (i) 𝛔max = 61.6N/mm2; (iii) 𝛕max = 29.74N/mm2)
11. A shaft of 50mm diameter is stepped down to 40mm with a fillet radius of 5mm. If the
allowable shear stress is 50N/mm2, determine the power that can be transmitted at 1200rpm.
(𝛕nom = 38.46N/mm2; Mt = 483.32 × 103 N-mm; P = 60.73kW)

12. A rectangular plate 15mm thick made of a brittle material is shown in Fig. 51. Calculate
stresses at each of three holes.
Fig. 51
((i) 3mm dia. hole - 𝛔max = 160.606N/mm2; (i) 5mm dia. hole - 𝛔max = 167.33N/mm2;
(iii) 10mm dia. hole - 𝛔max = 201.78N/mm2)
13. Determine the safe load that can be carried by a bar of rectangular cross section in Fig. 52
limiting the maximum stress to 130MPa taking stress concentration into account.
(Dec.-13/Jan.-14 – 2010 Scheme)
Fig. 52
((i) Across the hole – P = 20.72kN; (ii) Across the notch – P = 23.11kN)

Welded joints
Welded joints and their advantages:
Welding is a very commonly used permanent joining process. Thanks to great advancement
in welding technology, it has secured a prominent place in manufacturing machine components.
A welded joint has following advantages:
(i) Compared to other type of joints, the welded joint has higher efficiency. An efficiency
> 95 % is easily possible.
(ii) Since the added material is minimum, the joint has lighter weight.
(iii) Welded joints have smooth appearances.
(iv) Due to flexibility in the welding procedure, alteration and addition are possible.
(v) It is less expensive.
(vi) Forming a joint in difficult locations is possible through welding.
The advantages have made welding suitable for joining components in various machines and
structures.
Types of welded joints
Following two types of welded joints are important from the subject point of view:
1. Lap joint or fillet joint, and
2. Butt joint.
Lap Joint: The lap joint or the fillet joint is obtained by overlapping the plates and then welding
the edges of the plates. The cross-section of the fillet is approximately triangular.
The fillet joints may be

1. Single transverse fillet, 2. Double transverse fillet, and 3. Parallel fillet joints.
Fig. 2.12 – Different types of lap joint

The fillet joints are shown in Fig. 10.2. A single transverse fillet joint has the disadvantage that
the edge of the plate which is not welded can buckle or warp out of shape.
Butt Joint: The butt joint is obtained by placing the plates edge to edge as shown in Fig. 10.3. In
butt welds, the plate edges do not require bevelling if the thickness of plate is less than 5 mm. On
the other hand, if the plate thickness is 5 mm to 12.5 mm, the edges should be bevelled to V or
U-groove on both sides.
The butt joints may be
1. Square butt joint,
2. Single V-butt joint
3. Single U-butt joint,
4. Double V-butt joint, and
5. Double U-butt joint.
Fig. 2.13 – Different types of butt joints
The other types of welded joints are corner joint; edge joint and T-joint as shown in Fig. 10.4
Fig. 10.4. Other types of welded joints.

The main considerations involved in the selection of weld type are:
1. The shape of the welded component required,
2. The thickness of the plates to be welded, and
3. The direction of the forces applied.
Strength of welds: in-plane loading
There are different forms of welded joints, subjected to in-plane loading under tension.
1. Strength of Butt weld

Fig. 2.15a shows a single V-butt joint under tension.
(a) Single-V butt joint (b) Double-V butt joint

Fig. 2.15 – Butt joints under tension
In case of single V-butt weld, the throat thickness of the weld is considered to be equal to the
plate thickness, t. Hence, tensile strength of the joint = tl t
Where, l = length of the weld = width of the plate. Figure
2.15b shows a double V-butt joint under tension. Let h1 =
throat thickness at the top
h2 = throat thickness at the bottom
Then tensile strength of the joint = (h1  h2) l t
2. Strength of fillet weld
2.a. Transverse fillet weld

We have already discussed that the fillet or lap joint is obtained by overlapping the plates and
then welding the edges of the plates. The transverse fillet welds are designed for tensile strength.
Let us consider a single and double transverse fillet welds as shown in Fig. 10.6 (a) and (b)
respectively.
Fig. 10.6. Transverse fillet welds.

In order to determine the strength of the fillet joint, it is assumed that the section of fillet is a right
angled triangle ABC with hypotenuse AC making equal angles with other two sides AB and BC.
The enlarged view of the fillet is shown in Fig. 10.7. The length of each side is known as leg or
size of the weld and the perpendicular distance of the hypotenuse from the intersection of legs
(i.e. BD) is known as throat thickness. The minimum area of the weld is obtained at the throat
BD, which is given by the product of the throat thickness and length of weld.
Let
t = Throat thickness (BD),

s = Leg or size of weld,
= Thickness of plate, and
l = Length of weld,
From Fig. 10.7, we find that the throat thickness,
t = s × sin 45° = 0.707 s
∴ *Minimum area of the weld or throat area,
A = Throat thickness × Length of weld
= t × l = 0.707 s × l
If σt is the allowable tensile stress for the weld metal, then the tensile strength of the joint for
single fillet weld,
P = Throat area × Allowable tensile stress
= 0.707 s × l × σt
and tensile strength of the joint for double fillet weld,
P = 2 × 0.707 s × l × σt = 1.414 s × l × σt
Note: Since the weld is weaker than the plate due to slag and blow holes, therefore the weld is
given a reinforcement which may be taken as 10% of the plate thickness.
Strength of Parallel Fillet Welded Joints

The parallel fillet welded joints are designed for shear strength. Consider a double parallel fillet
welded joint as shown in Fig. 10.8 (a). We have already discussed in the previous article, that the
minimum area of weld or the throat area,
A = 0.707 s × l
If τ is the allowable shear stress for the weld metal, then the shear strength of the joint for single
parallel fillet weld,
P = Throat area × Allowable shear stress
= 0.707 s × l × τ
And shear strength of the joint for double parallel fillet weld,
P = 2 × 0.707 × s × l × τ = 1.414 s × l × τ
Fig. 10.8: double parallel fillet welded joint
Notes:
1. If there is a combination of single transverse and double parallel fillet welds as shown in Fig.
10.8 (b), then the strength of the joint is given by the sum of strengths of single transverse and
double parallel fillet welds. Mathematically,
P = 0.707s × l1 × σt + 1.414 s × l2 × τ
where, l1 is normally the width of the plate.
2. In order to allow for starting and stopping of the bead, 12.5 mm should be added to the length
of each weld obtained by the above expression.
3. For reinforced fillet welds, the throat dimension may be taken as 0.85 t.
Special Cases of Fillet Welded Joints

The following cases of fillet welded joints are important from the subject point of view.
1. Circular fillet weld subjected to torsion. Consider a circular rod connected to a rigid plate
by a fillet weld as shown in Fig. 10.9.
Fig. 10.9. Circular fillet weld subjected to torsion.

Let,
d = Diameter of rod,
r = Radius of rod,
T = Torque acting on the rod,
s = Size (or leg) of weld,
t = Throat thickness,
*J = Polar moment of inertia of the weld section=

We know that shear stress for the material,
This shear stress occurs in a horizontal plane along a leg of the fillet weld. The maximum shear
occurs on the throat of weld which is inclined at 45° to the horizontal plane.
∴ Length of throat, t = s sin 45° = 0.707 s
and maximum shear stress,
2. Circular fillet weld subjected to bending moment. Consider a circular rod connected to a
rigid plate by a fillet weld as shown in Fig. 10.10.
Let d = Diameter of rod,
M = Bending moment acting on the rod,
t = Throat thickness,
**Z = Section modulus of the weld section
Fig. 10.10. Circular fillet weld subjected to bending moment.

This bending stress occurs in a horizontal plane along a leg of the fillet weld. The maximum
bending stress occurs on the throat of the weld which is inclined at 45° to the horizontal plane.
∴ Length of throat, t = s sin 45° = 0.707 s
and maximum bending stress,
3. Long fillet weld subjected to torsion. Consider a vertical plate attached to a horizontal plate
by two identical fillet welds as shown in Fig. 10.11.
Let, T = Torque acting on the vertical plate,
l = Length of weld,
t = Throat thickness, and
J = Polar moment of inertia of the weld section
Fig. 10.11. Long fillet weld subjected to torsion.
It may be noted that the effect of the applied torque is to rotate the vertical plate about the Z-axis
through its mid point. This rotation is resisted by shearing stresses developed between two fillet
welds and the horizontal plate. It is assumed that these horizontal shearing stresses vary from zero
at the Z-axis and maximum at the ends of the plate. This variation of shearing stress is analogous
to the variation of normal stress over the depth (l) of a beam subjected to pure bending.
Axially Loaded Unsymmetrical Welded Sections
Sometimes unsymmetrical sections such as angles, channels, T-sections etc., welded on the flange
edges are loaded
axially as shown in Fig. 10.20. In such cases, the lengths of weld should be proportioned in such a
way that the sum of resisting moments of the welds about the gravity axis is zero. Consider an
angle section as shown in Fig. 10.20.
Let
la = Length of weld at the top,
lb = Length of weld at the bottom,
l = Total length of weld = la + lb
P = Axial load,
a = Distance of top weld from gravity axis,
b = Distance of bottom weld from gravity axis, and
f = Resistance offered by the weld per unit length.
Fig. 10.20. Axially loaded unsymmetrical welded section.

∴ Moment of the top weld about gravity axis = la × f × a
and moment of the bottom weld about gravity axis = lb × f × b
Since the sum of the moments of the weld about the gravity axis must be zero, therefore,
la × f × a – lb × f × b = 0
or la × a = lb × b.................................................................................................................... ...(i)
We know that l = la + lb ...........................................................................................................(ii)
∴ From equations (i) and (ii), we have
Eccentrically Loaded Welded Joints

An eccentric load may be imposed on welded joints in many ways. The stresses induced on the
joint may be of different nature or of the same nature. The induced stresses are combined
depending upon the nature of stresses. When the shear and bending stresses are simultaneously
present in a joint (see case 1), then maximum stresses are as follows:
Fig. 10.22. Eccentrically loaded welded joint.
Maximum normal stress,
where b = Bending stress, and

τ = Shear stress.
When the stresses are of the same nature, these may be combined vectorially (see case 2).
We shall now discuss the two cases of eccentric loading as follows:
Case 1
Consider a T-joint fixed at one end and subjected to an eccentric load P at a distance e as shown
in Fig. 10.22.
Let s = Size of weld,
l = Length of weld, and
t = Throat thickness.
The joint will be subjected to the following two types of stresses:
1. Direct shear stress due to the shear force P acting at the welds, and
2. Bending stress due to the bending moment P × e.
We know that area at the throat,
A = Throat thickness × Length of weld
= t × l × 2 = 2 t × l ... (For double fillet weld)
= 2 × 0.707 s × l = 1.414 s × l ... (Q t = s cos 45° = 0.707 s)
∴ Shear stress in the weld (assuming uniformly distributed),
Section modulus of the weld metal through the throat,

Bending moment, M = P × e
We know that the maximum normal stress,
Case 2
When a welded joint is loaded eccentrically as shown in Fig. 10.23, the following two
types of the stresses are induced:
1. Direct or primary shear stress, and
2. Shear stress due to turning moment.
Fig. 10.23. Eccentrically loaded welded joint.

Let
P = Eccentric load,
e = Eccentricity i.e. perpendicular distance between the line of action of load and centre of
gravity (G) of the throat section or fillets,
l = Length of single weld,
s = Size or leg of weld, and
t = Throat thickness.
Let two loads P1 and P2 (each equal to P) are introduced at the centre of gravity ‘G' of the
weld system. The effect of load P1 = P is to produce direct shear stress which is assumed to be
uniform over the entire weld length. The effect of load P2 = P is to produce a turning moment of
magnitude P × e which tends of rotate the joint about the centre of gravity ‘G' of the weld system.
Due to the turning moment, secondary shear stress is induced.
... (Q Throat area for single fillet weld = t × l = 0.707 s × l)

Since the shear stress produced due to the turning moment (T = P × e) at any section is
proportional to its radial distance from G, therefore stress due to P × e at the point A is
proportional to AG (r2) and is in a direction at right angles to AG. In other words,
Where τ2 is the shear stress at the maximum distance (r2) and τ is the shear stress at any
distance r.
Consider a small section of the weld having area dA at a distance r from G.
∴ Shear force on this small section
= τ × dA
And turning moment of this shear force about G,
Where J = Polar moment of inertia of the throat area about G.

∴ Shear stress due to the turning moment i.e. secondary shear stress,
In order to find the resultant stress, the primary and secondary shear stresses are combined
Vectorially.
∴ Resultant shear stress at A,
Note: The polar moment of inertia of the throat area (A) about the centre of gravity (G) is
obtained by the parallel axis theorem, i.e.
Where, A = Throat area = t × l = 0.707 s × l,

l = Length of weld, and
x = Perpendicular distance between the two parallel axes.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Welded Joints over Riveted Joints

Following are the advantages and disadvantages of welded joints over riveted joints.
Advantages
1. The welded structures are usually lighter than riveted structures. This is due to the
reason, that in welding, gussets or other connecting components are not used.
2. The welded joints provide maximum efficiency (may be 100%) which is not possible in
case of riveted joints.
3. Alterations and additions can be easily made in the existing structures.
4. As the welded structure is smooth in appearance, therefore it looks pleasing.
5. In welded connections, the tension members are not weakened as in the case of riveted
joints.
6. A welded joint has a great strength. Often a welded joint has the strength of the parent
metal itself.
7. Sometimes, the members are of such a shape (i.e. circular steel pipes) that they afford
difficulty for riveting. But they can be easily welded.
8. The welding provides very rigid joints. This is in line with the modern trend of
providing rigid frames.
9. It is possible to weld any part of a structure at any point. But riveting requires enough
clearance.
10. The process of welding takes less time than the riveting.
Disadvantages
1. Since there is an uneven heating and cooling during fabrication, therefore the members
may get distorted or additional stresses may develop.
2. It requires a highly skilled labour and supervision.
3. Since no provision is kept for expansion and contraction in the frame, therefore there is
a possibility of cracks developing in it.
4. The inspection of welding work is more difficult than riveting work.
Stress Concentration Factor for Welded Joints
The reinforcement provided to the weld produces stress concentration at the junction of
the weld and the parent metal. When the parts are subjected to fatigue loading, the stress
concentration factor as given in the following table should be taken into account.
Table 10.6. Stress concentration factor for welded joints.
Type of joint Stress concentration factor
1. Reinforced butt welds -1.2

2. Toe of transverse fillet welds -1.5
3. End of parallel fillet weld -2.7
4. T-butt joint with sharp corner -2.0
Note: For static loading and any type of joint, stress concentration factor is 1.0.
Example Problem-1: Figure 2.23 shows a cylindrical rod of 50 mm diameter, Reference

welded to a flat plate. The cylindrical fillet weld is loaded eccentrically, by a force
of 10 kN acting at 200 mm from the welded end. If the size of the weld is 20 mm,
determine the maximum normal stress in the weld.
t Design
Solution: Let h = throat thickness = Data Book
2
by K.
Referring Fig. 2.23, let us introduce two equal and opposite forces, F1 - F2 and Mahadevan
parallel to F, and passing through the centre of the rod at the fixed end such that & K. B.
F = F = F. Effect of F (=F) is to produce transverse shear stress, τ. Reddy
1 2 1
Throat area, A  dh    50  t    50  20  2221.8mm2

2 2
Transverse shear stress,
 F 10 1000 = 4.5 N/mm

2
A 2221.8
Effect of F1 – F2 (=F - F) is to
produce bending moment, M,
given by,
M  FL  10 1000  200  20 105 N-mm Fig. 2.23
For a circular fillet weld, section modulus, Z is given by,
td 20 50
Z   2     2  2.7752.6mm3
5.66 5.66
Bending stress,  b M  20 10  72.1N/mm

5 2
Z27752.6
Resultant (maximum) normal stress,
 b  2b2 4.52  72.12  72.24 N/mm2
Example Problem-2: Figure 2.24a shows an eccentrically loaded welded joint.

Determine the fillet weld size. Allowable shear stress in the weld is 80 MPa.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.24
Solution: Given data: F= 50kN; b = 200 mm; l = 150 mm; τ = 80 MPa

t
Let t = size of the weld; h = throat thickness =
2
The distance of the centre of gravity, G from the left edge of the plate, x is
given by,
2
x  l  1502  45 mm
2l  b 2 150  200
Eccentrically, e  400  (150  x)  400  (150  45)  505 mm
Polar moment of inertia of the weld throat about G,
J  t (b  2l) 3
l 2 (b  l) 2

2 12 b  2l
 t (200  2 150)
3
 150 2  (200  150) 2
= 3468.3×10 3t mm4
2
12 (200  2 150)
Maximum radius of the weld, GA = rmax =
AB 2  AC 2  100 2  105 2  145 mm
cos  GB  105  0.724

GA 145
t
Throat area of the weld, A  (b  2l)   353.6t mm2
2
Referring Fig. 2.24b, let us introduce two equal and opposite forces, F1 - F2
through G, and parallel to F such that F1 = F2 = F.
The effect of F1 (= F) is to produce primary shear stress.
Primary shear stress, 1 F  50 1000 141.4 N/mm

2
A 353.6t t
The effect of F – F2 (=F-F) is to produce moment, Fe; inducing secondary shear
stress. Maximum secondary shear stress,
 Fe  r 50 1000  505 145  1055.6

3468.3 103  t
2 max
J t
Resultant (maximum) shear stress,
 max 
12 22  21 2 cos
141.6 2 1055.6 2 141.6 1055.6
   2    0.724
t t t t
 1162.1 t
 1162.1
80
t
t  14.5 mm
170+20=190

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Design for Impact and Fatigue Loads

2.2 Impact Stress

2.3 Impact Energy

2.4 Effect of Sudden Loads

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 1

2.5 Axial Impact on Bars (Derivation of instantaneous stress due to axial

Let A = Cross – sectional area of bar

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 2

W = Weight of the falling body

 ' A   '   W  h   ' 

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 3

2.6 Impact & Bending (Derivation of instantaneous stress due to impact

Let, A = Cross – sectional area of the beam

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 4

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 5

2.7 Impact & Torsion

2.8 Effect of Inertia

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 6

Assume E = 206.8 × 103N/mm2

2.5 103  2  50  206.8 103  A 

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 7

1000  2 10  207 103  A 

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 8

Maximum instantaneous stress,

20 103  2  30  206 103  706.86 

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 9

4.444 105 b3  1  1  1.9074 104 b4

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 10

6. A machine member can be considered as a simply supported beam of 1m length. Cross-

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 11

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 12

1.963 104 d 3  1  1  1.164 103 d 4

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 13

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 14

1.433 103 b3  1  1  5.644 103 b4

Impact stress due to bending,

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 15

Impact Stress  max  max  l

W  2  20  200 103  500 

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 16

1010 2.2 106

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 17

Given: - W = 2kN; h = 2mm; d = 30mm; l = 500mm; E = 200GPa; γ = 78kN/m3

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 18

v) Considering inertia of the bar:

From Table 3.2 (DDHB), for longitudinal impact on bar,

2.9 Resilience and Toughness

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 19

Equating impact energy to resilience,

∴ Impact stress,  max  184.33 N / mm 2

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 20

Equating impact energy to resilience,

∴ Impact stress,  max  116.58 N / mm 2

Type of Load Impact Stress Impact Deflection Remarks

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 21

Questions from university Q.P.:

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 22

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 23

1.2 Classifications of Machine Design

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 1

1.3 Phases of Design Process or General Procedure

i) Recognition of need: - First of all, make a complete statement of the problem,

Design of Machine Elements - I Page 2