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where ni is the intrinsic concentration (the number of hole-electron pairs per cubic
meter)
Page 1 of 14
Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen
Volt-ampere characteristics
The forward and reverse diode characteristics are shown below:
Page 2 of 14
Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen
Temperature Effects
Page 3 of 14
Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen
Diffusion Capacitance ( CD )
but
Page 4 of 14
Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen
Common-emitter characteristics
Active region
In case of npn device, in order for the transistor to be biased in the forward-active
mode, the B–C junction must be zero or reverse biased, which means that VCE must
be greater than approximately VBE(on).
At low values of VCE (lower than about 0.3 V), as the collector voltage goes below
that of the base by more than 0.4 V, the collector–base junction becomes forward
biased and the transistor leaves the active mode and enters the saturation mode.
Page 5 of 14
Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen
The curves are theoretically linear with respect to the VCE in the forward-active
mode.
The slope in these characteristics is due to an effect called base-width modulation
The phenomenon is generally called the Early effect. When the curves are
extrapolated to zero current, they meet at a point on the negative voltage axis, at
VCE = −VA. The voltage VA is a positive quantity called the Early voltage.
base-width modulation
For a given value of VBE in an npn transistor, if VCE increases, the reverse-bias
voltage on the collector–base junction increases, which means that the width of the
B–C space-charge region also increases. This in turn reduces the neutral base width
W. A decrease in the base width causes the gradient in the minority carrier
concentration to increase, which increases the diffusion current through the base.
The collector current then increases as the VCE voltage increases.
As VCE ↑, Base width ↓, recombination in the base ↓, 𝜶 ↑, IC↑
VA: Early Voltage, determine the slope of IC Vs VCE for agiven VBE and hence
determine the value of the resistance associated with collector controlled source.
Page 6 of 14
Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen
The linear dependence of iC versus vCE in the forward-active mode can be described
by
Hence, the nonzero slope of the curves indicates that the output resistance ro
looking into the collector is finite. This output resistance is determined from
where IC is the quiescent collector current when VBE is a constant and VCE is small
compared to VA.
Page 7 of 14
Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen
The elements of the small signal model are function of the quiescent voltages and
currents established by the bias.
Transconductance
at Vce=0
Page 8 of 14
Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen
Generally, βdc=β
at a fixed VCE
Typical values of βo are close to those of βF
In saturation hFE → 0, because ∆IC→ 0 for a change ∆IB
Input Resistance
The small-signal input resistance seen by vbe, is given by
Thus, the small-signal input shunt resistance of a bipolar transistor depends on the
current gain and is inversely proportional to IC
Page 9 of 14
Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen
In active region, we see that the Early effect collector current does vary with VCE
due to .
Collector-Base Resistance rμ
The element rμ is the reverse-biased diffusion resistance of the base–collector
junction. This resistance can normally be neglected (an open circuit).
Page 10 of 14
Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen
However, the resistance does provide some feedback between the output and input,
meaning that the base current is a slight function of the collector–emitter voltage.
The parameter rb is the series resistance of the semiconductor material between the
external base terminal B and an idealized internal base region B’.
Typically, rb is a few tens of ohms and is usually much smaller than rπ ; therefore,
rb is normally negligible (a short circuit) at low frequencies.
However, at high frequencies, rb may not be negligible, since the input impedance
becomes capacitive.
Note: In this Course, when we use the hybrid-π equivalent circuit model, we will
neglect both rb and rμ, unless they are specifically included. The equivalent circuit
will be:
Page 11 of 14
Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen
One common equivalent circuit model for bipolar transistor uses the h-parameters,
which relate the small-signal terminal currents and voltages of a two port network.
Page 12 of 14
Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen
Page 13 of 14
Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen
Page 14 of 14