Rasa Theory - Indian Aesthetics (400 words) –

The word Rasa is originated from Sanskrit, which means "taste or flavor", but it is used to
describe the emotions that an art embodies and the perceiver experiences. The Natyashastra
(the Textbook on Drama), written by Bharata Muni, is a major text that deals with Rasa's
emotional theory. Drama, according to Bharata, had a divine origin and it was regarded as such
in the fifth Veda. The Natyashastra is primarily concerned with theatrical, dance, and musical
performance. According to the Natyashastra, the main objective of dance, theatre, ritual, and
poetry is catalytic in the sense that aesthetic performance should elicit an emotion that is
already present in audience members. Interactions between an active observer and the art
provide communication that transcends the constraints of language. The aesthetics of the art is
created by the receiver's inward abstraction while experiencing the art itself. Hence, the theory
of rasa is also known as Indian aesthetics. According to Bharat Muni, there are nine rasas that
could be found in any form of art, including drama, music, dance, and literature.
Pleasure, happiness, enjoyment, wrath, disgust, grief, fear, and astonishment are all
primary human feelings that can manifest in various forms. According to Bharat Muni, the nine
rasas are Shringara (love/beauty), Hasya (laughter), Karuna (sorrow), Raudra (anger), Veera
(heroism/courage), Bhayanaka (terror/fear), Bibhatsa (disgust), Adbutha (surprise/wonder)
Shantha (peace or tranquility). The Rasa is the fundamental structure of all art. It can
communicate without using sound because every living being is capable of feeling emotions. In
the later years, other rasa were also included, and numerous scholars contributed to the rasa
theory. In the 1000 century, Abhinavgupta brought another depth to the rasa theory by
incorporating it to theater and poetry. Though rasa has been examined by various scholars, its
ultimate meaning can be found in art's inward abstraction.

The Erotic (Sringara Rasa)- (600 words)

Sringara rasa, which is often described as bright and pure, evolved from ratti, the dominated
state of love. In erotic rasa, something pure in nature and pleasant to observe and interact with
is appreciated. It employs the sense that perceives both external and internal beauty. The
bright attire worn while demonstrating Sringara rasa refers to external beautification adorned
with garlands and heavy ornament to beautify one's body. A tender gaze, whether intense or
shy, can denote internal beauty and purity. Sringara rasa has two aspects: union and
separation. It embodies the fullness of youth in both men and women. Separation or
Vipralamba causes strong feelings of love and longing to feel such love from the partner, which
can be reflected in a piece of cloth left by the partner, their smell, sound, or even memory.
Union, also known as Sambhog, refers to a cherishing feeling of togetherness that embraces the
presence of the opposite gender and intimate moments.
Since it has the power to include all other rasas, the sringara rasa is commonly referred to as
the mother of all rasas. Sringara can be the consequence of a mix of several moods, much as
love can express in practically any emotion known to mankind. The sringara rasa (erotic
sentiment) occurs as a result of love (erotic or platonic) and can also be an expression of it.
Sringara can be caused by sex or prayer, and it can even be depicted on stage. “The Erotic
Sentiment comprises conditions available in all other Sentiments,” according to Natya Shastra,
and “all psychological states can make up sringara except for fear, indolence, harshness, and
disgust” (NS 318-31).
Later remarks claim that this sensation has two aspects: one that derives from the uniting of
lovers, and the other that derives from separation. Within sringara, the initial aspect of union is
further separated into two types: the "restrained" type, which is marked by shyness, and the
"perfect" form, which is defined as "the reunion after separation and all the full manifestation
of love". Separation itself includes five types of sringara: the feeling a heroine has before
meeting her beloved one, the longing of lovers who are geographically close but for some
reason are not together, the longing caused by long distance separation, the fourth type being
indignation from an argument, abuse, doubt, or jealousy, and the fifth type being attributed to
a curse, which may result in desire. There is a defined representation for each of these five
categories. A hand gesture representing a flower should be used to express these five varieties
of sringara in order of separation (sola-padma).
The Natya Shastra doesn't go into great length on the feeling's core, just stating that it "is
generally cheerful... connected to the union of man and woman... and has as its basis a bright
outfit for everything in this world is white, pure, bright, and beautiful is praised in terms of...
love" (NS 318, 320). We learn from later researchers' work, such as that found in Comparative
Aesthetics, that sringara refers to a far broader concept than eroticism. Sringara, according to
Bhoja, an eleventh-century philosopher king, is “aesthetic experience at the highest level... the
experience of definite self-consciousness, self-feeling, or ego,” and can only be experienced by
those who have that capability: “Sringara, because of which the various emotions of love, etc.
arise in the aesthete and which, being fully manifested or brought to light.
The necessity that the spectator be able to experience a specific feeling in order for the rasa to
occur corresponds to Bharata Muni's ideal playgoer qualities. The fact that rasa is elicited not
just by what happens on stage, but also by the audience, leads me to believe that it is the result
of a constant mediation between the viewer and the art work. Sringara can be used in a variety
of ways in a performance. Exaggerated and subtle renderings can be found on either end of the
spectrum. Exaggerated facial expressions, expressive body language, make-up, and obnoxious
outfits are used to caricature or represent characters from lower social classes. Rather than the
gods Krishna and Radha, we will encounter amorous demons, antagonists of the main hero or
heroine, or shepherds in the woods. It's vital to understand that not every artistic device aims
for rasa, even if a combination of them may produce one for a specific spectator. On the subtle
side, the facial expressions will consist of glances without brow or lip movement, arms will be
closer to the body, clothing will be in hues of celestial white and blue, and the overall
performance will be of a slightly more elusive and elegant style.

NS – Puspendra Kumara Śarma, Abhinavagupta Fl., and Manomohana Ghosa. Nāṭyaśāstram =

Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharatamuni. Rev. & Enl. 2nd ed. Delhi: New Bharatiya Book, 2010.

Review- “From sexual objectification to sexual subjectification: the resexualisation of

women's bodies in the media” by Rosalind Gill- 500 words

Rosalind Gill in her paper- 'From Sexual Objectification to Sexual Subjectification: The
Resexualisation of Women's Bodies in the Media argues that sexual objectification of females
has existed and continues to exist in the modern era, but the context has shifted from what it
was heretofore. It has survived in society through the modern trends and time-honored
traditions. It may be difficult to find if not carefully observed, as is evident with the widely held
belief that "women can have it all," despite the fact that the status of women has shifted in
form but remains the same in social context. We are led to believe that women are doing better
than ever before, when in fact, gender roles and stereotypes continue to dominate in all
aspects of life. The concept of sexual autonomy and context underpins the modern definition of
femininity. A woman who believes she has complete control over her body and is free to use it
however she sees fit, despite the fact that the ways in which she uses it are dictated by trends
and social expectations of a modern woman.
So, what is the shift that Gill is talking about? Is it an optimistic turn, a shift away from passive
centricification, an acceptance of the assertive liberated topic of the feminist imaginary? While
it is true that the sexually subjectified of women can been seen in contemporary culture, but
not all women are put to the same subjectification. Older women, heavier women, wrinkled
women, and so on are never given sexual subjecthood and are still subjected to derogatory
depictions. When compared to Naomi Wolf's polarisation of 'beauty and oppression,' it explains
how the societal expectation of beauty torments women's body image and affects their mental
health. They are forced to look a certain way in order to be considered beautiful and
appreciated by society. This pressure is often visible when women prefer to have facial
surgeries to correct features to conform to societal expectations of an ideal woman. The
concept of perfect beauty has persisted in society for a long time and continues to have a
strong influence on women, both directly and indirectly.
In older times women dressed to please men wearing tight corsets and heavy head gears
accentuate their bodies, acting on completely docile subjects. This representational practise
promises women power by transforming them into objects of desire. In this way, women
actively chose to become objects of sexual desire. It was upheld as a notion of a pleasant,
confident, and active woman in society rather than something imposed on them. The societal
expectation of women to please men's eyes laid the groundwork for this objectification. Critics
make it even more difficult to distinguish between a confident woman and a subject of a man's
desire. It may appear that the it is made prevalent among women rather than something done
to women by men. Modern women are still expected to be free-spirited and to have autonomy
over their bodies which brings this shift from objectification to sexual subjection of female.

Theory of representation of women in films- 1000 words

Gender as a barrier to sexual difference, as well as the critique of repetition and spectatorship,
remained central to feminist writings in the 1960s and 1970s. For feminist studies in formal and
abstract knowledge defined fields, the reestablishment of a woman's image was done on the
basis of gender emerging as sexual difference. Women Studies, feminist journals, and media
collectives moved with the idea that sexual difference could not be recognised or affirmed, but
the notion persisted for decades, limiting the scope of feminist thoughts.
Annette Frieda Kuhn, feminist researcher and author in her paper “Three Case Studies”, deals
with issues of female spectatorship, "the woman’s film” of 1930s and 1940s, and femininity as
masquerade. She grapples with the confusion of spectatrix questions, which has historically
been analyzed through psychoanalytic and sociological methodologies. Kuhn concludes that the
move towards cultural studies, and away from both psychoanalysis and the text, was so
precipitous that important aspects of a pleasurable cinematic identification became obscured.
Yet cultural studies—which asserts “we set up as the saviour” opened the way to consider the
issue of reading competencies, which Khun uses to discuss melodrama and the women’s
picture. She then looks at the debates about femininity as masquerade and performance, which
addresses Joan Riviere’s work as it has been taken up by Claire Johnston and Marry Ann Doane
as well as Kuhn herself, Gayln Studlar, Judith Butler, and Jane Gaines.
The patriarchal ideology persists in 1998 when women were portrayed in specific roles that
conform to socio-cultural norms, and a framework of which they are so much a part, it became
difficult for them to separate themselves from that framework and view such representations
differently, or even question such representations. Most films are based on the primitive
ideologies about women's roles as nurturer. Despite the fact that women are given modern
roles, the "new narratives and strategies of representation" create an irreconcilable conflict
between full emancipation of women and indigenous social and cultural norms and practices.
Certain patterns exist in society and are represented in films; these patterns are then reinforced
by other media, and the cycle continues indefinitely.

E. Ann Kaplan mentions in her book "Feminism and Film," in postmodern American life, we can
continue to intervene effectively within contemporary cultural and sexual politics. Teresa de
Lauretis, Mary Ann Doane, Claire Johnston, Judith Mayne, Tania Modleski, Laura Mulvey, Kaja
Silverman, and Linda Williams are among the theorists who have discussed the female spectator in
ways she has found particularly useful. The general topics of spectatorship, sexual difference, and
subjectivity became the centre of feminist attention in the later years of 1980s. In the area of
television theory and criticism, there are again numerous critics whose analyses are crucial to
the field, but Ann's work probably benefits most from the scholars who have analyzed TV soap
opera and melodrama: Robert Allen, Jeremy Butler, Charlotte Brunsdon, Jane Feuer, Sandy
Flitterman-Lewis, Annette Kuhn, Tania Modleski, Ellen Seiter and so on.
The work that comes out of the tradition of British Cultural Studies interesting for the ways in
which it attempts to mediate between theories of subjectivity and empirical analyses of viewer-
consumers. The analyses of postmodernism and cultural criticism central to the study,
including the work of Donna Haraway, Andreas Huyssen, Fredric Jameson, Alice Jardine, E. Ann
Kaplan, Patricia Mellencamp, Meaghan Morris, Dana Polan and Mimi White, which deals with
the impertinent balance of gender roles portrayed in the films and its influence on society.
Stargazing: Hollywood Cinema and Female Spectatorship by Jackie Stacey (1993) is an in-depth
examination of cultural criticism in spectatorship. Stacey discusses the consumer culture
prevalent in feminist film studies, which she criticises as textual focused and depicting a less
harsh reality. Stacey questions the transformation of female spectatorship (p. 9) and females'
tendencies toward Hollywood stars, both of which have been overlooked in feminist film
studies. The influence of female Hollywood stars had a significant impact on female ideas. This
idea is greatly influenced by socially constructed identities. Stacey makes the observation that
going to the movies was an escape from the domestic household during wartime in Britain, that
it represented a false reality of "happy covers" depicted by Hollywood stars and glamour the
picture of luxurious and overly feminised environment of the cinema when in fact they had to
return to an entirely opposite reality afterwards (p. 111)
In giving the same historical account, she emphasises the differences rather than the similarities
in feminist films, which she refers to as "extracinematic indemnificatory practises" (p.159).
Imitation has also become a common tendency in people, whether it relates to trends, fashion,
clothing, or makeup, as Stacey argues, which shifts the spectator relationship to emphasize
commonalities and luxurious lifestyle.

Hinduism and eroticism- Its representation in Hindi films and how women’s images are
constructed via these ideologies- Refer to Wendy Doniger – 500 words

"The Hindus An Alternative History" by Wendy Doniger discusses the close link female sexuality and
erotism have a with the early periods of Hinduism. The extent of the Arthasastra's (the politics
textbook) and its impact on the Kamasutra's treatise on sexuality is astounding, as seen by the
high prevalence of distrust, betrayal, and force in female sexual relationships. Doniger observes
the Kamasutra's following influence on not only India's erotic literary traditions, but also the
eroticism of the Bengali bhakti tradition, accounts in part for the tradition's darkness, with its
emphasis on divine abandonment, betrayal, and even violence.

For documents from the ancient period to the current day reveal two starkly opposing attitudes
on women says Doniger while reflecting on the meaning of ancient text in present context.(p.
22) The dharmashastras, which insisted on the control and denigration of women, dominated
traditional and legal attitudes about women, but the Kamasutra tradition, with its far more
liberal and complex appreciation of women, was always valued by royal and upper-class
merchant society. The Kautilyan Kamasutra tradition contributed significantly to the culture of
violence against women by combining with other variables in the Hindu social structure that led
to a more widespread devaluation of women.

The two texts do not give rise to the Indian version of the widely held belief that sex is limited
to bodily pleasures. It is clearly documented in ancient India in the Mahabharata and
Ramayana, centuries before the period in issue, and it continues to dominate Hindu dharma's
sexist traditions to this day. Both the Kamasutra and the Arthashastra may be responding to a
society in which spying and violence are already firmly associated with sex, or the Kamasutra
may have inherited these components from the Arthashastra. In any case, from then on, sex
and violence are inextricably linked.

A conflict in which the two parties try to deceive and outmanoeuvre one another; an encounter
that necessitates ambassadors and truces; a battle in which the combatants conceal or display
the wounds they get (from bites, slaps, and scratches)—these major themes of Indian erotic
fiction owe as much to the ancient knowledge of seeking pleasure and using to deception to
woe lover. The Kautilyan Kamasutra had a significant impact on India's sexual literary traditions,
particularly but not only court poetry, which reveled in the plight of the abandoned heroine,
catastrophes caused by negligent or lustful messengers, deceptions, and betrayals. With its
emphasis on divine abandonment, deception, betrayal, and even physical violence, the poem
had a less evident but more important part in the eroticism of the bhakti tradition, Hinduism's
devotional tradition. All of this can be seen in the Kautilyan Kamasutra, which had a significant
influence on how Indian culture formed its distinctive conception of sex politics.

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