CHAPTER 1

1. Matrices And Determinants

1.1. Definition of a Matrix, Types of matrix and Basic Operations
1.1.1 Definition of a Matrix
Definition 1.1: A matrix is any rectangular array of real numbers or variables of the form

[ ]

The numbers or the variables in the matrix are called entries or elements of the matrix. If a matrix has
rows and columns then we way that its size is by ( ) matrix. An matrix is called a
square matrix or a matrix of order . A matrix is simply a real number. Matrices will be denoted
by capital bold-faced letters A, B, etc, or by or .

Example1.1: if A= * + B= [ ]
√
Then A is a matrix while B is a square matrix or a matrix of order . The entry in the th
th
row and column of an matrix A is written . For an square matrix, the entries ,
, , …, are called the main diagonal elements. The main diagonal entries for the matrix B
are 3, 8 and 9.
Definition 1.2: Column and Row Vectors

An matrix [ ] is called a column vector and a matrix [ ] is called

a row vector.

1.1.2 Types of Matrices

There are certain types of matrices that are so important that they have acquired names of their own.
The following are a list of some of these matrices.
 Zero matrix: A matrix that consists of all zero entries is called a zero matrix and is denoted by 0.

Example1.2: 0= [ ] 0= * + 0= * + are zero matrices.

1
 Square matrix: A matrix A is said to be a square matrix if it has the same number of rows and
columns. If A has n-rows and n-columns, we call it a square matrix of size n.

 Identity Matrix: A square matrix A = [ ] is called an identity matrix if

={ and it is denoted by .

Example1.3: * + is identity matrix of size 2, * + is identity matrix of size3.

 Diagonal Matrix: An matrix is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its entries not on the
main diagonal are zero. A square matrix D = [ ] is said to be diagonal if = 0
whenever .
Example1.4: consider the following

* + is a diagonal matrix of size 2, * + is a diagonal matrix of size 3

* + is a diagonal matrix of size 3 * + is a diagonal matrix of size 3

 Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix in which all diagonal entries are equal is called a scalar matrix.

Example1.5: * +, * + and * + are all scalar matrices.

 Triangular matrix: An matrix A is said to be a triangular matrix if all its entries below the
main diagonal are zero or if all its entries above the main diagonal are zero. A square matrix A =
[ ] is said to be lower triangular if and only if = 0 whenever . A is said to be
upper triangular if and only if = 0 whenever .

Example1.6: * +, * + and * + are upper triangular matrices

* + , * + and * + are lower triangular matrices.

1.1.3 Operations on Matrices

Definition (Equality of Matrices): Two matrices A and B are equal iff for each
and .
In other words, two matrices are equal if and only if they have the same size and their corresponding
entries are equal.

2
  Matrix Addition
Definition 1.4: Let A =[ ] and B = [ ] be two matrices of the same size. Then the sum
of A and B, denoted by A + B, is the matrix defined by the formula
[ ]

The sum of two matrices of different sizes is undefined.

Example 1.7: For the given matrices A and B compute A + B.

A= * + B= * +

Solution: A+B=* + * + [ ] * +

 Scalar Multiplication
Definition 1.5 (Scalar Multiplication): Let A = [ ] be an matrix, and α a scalar. Then the
product of the scalar α with matrix A, denoted by is defined by
[ ]

Example 1.8. Given the matrices A and B, compute 3A and A + (−1)B.

A= * + B=* +

Solution: * + [ ] * +.

* + * + * + * + * +.

Properties of Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Suppose A, B, and C are matrices and and are scalars. Then
i. A + B = B + A (Commutative law of addition)
ii. (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (Associative law of addition)
iii. A +0 = A (Additive Identity law) vi. (α + β)A = αA + βA
iv. A + (−A) = 0. (Additive inverse) vii. (αβ)A =α(βA)
v. α(A + B) = αA + αB viii. 1A = A

3
Definition 1.6 (Transpose of Matrix): Let A = [ ] be an matrix. Then by the transpose of
th th
A we mean the matrix, denoted by , whose entry is the entry of A. More
precisely, if [ ] , then =[ ] . That is,

[ ], then =[ ]

Example 1.9: Compute the transposes of the following matrices.

A= * + B= [ ]

Solution: First let us consider matrix A. Now, row1 of matrix A becomes column1of , and row2 of
A becomes column 2 of , Thus, we have

* + Similarly, * +

Properties of Transpose of Matrix

When the relevant sums and products are defined, and α is a scalar. Then

i. iii.

ii. = iv.
Definition 1.7: A square matrix A is said to be

i. Symmetric if

ii. Skew-symmetric if =–

Example 1.20: a) The matrix * + is symmetric

b) The matrix * + is skew-symmetric

 Multiplication of Matrix
Definition 1.8 (Matrix Multiplication): Let [ ] and [ ] be two matrices.

4
 th
Then the product of A and B, denoted by , is an matrix whose entry is defined by the
formula

[ ] ∑

In the other words, the -th entry of the product is obtained by summing the products of the
elements in the th row of with corresponding elements in the th column of .
If A has rows , and B has columns , then the product AB can be given
by the formula

[ ]

That is, the th entry of AB is .

Remark:
a. The product of two matrices and is defined only if the number of columns in and the
number of rows in are equal.
b. Matrix multiplication is not commutative.

Example 1.21: If * + and [ ]

Then * + * +

We note here that the size of A is and the size of B is consequently the size of AB is
.
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
Assume all products and addition is defined. Let A, B, C be Matrices. Then
i.
ii. , where α is a scalar.
iii.

Activity: Let * +. Find and .

5
1.2. Elementary row operations and echelon form
Elementary Row Operations (EROs) represent the legal moves that allow us to write a sequence of
row-equivalent matrices (corresponding to equivalent systems) until we obtain one whose
corresponding solution set is easy to find. There are three types of EROs.
Definition 1.9 (Elementary Row Operations): Let A be an matrix and α is a nonzero scalar.
The following are known as elementary row operations.
1. Interchanging two rows: .(Rule of Interchanging)

2. Multiplying a row by a nonzero scalar: . (Rule of Scaling)

3. Adding a multiple of one row to another: . (Rule of Replacement)

Example 1.22. Use elementary row operations to transform the given matrix A into, (a) an upper
triangular matrix, (b) an identity matrix.

* +

Solution: Consider the given matrix A:

(a) First let us transform the matrix A into an upper triangular. This can be done as follows:

* + ( ) * + (Scaling )

* +(Replacing and )

* +(Replacing )

Hence, the matrix* +is an upper triangular, which is obtained from A by elementary row

operations.
(b) To transform the matrix A into a diagonal matrix, we simply change all the entries above the main
diagonal into zeros and the entries in the main diagonal into 1. Let us denote the above upper
triangular matrix by B. Then we have

* + ( ) * + (Scaling )

* +(Replacing and )

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 * + (Replacing )

Thus, * + is the identity matrix obtained from A.

N.B. Two matrices are said to be raw equivalent if one can be obtained from the other by a sequence
of elementary row operations.

From the above example 1.22 A is row equivalent to both B and the identity matrix . Also the
matrix B is row equivalent to the identity matrix .

1.2.1 Row Echelon Form and Reduced Row Echelon Form of a Matrix
In order to find the rank, or to compute the inverse of a matrix, or to solve a linear system, we usually
write the matrix either in its row echelon form or reduced row echelon form.

Definition1.20. An matrix is said to be in echelon form (or row echelon form) if the following
conditions are satisfied:
1. All nonzero rows are above any rows of all zeros.
2. Each leading entry of a row is in a column to the right of the leading entry of the row above it.
(A leading entry refers to the left most nonzero entry in a nonzero row)
3. All entries in a column below a leading entry are zeros.
If a matrix in row echelon form satisfies the following additional conditions, then it is in reduced
echelon form (or reduced row echelon form)
4. The leading entry in each nonzero row is 1.
5. Each leading 1 is the only nonzero entry in its column.
A matrix in row echelon form is said to be in reduced row echelon when every column that has a
leading 1 has zeros in every position above and below the leading entry.
Example 1.23: The given matrices A, B, C, D are in row echelon form

* +, * +, [ ] , * +

and the following are in reduced row echelon form.

* +, * +, [ ] , * +

Remark: Each matrix is row equivalent to one and only one reduced echelon matrix.

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Definition 1.21. A pivot position in a matrix A is a location in A that corresponds to a leading 1 in the
reduced row echelon form of A. A pivot column is a column of A that contains a pivot position. A pivot
element is a nonzero number in a pivot position that is used as needed to create zeros via row
operations.

To write a matrix in reduced echelon form:

1. Begin with the leftmost nonzero column. This is a pivot column. The pivot position is at the top.
2. Select a nonzero entry in the pivot column as a pivot. If necessary, interchange rows to move this
entry into the pivot position.
3. Use row replacement operations to create zeros in all positions below the pivot.
4. Cover (or ignore) the row containing the pivot position and cover all rows, if any, above it. Apply
steps 1-3 to the sub-matrix that remains. Repeat the process until there are no more nonzero rows
to modify.
5. Beginning with the right most pivot column and working upward and to the left, create zeros above
each pivot. If a pivot is not 1, make it 1 by a scaling operation.
Exercise 1.1:
1. Determine which matrices are in reduced row echelon form.

* + * + [ ]

2. Give the row echelon form and also the reduced row echelon form of the following matrices.

[ ] * +, * +

1.2.2 Rank of matrix using elementary row operations

The ranks of matrices are useful in determining the number of solutions for linear systems.
Definition 1.22 (Rank of Matrix): Rank of an matrix A, denoted by , is the number
of nonzero rows of the reduced row echelon form of A.
Example 1.23. Determine the ranks of the following matrices.

* +, * +, * +

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Solution: After a sequence of elementary row operations, we obtain the reduced echelon form of A is

* + and the reduced echelon form of B is, * +. Hence, by definition we have

, similarly, but clearly, the matrix C is in reduced row echelon form and
.
Remark፡ The matrix A and its transpose have the same rank. That is

1.3. Inverse of a matrix and its properties

Definition 1.23: An matrix A is said to be nonsingular or invertible if there exists a matrix B
such that . The matrix B is said to be the multiplicative inverse of A.
NB: An invertible matrix has a unique inverse.
Example 1.24: Show that the matrix B is the inverse of matrix A if

* + and * +

Solution: Observe that

* +* += * + and

* +* += * +

Thus = , which shows matrix B is the inverse of A.

Remark:
i. Inverse of a matrix is only defined for square matrices.
ii. A matrix may not be invertible even if it is square matrix.

Definition 1.25 An matrix is said to be singular if it does not have a multiplicative inverse.

Notation: Let A be an invertible matrix. We denote its inverse by .

Gauss-Jordan Elimination for finding the inverse of a matrix

Let A be an matrix.

1. Adjoin the identity matrix to A to form the augmented matrix

2. Compute the reduced echelon form of .

9
If the reduced echelon form is of the type , then B is the inverse of A. If the reduced echelon
form is not of the type , in that the first submatrix is not , then A has no inverse.

Example1.25: Determine the inverse of the matrix

* +

Solution: Applying the method of Gauss-Jordan Elimination, we get

( | )

( | )

( | )

( | +

( | )

( | )

Thus * +

Remark: While applying elementary row operation; if the matrix is not transformed to identity matrix
of the same order then the matrix is not invertible.
Exercise 1.2: Determine whether the matrix A has inverse or not and find the inverse if it exists

( )

Properties of Inverse Matrices

Let A and B be invertible matrices and a nonzero scalar. Then

a) d.

10
 b) e.

c)
1.4. Determinants and its properties
The determinant is a function that takes a square matrix as an input and produces a scalar as an output.
It has many beneficial properties for studying, matrices and systems of equations.

Definition 1.26 (Determinant of matrix). The determinant of a matrix * +,

denoted by or | | is defined by the formula | | .

Example 1.26: Find the determinant of a matrix * +.

Solution: Using Definition, the determinant of matrix A is given by

| | .

Definition 1.27 (Determinant of Matrix): Let [ ] be a matrix, and

th th
(for ) be the submatrix of obtained by deleting the -raw and the -column
of . Then determinant of A is denoted by or| |, and is defined as:

| | | | | | | |

| | | | | |

Example 1.27: Compute the determinant of a matrix [ ]

Solution: The determinant is given by

| | | | | | | | | |

( )

We will now define sub matrix of a matrix, cofactor and minor of a matrix. This enables to set the
general formula for determinant of a square matrix of n rows and n columns.

Definition 1.28: Let be an matrix, with . Then the sub matrix of of A

th
denoted by is the matrix obtained by deleting all entries of the row and all
th
entries of the column of A.

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Definition 1.29 (Minors and Cofactors):
a) The minor for A at location , denoted by , is the determinant of the submatrix .
That is, .

b) The cofactor, denoted by , for A at location is the signed determinant of the

submatrix . That is, .

Remark: The cofactor at location can be computed using the following formula:

( )
,
( )

Example 1.28: Compute the matrix of cofactors for the given matrix.

a) * + b) [ ]

Solution: (a) The minors of are

, ,

and cofactors are

Thus, the matrix of cofactors for A is [ ] * +

b) The minors of B are

| | , | | | |

| | , | | | |

| | , | | | |

and cofactors are

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 ,

Thus, the matrix of cofactors for B is [ ] [ ]

Definition 1.30 (Determinants of Matrix): The determinant of a square matrix [ ] of

size , denoted by ) | | , is defined recursively as follows: if then
; otherwise, we suppose that determinants are defined for all square matrices of size less than and
specify that

Where is the -th cofactor of A. This formula is called a cofactor expansion across the 1st
column of A.

Example 1.29: Compute the determinant of matrix [ ]

a) By expanding the cofactors across the 1st row.

b) By expanding the cofactors across the 1st column.

Solution: We have the matrix of cofactors , given by

[ ] [ ]

(a) Now, expanding the cofactors across the 1st row, we have

(b) Similarly, expanding the cofactors across the 1st column

13
Theorem 1.1: The determinant of an matrix A can be computed by cofactor expansion across
th
any row or any column. The expansion across row is

| | | | | |

and the expansion across column is

| | | | | |

Remark: The computation of determinants becomes easier by expanding the cofactors across a row or
column with the most zero entries.

Properties of determinants
Let A be the square matrix of size n.
1. A matrix having zero rows or columns has a zero determinant. That is, if A has a zero row (or
column), then | |=0.
2. If B is formed from A by multiplying th
row (or column) by scalar , then | | | |.
3. If two rows (or columns) of A are the same, then | |=0.
4. If B is obtained from A by interchanging any two rows (two columns), then | | | |.
5. If one row (or column) is a scalar multiple of another row (or column), then | | .
6. If A and B have the same size, then | | | || |.
7. If B is formed from A by adding times row (or column) to row (or column) . Then | | | |.

8. | | | |.

9. If = , then | | | |.
10. The determinants of the triangular and diagonal matrices are simply the products of the entries in
the main diagonal.
11. If B is obtained from A by adding scalar multiple of one row (or column) to the other, then | |
| |.

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1.5. Determinant Method of Finding Inverse Matrices
In this section, we first introduce tools necessary for developing a formula for the inverse of a
nonsingular matrix.

Definition 1.31 (Adjoint of a Matrix): Let A be an matrix. If [ ] denotes the matrix of

cofactors for A, then the adjugate (or adjoint) matrix of A, denoted by , is defined by the
formula

[ ]

That is, adjoint of matrix A is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors for A.
Example 1.30: Compute the adjoint of the matrix

* +

Solution: The matrix of cofactors for A are

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

The matrix of cofactors for A is

[ ] [ ]

Thus, the adjoint of matrix A is

[ ] [ ]

Theorem 1.2: Let A be an square matrix. If A is invertible (nonsingular) then

and the inverse is given by the formula

Example 1.31: Compute the inverse of the given matrix A.

* +

15
Solution: We have, | |

[ ] [ ], and [ ]

Therefore, by the above Theorem, we have

[ ] [ ] [ ]

Exercise 1.3:
1. Compute the inverse of the given matrix

[ ] [ ]

2. Find the values of for which the matrix [ ]is

invertible. And compute .

1.6. System of linear equations and characterization of solutions

A linear equation is an equation involving one or more variables in which only the operations of
multiplication by real numbers and summing of terms are allowed. When several linear equations
involving the same variables are considered together, we have a system of linear equations.

Definition 1.32: A system of (simultaneous) linear equations in variables is a set

of equations of the form

Matrix Form of a Linear System

From the definition of matrix multiplication, we see that the -equations of the above system of
equation may be written as a single vector equation where

[ ] [ ] and [ ]

16
are known as the coefficient matrix, the column vector of unknowns and the column vector of
numbers, respectively. We assume that the coefficients are not all zero, so that A is not a zero
matrix. Note that has components, whereas has components.

The augmented matrix for the system is obtained by adjoining to as the last column. Thus the
augmented matrix which represents the system is given by

| ( | ,

Remark: If then the system is called homogenous system of equations;

otherwise it is non-homogenous system.
Solution of system of Linear equations: There are three possibilities for the size of the solution set of
system of linear equations:

1) It admits a unique Solution: There is one and only one vector that
satisfies all the -equations simultaneously (the system is consistent).

2) It has infinitely Many Solutions: There are infinitely many different values of that satisfy all
the -equations simultaneously (the system is said to be consistent).

3) Has no Solution: There is no vector that satisfies all equations simultaneously, or the solution
set is empty (the system is said to be inconsistent).

Remark: For Homogenous system of equation , is called the trivial solution. Any other
solution of a homogeneous system is called a nontrivial solution.

The two methods for finding the complete solution set for a given linear system are Gaussian
elimination and the Cramer’s rule.

1.6.1. Gaussian Elimination

Gaussian elimination, also known as row reduction, is used for solving a system of linear equations.
The Gaussian Elimination method involves the following steps:
1) Write down the augmented matrix of the system of linear equations.
2) Find an echelon form of the augmented matrix using elementary row operations.
3) Write down the system of equations corresponding to the echelon form.
4) Use back substitution to arrive at the solution.
Example 1.32: Solve the given linear system by using the method of Gaussian elimination

17
Solution: The augmented matrix of the given system is

| ( | +

Applying the following elementary row operations:

(Replacing and )

( | +

(Replacing )

( | +

The last matrix is in row echelon form, and hence the row equivalent system is given by

The system is now solved by back substitution and hence the only solution of the above system (in
row echelon form) is , which is also a solution for the original system.

Theorem 1.3: Consider the system of linear equations {

If and are the matrices of coefficients and the column vector of numbers, respectively

(i.e. ). Then the following statements are true.

i. If [ | ] = number of unknowns, then the linear system has only one

solution.

ii. If [ | ] number of unknowns, then the linear system has infinitely many
solutions.

iii. If [ | ] , then the linear system has no solution.

18
Remark.

a) From the Theorem above, we observe that the linear system has no solution if an echelon form of
the augmented matrix has a row of the form [ ] with nonzero.

b) A linear system has unique solution when there are no free variable, and it has infinitely many
solutions when there is at least one free variable.

Exercise 1.4
1. Use matrix rank to determine the number of solutions for the system.

2. Solve the following linear systems using the method of Gaussian elimination.

3. Determine the value of k so that the following system of unknown has a

unique solution, no solution, an infinite number of solutions.

1.6.2. Cramer’s rule

Cramer’s Rule is a method for solving linear systems where the number of equations and the number
of unknowns are equal. Cramer’s rule relies on determinants.

Theorem 1.4. (Cramer’s Rule). Let A be an nonsingular matrix and let . Let be
the matrix obtained by replacing the -th column of by . If is the unique solution to , then
| |
| |
The next theorem characterizes the solution of a system of equations using the determinant of the
coefficient matrix and the matrix defined in Cramer’s rule above.

Theorem 1.5: Let be a system of linear equations in variables.

19
 i) If | | , then has a unique solution. In this case if then the system has
a trivial solution

ii) If | | and at least one of the ’s is non zero then the system has no solution.

iii) If | | and | | then the system may have an infinite

number of solutions.
Example 1.33: Use Cramer’s rule to solve the system of linear equations.

Solution: Here, the coefficient matrix A and the column vector b, respectively, are

[ ] [ ]

1st calculate

| | | |

Now we can determine by substituting b in to column 1 of the matrix and applying the theorem of
Cramer’s rule:

| |
| |
| |
Similarly,

| |
| |
| |

| |
| |
| |

20
Exercise 1.5: Solve the following linear systems using Cramer’s rule (if possible).

21
 CHAPTER 2

2 Limits and Continuity

2.1 Definition of Limits

Definition: Let be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number , except
possibly at itself. Then we say that the limit of as approaches is , and we write

if we can make the values of arbitrarily close to (as close to L as we like) by taking to be
sufficiently close to (on either side of ) but not equal to .

 Roughly speaking, this says that the values of get closer and closer to the number as
gets closer and closer to the number (from either side of ) but .
 An alternative notation for which is usually
read “ approaches as approaches ’’.
 Notice the phrase “but ” in the definition of limit. This means that in finding the limit of
as approaches , we never consider . In fact, need not even be defined
when . The only thing that matters is how is defined near .
2.2 Basic Limit Theorems

Limit Laws: Suppose that is a constant and the limits

Then
[ ]

[ ]

[ ]

[ ]

22
 [ ] * +

√ √

Direct Substitution Property: If is a polynomial or a rational function and is in the domain of ,

then

 Functions with the Direct Substitution Property are called continuous at . However, not all
limits can be evaluated by direct substitution.

Example: Find the value of the following limits

√
( *

Solution:

√ √ √
√

(√ ) (√ )

(√ )

Theorem: If when is near (except possibly at ) and the limits of and both
exist as approaches , then

The Squeeze Theorem: If when is near (except possibly at ) and

.
The Squeeze Theorem is sometimes called the Sandwich Theorem or the Pinching Theorem.

23
Example: show that

Solution: We know that

2.3 One-Sided Limits

Definition:-1. We write and say the left-hand limit of as approaches [

or the limit of as approaches from the left ] is equal to if we can make the values
of arbitrarily close to by taking to be sufficiently close to and less than .
Definition:-2. We write and say the right-hand limit of as approaches
[ or the limit of as approaches from the right ] is equal to if we can make the values
of arbitrarily close to by taking to be sufficiently close to and be greater than .
Theorem:

Example:
1. Show that | | .
| |
2. Prove that does not exist.

Solution: 1. We have | | {

| | | |

Therefore, | |

| |
2.
| | | |

24
 | |
Therefore, does not exist

Exercise: If {√ determine whether exists.

2.4 Infinite Limits and limits at infinity

2.4.1 Infinite Limits:

Definition: Let be a function defined on both sides of , except possibly at itself. Then

means that the values of can be made arbitrarily large (as large as we please) by taking
sufficiently close to , but not equal to .

Definition: Let be defined on both sides of , except possibly at itself. Then

means that the values of can be made arbitrarily large negative by taking sufficiently close to ,
but not equal to .

Similar definitions can be given for the one-sided infinite limits

Illustrations of these four cases are given in Figure 3.1

Figure 3.1
Note that: The line is called a vertical asymptote of the curve if at least one of the
following statements is true:

25
Example: Find

Solution:

Therefore is the vertical asymptote to the graph of the function

2.4.2 Limits at infinity:

Definition: Let be a function defined on some interval . Then we say

if the values of can be made arbitrarily close to by taking sufficiently large.

Definition: If is defined on an interval , then we say

if the values of can be made arbitrarily close to by taking sufficiently large and
negative.

Note that:

 The line is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve if either:

 Most of the usual limit laws hold for infinite limits with replaced by .
 We can also use the squeeze theorem when calculating limits at .

Example: Find the following limits

26
Solution:

Definition: Let be a function defined on some interval . Then we say

if the values of can be made arbitrarily large by taking sufficiently large.

We give similar meaning to the statements

Example: Evaluate

| |

Solution

2.5 Continuity

Definition: A function is continuous at a number if

 Notice that in this definition implicitly requires three things if is continuous at :

1. is defined (that is, is in the domain of )
2. exists
3.
 We say that a function is continuous on the domain if it is continuous at every point
of the set (or domain).

27
Example: Determine whether is continuous or not at .

Where

Solution:

Therefore is not continuous at .

Therefore is continuous at .

Exercise:

1. Determine whether is continuous or not at

| |
{

2. Find the value of and such that is continuous at .

Note that: Let and be continuous at . Then

are also continuous at .

Exercise: Determine whether is continuous at or not.

28
 ,

2.6 The Intermediate Value Theorem and Its Application

Intermediate Value Theorem: Let be a continuous function defined on a closed

interval [ ]. If , then such that .

Example: Determine whether the equation has a root or not on the interval
[ ].

Solution: Let

Since is polynomial function, is continuous on [ ].

Therefore has a root between .

Therefore, is a horizontal asymptote to the graph of the function .

29
 CHAPTER 3
3. Derivative and Application of derivative
3.1 Definition of Derivative
The derivative of a function at a number , denoted by is

if this limit exists.

If we write then and approaches if and only if approaches

Therefore an equivalent way of stating the definition of the derivative, is

Example: Find the derivative of the function at the number

Solution: From definition of derivative, we have

[ ] [ ]

Therefore,
3.2 Tangent and normal lines (Geometric interpretation of derivative as a slope of tangent)
The tangent line to is the line through whose slope is equal to , the
derivative of at
Thus the geometric interpretation of a derivative is shown in the following figure.

30
Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we have the following:

If exists, then an equation of the tangent line to the curve at the point is

Example: Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola at the point
Solution: From the above example,
Therefore, the slope of the tangent line at is

Thus, the equation of the tangent line, shown in the figure is

The derivative as a function

If we replace by in the above definition, we obtain

Example: Find if
Solution:

Differentiable functions
If we use the traditional notation to indicate that the independent variable is and the dependent
variable is , then some common alternative notations for the derivative are as follows:

The symbols and ⁄ are called differentiation operators because they indicate the operation of
differentiation. Which is the process of calculating a derivative?

31
Consider √ and find the derivative of at (1, ∞). Since 1 is the left end point of domain of

we can not apply the definition of derivative her. Thus is evaluated as from the

right of 1 and we call it right- side derivative of , defined by .

The right-side derivative of any function at the point (a, f(a)) is defined by .

Similarly the left-side derivative of at the point (a, f(a)) is defined by .

Example: Find the derivative of = at the point (1, 1).

Solution: the function changes its direction suddenly at the point (1,1), we use left and right side
derivative.

Left side derivative: = = =

= =2

Right side derivative: = = =0

Then the left side derivative 2 and the right side derivative 0 are not equal.
Therefore the derivative of at x = 1 does not exist.

Definition:
i. A function is differentiable on some open interval (a, b) if and only if is
differentiable at every point on (a, b).
ii. A function is differentiable on closed interval [ ] if and only if is differentiable at
every point on (a, b) and and exists.

Example: Compute the derivative of i, √

ii,
Theorem: If is differentiable at , then is continuous at but converse is not true.

For example, the function | | is continuous at 0 but it is not differentiable at 0.

| | but it is not differentiable at 0.

Differentiation Formulas
If is a constant function, then
Example: Find , if
Solution: Given is a constant function. So

32
The Power Rule: If where is a positive integer, then

Example: Find

Solution:

Example: If , find the equation of the tangent to the graph of at the point

Solution: The slope is which we calculate as follows:

Therefore the equation of the tangent at (1, 1) is

3.3 Derivatives of different functions

(a) Derivatives of trigonometric functions

Example: Calculate
Solution:

Example: If then find

Solution:

33
 [ ( * ( *]

Example: Differentiate
Solution: Using the product rule, we have

Example: Differentiate
Solution: By using Quotient rule, we have

[ ]

(b) Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

√ √

√ √

Example: Differentiate
Solution:

√
Example: Differentiate √
Solution:

⁄ √
√ √
√
(c) Derivatives of Exponential Functions

Example: Differentiate
Solution: Let then we have
By Chain Rule, we have

34
Example: Find if
Solution: Given
By using product rule, we have

(d) Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

Example: Differentiate
Solution: Let . Then
By using Chain Rule, we have

Example: Find

Solution: Let then

By using Chain Rule, we have

Example: Find
√

Solution: Let , then

√

By using Chain Rule, we have

[ ]
√
√
⁄
√ (√ ) ⁄

Example: Find if | |.
Solution: Since

It follows that

35
 {

Thus ⁄
Therefore

| |

(e) Derivative of the general exponential function

Example: Find

Solution: By using Chain Rule, we have

(f) Logarithmic Differentiation (Steps in Logarithmic Differentiation)

1. Take logarithms of both sides of an equation

2. Differentiate implicitly with respect to x

3. Solve the resulting equation for

Example: Differentiate √

Solution: Use logarithmic differentiation, we have

√
√ √
√

( * √ ( *
√ √ √
⁄ √
Example: Differentiate
Solution: We take logarithms of both sides of the equation

Differentiating implicitly with respect to gives

Solving for ⁄ we get

36
 ⁄
√
( * ( *

Exercise: Find if , for .

(g) Hyperbolic Functions
Definition of the Hyperbolic Functions

Hyperbolic Identities

Example፡ Prove (a)

Solution

(a) ( )

(b) We know the hyperbolic identity

If we divide both sides by we get

or

(h) Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

37
Example: Prove that
Solution: By definition of the Hyperbolic Function,

( * ( * ( *

Therefore, .
(i) Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Function

√ | |√

√ √

Example: Prove that √

Solution: Let . Then
If we differentiate this equation implicitly with respect to , we get

Since and
we have √ , so

√ √
Example: Find
Solution: By using Inverse Hyperbolic Functions and the Chain Rule, we have

3.4 Chain Rule

If and are both differentiable functions, then

38
Example: Find √
Solution: Let √
Let then √

√ √ √
Example: If where , find at
Solution: Using the Chain Rule, we have
When , so

| .

The Power Rule Combined with the Chain Rule

If is any real number and is differentiable, then

Alternatively,

[ ] [ ]

Example: Differentiate
Solution: Taking and , we have

3.5 Higher order derivatives

If the derivative of a differentiable function is itself differentiable then the derivative of is denoted
by and is called the second derivative of .
As long as we have differentiability, we can continue the process of differentiating derivatives to obtained
third, fourth, fifth order and so on higher derivatives of . The successive derivatives of denoted by

Example: If
Solution:

39
Example: If then find
Solution: Given

and in fact for all .

Example: The equation of motion of a particle is where is measured in
centimeters and in seconds. Find the acceleration as a function of time. What is the acceleration after 2s?
Solution: The velocity and acceleration are

The acceleration after 2 s is

Example: Find
Solution: The first few derivatives of are as follows:

We see that the successive derivative occur in a cycle of length 4 and, in particular,

Therefore,
and, differentiating three more times, we have

3.6 Implicit Differentiation

This consists of differentiating both sides of the relation with respect to x and then solving the resulting
equation for
Example: (a) If find .
(b) Find the equation of the tangent to the circle at the point (3, 4).
Solution: (a) Differentiate both sides of the equation

40
Remembering that y is a function of x and using the Chain rule, we have

Thus,
Now we solve this equation for

(b) At the point (3, 4) we have so

An equation of the tangent to the circle at (3, 4) is therefore

or
Example: Find .
Solution: Differentiating implicitly with respect to x and remembering that y is a function of x.
By using Chain Rule on the left side and the Product Rule and Chain Rule on the right side, we get:

Collect the terms that involve , we get

So

3.7 Application of derivative

3.7.1 Extreme of a function

A function f has an absolute maximum at c if for all x in D, where D is the domain of f. The
number f(c) is called the maximum value of f on D.

Similarly, f has an absolute minimum at c if f(c) f(x) for all x in D and the number f(c) is called the
minimum value of f on D. The maximum and minimum values of f are called the extreme values of f.

41
The following figure shows the graph of a function with absolute maximum at and absolute minimum
at . Note that (d, f(d)) is the highest point on the graph and (a, f(a)) is the lowest point.
If we consider only values of near [for instance, if we restrict our attention to the interval ], then
is the largest of those values of and is called a local maximum value of f. Likewise, is
called a local minimum value of f because for x near c [in the interval , for instance].
The function f also has a local minimum at In general we have the following definition.
A function f has a local maximum (or relative maximum) at c if there is an open interval I containing c
such that f(c) f(x) for all x in I.

Similarly, f has a local minimum at c if there is an open interval I containing c such that f(c) f(x) for all
x in I.

Example: The function takes on its (local and absolute) maximum value of 1 infinitely
many times, since for any integer n and for all x.
Likewise, is its minimum value, where n is any integer
Example: If then because Therefore is the absolute
(and local) minimum value of It is the fact that the origin is the lowest point on the Parabola (see
in the following figure). However, there is no highest point on the parabola and so this function has no
maximum value.

Example: From the graph of the function , (shown in

following figure), we see that this function has neither an absolute maximum value nor an absolute
minimum value. In fact, it has no local extreme values either.

The Extreme Value Theorem: If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f attains an
absolute maximum value f(c) and an absolute minimum value f(d) at some numbers c and d in [a,
b]. This can be seen in the following figure.

42
Example: The function , is defined on the closed interval [0, 2] but has no maximum
value. Note that the range of f is the interval [0, 1). The function takes on values arbitrarily close to 1 but
never actually attains the value 1. This does not contradict the Extreme Value Theorem because f is not
continuous on [0, 2]. In fact, it has a discontinuity at

Fermat’s Theorem
If has a local extremum (that is, maximum or minimum) at and if exists, then

3.7.2 The Mean Value Theorem and its Application

Many of the results of this chapter depend on one central fact, which is called the Mean Value Theorem.
But to arrive at the Mean Value Theorem we first need the following result:
Rolle’s Theorem
Let be a function that satisfies the following three hypotheses:

1. is continuous on the closed interval [ ]

2. is differentiable on the open interval

3.

Then there is a number in such that

Proof: The following graph shows some functions that satisfy the above three hypotheses. In each case it
appears that there is at least one point on the graph where the tangent is horizontal and therefore
Thus Rolle’s Theorem is plausible.

There are three cases:

Case 1:
Then so the number can be taken to be any number in
Case 2: for some in [as in Figure 1(b) or 1 (c)]

43
By the extreme Value Theorem (which we can apply by hypothesis 1) has a maximum value somewhere
in [ ]. Since , it must attain this maximum value at a number in the open interval .
Then has a local maximum at and, by hypothesis 2, is differentiable at . Therefore , by
Fermat’s Theorem.
Case 3: for some in [as in Figure 1(c) or (d)]
By the Extreme Value Theorem, has a minimum value in [ ] and, since , it attains this
minimum value at a number in . Again by Fermat’s Theorem
Example: Verify Rolle’s Theorem for the function in [ ]
Solution: Let
Since is a polynomial in hence it is continuous in [ ]

It is obvious that exists in

Therefore, satisfies all the conditions of Rolle’s Theorem

Let

Therefore,
Thus, Rolle’s Theorem is verified.
The Mean Value Theorem
Let be a function that satisfies the following hypotheses:

1. is continuous on the closed interval [ ]

2. is differentiable on the open interval

Then there is a number in such that

equivalently,

Proof: Define a function as ----------------- (1)

Where A is a constant to be determined such that
----------------- (2)
From and , we have

Therefore ---------------------- (3)

44
Since is continuous in [ ] and A is constant.
Therefore, from (1), is continuous in [ ]
Since is differentiable in is differentiable and A is a constant
Therefore, from (1), is differentiable in
Also from (2), we have
Therefore, satisfies all the conditions of Rolle’s Theorem.
there exists

------------------------ (4)
By substituting (3) in (4), we get

Example: Verify Mean Value Theorem for the function in [ ]

Solution:
Since is a polynomial in it is continuous in [ ]
Also
exists in
and

Hence Mean Value Theorem is verified.

Critical number
A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain of f such that either
does not exist.
⁄
Example: Find the critical numbers of
Solution: By using the product rule, we have
⁄ ⁄

⁄ ⁄

Therefore, that is, and doesn’t exist when .

Thus the critical numbers are and 0.

45
Use the following steps to find absolute maximum and minimum values
To find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a continuous function f on a closed interval [a, b]:

1. Find the values of f at the critical numbers of f in (a, b).

2. Find the values of f (a) and f (b).
3. The largest of the values from steps 1 and 2 is the absolute maximum value; the smallest of these
values is the absolute minimum value.

Example: Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function

Solution: Since f is continuous on [ ], we can use the above procedure to find absolute maximum and
minimum values

Since exists for all , the only critical numbers of f occur when
that is
Note that each of these critical numbers lies in the interval [ ].
The values of at these critical numbers are

The values of at the endpoints of the interval are

( )
By comparing these four numbers, we see that the absolute maximum value is and the absolute
minimum values is .
Note that in this example the absolute maximum occurs at an endpoint, whereas the absolute minimum
occurs at a critical number. We can see the graph of f in the above figure.
Monotonic Functions
In sketching the graph of a function it is very useful to know where it rises and where it falls. The graph
shown in following figure rises from to , falls from to , and rises again from to . The function
is said to be increasing on the interval [ ], decreasing on [ ], and increasing again on [ ]. Note that
if and are any two numbers between and with , then . We use this as the
defining property of an increasing function.

46
Definition: A function is called increasing on an interval if

whenever in

It is called decreasing on if

whenever in

A function that is increasing or decreasing on is called monotonic on .

Test for Monotonic Functions

Suppose is continuous on [ ] and differentiable on .

(a) If for all in ( ), then is increasing on [ ].

(b) If for all in ( ), then is decreasing on [ ].
Example: Find where the function is increasing and where it is decreasing.
Solution:
To use the test for monotonic functions we have to know where
and where
This depends on the signs of the three factors of

We divide the real line into intervals whose endpoints are the critical
numbers -1, 0, and 2 and arrange our work in a chart. A plus sign
indicates that the given expression is positive, and a minus sign
indicates that it is negative.
The last column of the chart gives the conclusion based on the Test for Monotonic Functions. From this
information and the values of at the critical numbers, the graph is sketched in above figure.

Interval

decreasing on
( ]
increasing on [ ]
decreasing on [ ]
increasing on [

47
3.7.3 First and Second Derivative Tests
3.7.3.1 The First Derivative Test

Suppose that is a critical number of a continuous function

(a) If changes from positive to negative at then has a local (relative) maximum at
(b) If changes from negative to positive at , then has a local (relative) minimum at
(c) If does not change sign at (that is, is positive on both sides of or negative on both
sides), then has no local extremum at

⁄
Example: Find the local (relative) extrema of and sketch its graph.
Solution: First we find the critical numbers of

⁄ ⁄

⁄ ⁄

The derivative when that is,

Also does not exist when .
So the critical numbers are and 1.
Next we set up a chart, dividing the real line into intervals with the critical numbers as end points.
Interval ⁄

increasing on ]

decreasing on [ ]

increasing on [

3.7.3.2 The Second Derivative Test

Suppose is continuous on an open interval that contains

(a) If and then has a relative (local) minimum at

(b) If and then has a relative (local) maximum at
(c) If and then there will be no conclusion about the extreme value
of at

Example: Let using the second derivative test, find the relative extreme
values of
Solution:

48
 √
⁄

( ) ( ) and
We have only two extreme values of
has relative maximum value at & thus, is R.Max value.
( ) has relative minimum value at ⁄ & thus, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
̅̅̅̅̅ is its relative minimum value.
Note that ( )
3.7.4 Concavity and Inflection points
Concavity
If the graph of lies above all of its tangents on an interval , then it is called concave upward
on . If the graph of lies below all of its tangents on , it is called concave downward on .

In the above figure tangents are drawn at several points. In the curve lies above the tangents and is
called on [ ]. In the curve lies below the tangents and is called concave
downward on [ ]
The test for Concavity
Suppose is twice differentiable on an interval .

(a) If for all in , then the graph of is concave upward on .

(b) If for all in , then the graph of is concave downward on .

Point of Inflection
A point on a curve is called a point of inflection if the curve changes from concave upward to concave
downward or from concave downward to concave upward at .

Example: Determine where the curve is concave upward and where it is concave
downward. Find the inflection points .
Solution: If then

49
 Since when , the critical numbers are ±1. Also
| |
or
Therefore f is increasing on the intervals ] and [1, and is
decreasing on [ ].
By the First Derivative Test, is a local maximum value and
is a local minimum value.
To determine the concavity we compute the second derivative:

Thus when and when .

The Test for Concavity then tells us that the curve is concave downward on ( ) and concave upward
on ( .
Since the curve changes from concave downward to concave upward when the point ( ) is a point
of inflection.
We used this information to sketch the curve in above Figure.
Example: Discuss the curve with respect to concavity, points of inflection, and local
extrema.
Solution: If , then

To find the critical numbers we set and obtain and .

To use the Second Derivative Test we evaluate at these critical numbers:

Since and is a local minimum.

Since the Second Derivative Test gives no information about the critical number . But since
for and also for the First Derivative Test tells us that does not have a local
extremum at .
Since when or , we divide the real line into intervals with these numbers as endpoints
and complete the following chart.
Interval Concavity

upward
downward
upward

The point is an inflection point since the curve changes from concave upward to concave downward
there.
Also is an inflection point since the curve changes from concave downward to concave upward
there.

50
3.8 Indeterminate forms and L’Hopital Rule

In general, if we have a limit of the form:

Where both and as then this limit may or may not exist and is called an
Indeterminate form of type ⁄ .
Similarly, if both and , then the limit may or may not exist
and is called an indeterminate form of type ⁄
We introduce a systematic method, known as L’Hopital Rule, for the evaluation of indeterminate forms.
L’Hopital Rule
Suppose and are differentiable and on an open interval I that contains (except possibly at
). Suppose that

and

or that and

(In other words, we have an indeterminate form of type ) Then

If the limit on the right side exists ( ).

Example 1: Find .
Solution: Since ,
we can apply L’Hopital Rule

Example 2: Calculate .
Solution: We have , so L’Hopital Rule gives

Since the limit on the right side is also indeterminate, but a second
application of L’Hopital Rule gives

Example 3: Evaluate .
Solution: The given limit is indeterminate because while . Writing

we have as so L’Hopital Rule gives

51
Indeterminate Differences
If and , then the limit [ ] is called indeterminate form of
type
Example 4: Compute
Solution: First notice that and as , so the limit is indeterminate.
Here we use a common denominator:

( ) ( )

Note that the use of L’Hopital Rule is justified, because and as

Example 5: Calculate
Solution: First notice that as , we have and
so the given limit is indeterminate form of type .
Let
Then [ ]
So, L’Hopital Rule gives

So far we have computed the limit of , but what we want is that the limit of y.
To find this we use the fact that :

52
 CHAPTER 4
4. INTEGRATION AND APPLICATION OF
INTEGRATION
Antiderivatives: A function is called an antiderivative of on an interval if for all in
.
Theorem: If is an antiderivative of on an interval , then the most general antiderivative of on is
where is an arbitrary constant.
4.1 THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL: The notation ∫ is traditionally used for an antiderivative of
and is called an indefinite integral. Thus, ∫ means
The expression ∫ is called an indefinite integral. The adjective “indefinite” emphasizes that the
result of antidifferentiation is a “generic” function, described only up to a constant term. The“elongated S”
that appears on the left side of the equation is called an integral sign, the function is called the
integrand, and the constant C is called the constant of integration.
If an independent variable other than is used, say , then the notation must be adjusted appropriately.
Thus,
[ ] ∫ are equivalent statements.

Table of some Indefinite Integrals

∫ ∫ ∫[ ] ∫ ∫

∫ ∫ | |

∫ ∫

∫ ∫
∫ ∫
∫ ∫

∫ ∫√

∫ √

Example: Find the most general antiderivative of each of the following functions:
(a) (b) √ (c) √ (d)

53
Solutions:
(a) If then Thus, an antiderivative of is .

⁄ ⁄
(b) Since ( ) √ , then the general antiderivative of √ is
⁄
.

(c) We observe that this question is the combination (sum) of questions (a) & (b). Thus, applying
⁄
property (2) above, the general antiderivative of √ is

(d) ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ by property (2)

= ∫ ∫ ∫ by property (1)

= by (3) & (7)

Example: Find all functions such that √

Solution: We want to find an antiderivative (integral) of
Using the formulas listed above, we obtain

Example: Find if √ and .

Solution: The general antiderivative of is

To determine C we use the fact that That is,

Thus, we have C = 2, so the particular solution is

Example: A particle moves in a straight line and has acceleration given by It’s initial
velocity is and its initial displacement is Find its position function

Solution: Since antidifferentiation gives

Note that But we are given that so and

Since is the antiderivative of

This gives We are given that so and the required position function is

54
4.2 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL: an integral expressed as the difference between the values of the
integral at specified upper and lower limits of the independent variable.
Theorem: If a function is continuous on an interval [ ], then is integrable on [ ] and the net
signed area between the graph of and the interval [ ] is ∫ .

Theorem: Let be a continuous function on a closed interval [ ]. Suppose that be any differentiable

function such that when Then ∫

4.3 BASIC PROPERTIES OF THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL
Suppose that is integrable on[ ]. Then the following properties hold.

1. ∫ , if

2. ∫ ∫

3. ∫ Where is any constant.

4. ∫ [ ] ∫ ∫

5. ∫ ∫ , where is any constant.

6. ∫ ∫ ∫ , whenever .

⁄
Example: Use the properties of integrals and evaluate ∫
Solution: Using the properties 4 and 5 of integrals, we get
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
∫ ∫ ∫

Example: Use the properties of integrals and evaluate ∫ | |

Solution: Since | | {

We use the property 6 to split the integral at 0:

∫ | | ∫ | | ∫ | |

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫

[ ] [ ] ⁄

Integrals of symmetric functions: Suppose that is continuous on [ ] Then

55
 (a) If is even [ ] then ∫ ∫

(b) If is odd [ ] then ∫

Examples: Evaluate the following integrals:

a. ∫ b. ∫

Solutions: a. ∫ ∫ ∫ [ ] [ ] [ ]

Also, Since is even, then ∫ ∫ [ ] .

Therefore, ∫ ∫
b. Since is odd,

∫ [ ] } { }

Theorem: a. If is integrable on [ ] and [ ], then ∫

b. If and are integrable on[ ] and [ ], then ∫ ∫ .

Theorem: (The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1): If is continuous on [ ] and is an

antiderivative of on [ ] then ∫
Theorem: (The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2): If is continuous on [ ], then the
function defined by ∫ [ ] is continuous on [ ] and differentiable on ,
and
Examples: Evaluate the following integrals.

a. ∫ b. ∫

Solution a: The function is continuous everywhere and is antiderivative of

Thus, by FTC part 1, ∫ ] ⁄

Solution b: The function is continuous everywhere and is antiderivative of

Thus, by FTC part 1, ∫ ]

Examples: 1. Find the derivative of the function ∫ √ and ∫

Solution: Since √ is continuous everywhere, FTC part 2 gives us √

56
Also, is continuous everywhere, FTC part 2 gives us

Note: If is continuous on [ ], then the function defined by ∫ [ ] is

continuous on [ ] and differentiable on , and ( )

Example: Find ∫ .

Solution: Here we have to be careful to use the Chain Rule in conjunction with FTC Part 2.
Let . Then

∫ ∫ [∫ ]

4.4 Techniques of integration

4.4.1 Integration by substitutions
THEOREM (The Substitution Rule): If is a differentiable function whose range is an interval
and ƒ is continuous on , then ∫ ( ) ∫ .
Examples: Evaluate the following integrals.
(a) ∫ (b) ∫ (c) ∫ (d) ∫

Solution: (a) ∫ Let

Then

∫ ∫ ∫

Solution: (b) ∫ Let

∫ ∫ ∫

Solution: (c & d): Left as an exercise for you.

4.4.2 Integration by Parts

∫ ∫

This is called the formula for integration by parts. It is perhaps easier to remember in the following
notation.
Let and Then and so, by substitution rule, the formula
for integration by parts becomes:

57
 ∫ ∫

Example 1: Find ∫ .
Solution: Suppose we choose
Then
Thus, using above Formula, we have
∫ ∫
∫ ∫
Example 2: Evaluate ∫
Solution: Here we do not have much choice for and . Let

Then

Integrating by parts, we get

∫ ∫ ∫ .

Example 3: Find ∫ .
Solution: Let
Then
Integration by part gives
∫ ∫ -------------------- (1)
We use integration by parts a second time to find ∫
This time with and .
Then , and
∫ ∫ ------------- (2)
Putting (2) in (1), we get
∫ ∫

Example 4: Calculate ∫
Solution: Let

Then

58
By using the Formula, we get

∫ ] ∫

∫
To evaluate this integral we use the substitution
Then When when so

∫ ∫ | |]

Therefore ∫ ∫

4.4.3 Trigonometric Substitution

In this section, we will see how to integrate expressions like ∫ form, where . Depending on

the function we need to integrate, we substitute one of the following trigonometric expressions to simplify
the integration.
Expression Substitution Identity

√
Example: Evaluate ∫ .

Solution: Let where .

Then and √ √ √
| |
Note that because

Thus, the Inverse Substitution Rule gives

√
∫ ∫

59
 ∫ ∫

∫
----------------- (1)
by using trigonometric identities,
√
since

since

Putting above values in (1), we get

√ √
∫ ( )

Example: Find ∫ √ .

Solution: It would be possible to use the trigonometric substitution .

But the direct substitution is simpler, because then and

∫√ ∫√ √ √ .

Example: Evaluate ∫ √ .

Solution: We can transform the integrand into a function for which trigonometric substitution is
appropriate by first completing the square under the root sign:

This suggests that we make the substitution

Then and , so

∫√ ∫√

We now substitute giving and √ so

∫√ ∫

√ ( )

√ ( )

60
 4.4.4 Integration by Partial Fractions

Let us consider a rational function , where and are polynomials. It is possible to express

as a sum of simpler fractions provided that the degree of is less than the degree of . Such a rational
function is called proper.
If , where then the degree of is and we write

If is improper, that is, then we divide by until a remainder is obtained such

that the division statement is

where and are also polynomials.

Linear factor rule: For each factor of the form , the partial fraction decomposition contains the
following sum of partial fractions:

where are constants to be determined.

In the case where m =1, only the first term in the sum appears.
Quadratic factor rule: For each irreducible factor of the form , the partial fraction
decomposition contains the following sum of partial fractions:

where are constants to be determined. In the case

where , only the first term in the sum appears.

Example 1: Find ∫ .

Solution: Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, we first perform
the long division. This enables us to write

∫ ∫

| |

Example 2: Evaluate ∫ .

Solution: Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, we do not need to
divide. We factor the denominator as

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Since the denominator has three distinct linear factors, the partial fraction decomposition of the integrand
has the form

----------------- (1)

To determine the values of A, B, and C, we multiply both sides of this equation by

obtaining
-------------------- (2)
Expanding the right side of Equation (2) and writing it in the standard form for polynomials, we get
---------------------- (3)
The polynomials in Equation (3) are identical, so their coefficients must be equal.

Solving, we get , and so

∫ ∫[ ]

| | | | | |

Exercise: Find ∫ . Answer: ∫ | |

Example 3: Evaluate ∫

Solution: The form of the partial fraction decomposition is

Multiplying by we have

If we equate coefficients, we get the system

Which has the solution A and Thus

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 ∫ ∫( )

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫

| | ∫

To evaluate the final integral we substitute Then we have and

so

∫ ∫ ∫

( *
√ √

( )

Thus

∫ | |
| |
√
where

4.5 TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS

To integrate certain combination of trigonometric functions we use trigonometric identities.

and

Example: Evaluate ∫
Solution: We can write . But still it is not simple to integrate. Thus, let we use the half-
angle formula for

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫

4.5.1 Strategy for evaluating ∫

(a) If the power of cosine is odd , then factor one cosine and use (Then
say, Let ).

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(b) If the power of sine is odd , then factor one sine and use (Then say,
Let ).
(c) If the power of both sine & cosine are odd, then we can use (a) or (b).
(d) If the power of both sine & cosine are even, then use half-angle identities:

and

Examples: Evaluate the following integrals.

(a) ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
Let,

∫ ∫ ∫

(b) ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
Let

∫ ∫

(c) ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫

Let,

∫ ∫

4.5.2 Strategy for evaluating ∫

(a) If is even we factor out and write the rest interms of using the identity

(b) If is odd we factor out and write the rest interms of using the identities.
(c) If is odd and is even, then using , it can be transformed to integrals of the
form ∫ which can be evaluated by reduction formula.
Examples: Evaluate: 1. ∫ 2. ∫
Solution 1: ∫ ∫ ∫

∫ ∫

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 ∫

Let . Then by substitution we have,

Solution 2: ∫ ∫ ∫

∫ ∫ ∫

4.5.3 Strategy for evaluating ∫ ∫ ∫

Such types of integrals are applicable by using the following identities.

[ ]

[ ]

[ ]

Examples: 1. ∫ 2. ∫ 3. ∫

Solution 1: ∫ ∫ [ ] ∫

∫ ∫

Solution 2: ∫ ∫ [ ] ∫ [ ]

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫

Solution 3: (Exercise)
4.6 Application of integration
4.6.1 Area: Let be continuous on [ ] and [ ] and let be the region bounded by
the graph of , x-axis, the lines

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Then the area of the region is given by ∫
Definition: If a region in a plane is bounded by the lines , x-axis and the graph of

continuous function , then ∫ | |

Example: Find the area of the region under the graph of between and .
Solution: [ ]

∫ ∫ ] sqr units.
The area of the region bounded by the curves and the lines and
where and are continuous and for all in [ ], is

∫ [ ]

Example: Find the area of the region bounded by the parabolas and .
Solution: We first find the points of intersection of the parabolas by solving their equations
simultaneously.
This gives or .
Thus so
The points of intersection are and and the region is
shown in the right Figure.
When using the formula for area, it is important to ensure that
when
In this case we can see from the diagram that
for
and so we choose and Then

∫ [ ]

∫ [ ] [ ]

Definition: The area between the curves and and between is

∫ | |

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Example: Find the area of the region bounded by the curves and .
Solution: The points of intersection occur when that is, when (since

The region is sketched in following figure. Observe that when but

when
Therefore, the required area is

∫ | |

∫ ∫

[ ] ]

( * ( *
√ √ √ √
√
4.6.2 Volume
 The cross-sectional method
Definition: Suppose a solid region has a cross-sectional area for where is continuous

on [ ] Then the volume of is defined by ∫

Example: Find the volume of the solid whose cross-section at is semi-circular with radius for

Solution: Area of the semi-circular region with radius is given by: Hence,

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ( + +

 The disc method

When the graph of a continuous, non-negative function on an interval [ ] is revolved about the -axis
it generates a solid region having circular cross-sections, that is, cross-sections that are circular discs.
Since, the radius of the cross-sections at is it follows that [ ] .
Thus, the volume of the solid generated is given by

∫ [ ]

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Example: Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the -axis the region under the curve
√ from 0 to 1.
Solution: The region is shown in the right Figure.
Taking and √ in Formula,
we find that the volume of the solid is

∫ √ ∫ ]

Definition:

∫ [ ]

The above formula applies only when the axis of rotation is the – axis.
Example: Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by
around the -axis.
Solution: Since the axis of rotation is the -axis, we write the curve in the form √ .
The region and the solid with a typical disk are sketched in
following Figure. Using Formula with and
√ , we have

∫ √ ∫

[ ]

 The Shells method

This method used to find the volume of a solid obtained by revolving the region between and -axis
about -axis. Thus, the volume of the solid region obtained by revolving the region between and -
axis on [ ] about -axis is given by

∫ where

Example: Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the -axis the region bounded by

Solution: The region and solid are sketched in the following figure.

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By using formula, the volume of rotation is

∫ [ ]

* +

Example: Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the -axis the region between
.
Solution: We use Formula to find the volume obtained by rotating about the -axis the region under
from 0 to 1 and then we subtract the corresponding volume for the region under . Thus,

∫ ∫

∫ * +

 The washer method

This is the method of finding the volume of the solid region generated by revolving a more general plane region
about the -axis. Let and be functions such that Then the plane region b/n
the graph of and the -axis on [ ] is composed of the region b/n the graph of and on [ ] and the region b/n
the graph of and the -axis on [ ] Therefore, the volume of the solid generated by revolving the entire region
about the -axis should be equal to the sum of the volume of the solids generated by revolving the two component
regions about the -axis.

The volume of the solid generated by revolving the region b/n the graph of and on [ ] is given by

∫ *( ) ( ) +

when the method of finding volume in this method is called washer method.

Example: Let and and let be the region b/n the graph of on [ ] Find the volume
of the solid generated by revolving about the -axis.

Solution: Since for [ ] then

∫ *( ) ( ) + ∫ ∫ ] +

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