The primary function of the ventilation for heat control system

Ventilation for Heat in a hot industrial environment is to prevent the acute

discomfort, heat-induced illness and possible injury of those
Control working in or generally occupying a designated hot industrial
environment where the total heat load may exceed the body
defenses and result in a heat stress situation. The heat control
ventilation system must follow a physiological evaluation for
the occupant in the hot industrial environment in terms of
potential heat stress. The Criteria for a Recommended
Standard: Occupational Exposure to Hot Environments (the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH)) must be followed.
The development of a ventilation system for a hot industrial environment
requires inclusion of certain phases of mechanical air-conditioning engineering
design available in appropriate publications of the ASHRAE handbook series. It
includes the control of:

The ventilation air flow rate.

The velocity.

The temperature.

The humidity.

The air flow path through

the space in question.
 The main sources of heat load can be classified as heat
Heat load released from:

Industrial and electrical furnaces

Metal cooling..
Electric and welding equipment.
Generator unit and charging unit.
Lighting equipment.
Chemical reaction.
Surface of hot water tank.
Steam equipment (e.g., forging hammer).
Steam heating tank.
Human body (metabolism, conduction, convection,
radiation, evaporation).
Moisture load
Moisture load of the occupied zone
basically include moisture load from:

Open water surface or moist

surface.
Evaporation from hot water surface
flowing along the ground.
Machine emulsified coolant.
Gas combustion.
Emission rate of The main sources of pollutant gases in the occupied zone
pollutants are:

Pollutant gases emitted during combustion.

Fume leakage from furnace crevice.
Hazardous gases leaking from insecure places
of equipment or pipeline.
Pollutant gases emitted from diesel engines.
Evaporation of liquids (except of water).

For the complexity of the production process,

the amount of dispersion of moisture and
emission of polluted gases are generally
determined by empirical data from field
measurement and investigations.
Air Balance and Air Balance
Heat Balance

Airflow rate balance is the balance of air

quality in and out of buildings as
expressed by:
Qሶ nv + Qሶ ms = Qሶ ne + Qሶ me

Where Qሶ nv (kg/s) is the natural (i.e.,

infiltration) air intake rate, Qሶ ne (kg/s) is
the natural exhaust rate, Qሶ ms (kg/s) is
the mechanical supply air rate, and Qሶ me
(kg/s) is the mechanical exhaust rate.
 Heat Balance

Heat balance means that the

total heat gained in a ventilated
room equals the total heat loss,
so that the temperature of the
ventilated room remains
constant (i.e., unchanged).

The heat balance calculation is

complicated by the variety of
industrial plants, the complexity of
the equipment, and the difference in
ventilation systems. When both
mechanical ventilation and
circulating air are used (Fig. 1).
It can be calculated according to the equation:

෍ Q n + ෍ Q s + mሶ e c t n − t w

= mሶ t c t rs − t n + mሶ ms c t ms − t w

Where ∑Qn (kW) is the total heat loss/gain of the envelope

structure and material, ∑Qs (kW) is the total heat release from
indoor equipment and radiators, mሶ e (kg/s) is the exhaust air
mass flow rate, mሶ r (kg/s) is the return (i.e., recycled) air mass
flow rate mሶ os (kg/s) is the outdoor (i.e., mechanical) supply air
mass flow rate, tn (0C) is the indoor air temperature, tw (0C) is
the outdoor heating or ventilation design air temperature, trs (0C)
is the recirculating supply air temperature, and tms (0C) is the
mechanical supply air temperature.
In most cases perfect mixing of the supply air with the
room air does not occur, and some fraction S of the
supply air mass flow rate mሶ s bypasses and does not enter
the occupied zone, Fig. 1. Because of this, some of the
outdoor air in the supply air is exhausted without having
performed any useful reduction in the contaminants of
the occupied zone. The effectiveness Eoa with which
outdoor air is used can be expressed as the fraction of the
outdoor air entering the system that is utilized:

mሶ o − mሶ oe
Eoa =
mሶ o
Where ṁo is the rate at which outdoor air is
taken in, and ṁoe is the rate at which unused
outdoor air is exhausted from the space (Fig. 1).
With R equal to the fraction of return air ṁr that is recirculated, the rate at which
outdoor air is supplied to the space ṁos is:
mሶ os = mሶ o + RSmሶ os ⇒ mሶ o = 1 − RS mሶ os

And the amount of unused outdoor air that is exhausted Qoe is:
mሶ oe = 1 − R Smሶ os

Combining the three equations yields the effectiveness with

which the outdoor air is circulated to the occupied space in
terms of the stratification factor (sometimes called the
occupied zone bypass factor) S and the recirculation factor R:
1−S
Eoa =
1 − RS
The basic equation for
contaminant concentration in a
space is obtained using Fig. 2
by making a balance on the
concentrations entering and
leaving the conditioned space
assuming complete mixing,
uniform rate of contaminant
generation Ṅ, uniform
contaminant concentration
within the space Cs , and
uniform contaminant Fig. 2: A typical HVAC ventilation system
concentration in the entering
air Ce.
For the steady state case:
Qሶ t Ce + Nሶ = Qሶ t Cs
Where Qሶ t is the rate at which air enters or leaves the space, Cs the average concentration of a
contaminant within the space, Ṅ the rate of contaminant generation within the space, and Ce is
the concentration of the contaminant of interest in the entering air.

Calculation of ventilation airflow rate

For general dilution ventilation the ventilation rate can
be calculated in three states.

1. Ventilation airflow rate under unsteady state

Under unsteady state, the ventilation rate Qሶ t (m3/s)
can be calculated as:
x Vf C2 − C1
Qሶ t = −
C2 − Co t C2 − Co
 a. Ventilation rate needed to eliminate waste heat:
Q
2. Ventilation airflow rate Qሶ h =
cρ t e − t o
under steady state

Where Qሶ h (m3/s) is the ventilation airflow rate

needed to eliminate waste heat, c (kJ/kg-0C) is
the specific heat capacity of air, Q (kW) is the
waste heat in room, te (0C) is the temperature of
exhaust air, to (0C) is the temperature of supply
air, and ρ (kg/m3) is the density of air.

b. Ventilation airflow rate needed to eliminate

moisture load:
Gm
Qሶ m =
ρ de − d o

Where Qሶ m (m3/s) is the ventilation airflow rate

needed to eliminate moisture load, Gm (g/h) is the
waste moisture, de (g/kg dry air) is the moisture
content of exhausted air, and do (g/kg dry air) is
the moisture content of supply air.
c. Ventilation rate needed to eliminate pollutant:
x
Qሶ p =
Cm − Co

Where Qሶ p (m3/s) is the ventilation rate needed to eliminate

pollutant, and Cm (g/m3) is the maximum permissible
contaminant concentration for indoor air.

When waste heat, residual humidity, and pollutant released

simultaneously in the room do not have superimposed harmful
effects on human health, the ventilation airflow rate is defined
as the maximum value calculated earlier. If several indoor
pollutants are released simultaneously and the effect of them on
human body is superimposed, the ventilation rate should be
calculated separately, and then the total ventilation rate should
be taken as the sum of their parts.
The ventilation rate actually required should be greater than the calculated
air rate, because the distribution of pollutant and ventilation airflow is not
very uniform. In addition, it also needs some time for fresh air diluting
pollutant (i.e., the concentration of harmful substance in the air near the
harmful source is higher than that of the average indoor air).

3. Ventilation airflow rate calculated using air exchange rate

When the pollutant diffused into the room cannot be calculated in
detail, the total ventilation rate can be determined by the method
of air exchange rate as follows:
Qሶ = nVt

Where n is the air exchange rate, and it can be found in relevant

HVAC design manuals; Vf (m3) is the volume of the room.
The ventilation rate actually required should be greater than the
calculated air rate, because the distribution of pollutant and
ventilation airflow is not very uniform. In addition, it also needs
some time for fresh air diluting pollutant (i.e., the concentration of
harmful substance in the air near the harmful source is higher than
that of the average indoor air).
3. Ventilation airflow rate calculated using air exchange rate
When the pollutant diffused into the room cannot be calculated in
detail, the total ventilation rate can be determined by the method of
air exchange rate as follows:
Qሶ = nVt
Where n is the air exchange rate, and it can be found in relevant
HVAC design manuals; Vf (m3) is the volume of the room.
Human Heat Balance &
Exchange Achieving body temperature equilibrium (i.e., maintain the deep
body core temperature within the acceptable range of about
370C (98.60F) ± 10C (1.80F)), requires a constant exchange of
heat between the body and the environment. The amount of the
heat exchanged is a function of:

1. The total heat produced by the body (i.e., the

metabolic heat); range from about 1.16
watts/kg body weight at rest to 7 watts/kg
body weight for moderately hard industrial
work.
2. The heat exchange, if any, with the
environment.
The rate of heat exchange with the environment is,
among other factors, a function of:

1. Air temperature and humidity.

2. Skin temperature.
3. Air velocity.
4. Evaporation of sweat.
5. Radiant temperature.
6. Type, amount, and characteristics of
the clothing worn.
Respiratory heat loss is of little
consequence in human defenses against
heat stress.
The basic human heat balance equation is:
Change in body heat content (Δs)
= (M– W) ± C ± R − E
Where (M-W) is the total metabolism, C
the convection heat exchange, R the
radiative heat exchange, and E is the
evaporative heat loss.
Data required to solve the basic human heat
balance equation:
• Measurement of metabolic heat production
• Air temperature
• Air water vapor pressure
• Wind velocity
• Mean radiant temperature
The major modes of heat exchange between
bodies and the environment are:
Convection
Radiation
Evaporation

Other than for brief periods of body

contact with hot tools, equipment, floors,
etc., which may cause burns, conduction
plays a minor role in industrial heat stress
(i.e., heat exchange by thermal conduction
is usually not evaluated in a heat balance
equation because of small areas of contact
between either body surfaces or clothing
and hot or cold objects).
Convection
The rate of convective heat exchange
between the skin of a person and the
ambient air immediately surrounding the
skin is stated algebraically for the standard
worker wearing the customary one-layer
work clothing ensemble as:

C = 0.65Va 0.6 (t a − t kin )

Where C is the convective heat exchange,
(W or Btu/h), Va the air velocity (m/s or
fpm), ta the air temperature (0C or 0F), and
tskin is the mean weighted skin temperature,
usually assumed to be (350C or 950F).
 Radiation
Infrared radiative heat exchange between the
exposed surfaces of a person's skin and
clothing varies as a function of the difference
between the fourth power of the absolute
temperature of the exposed surfaces and that
of the surface of the radiant source or sink, the
exposed areas and their emissivity.

The radiant heat exchange (W or Btu/h) for a person

wearing conventional clothing can be approximated as:
R = 15.0 (Tw − Tskin )
Where Tw is the mean radiant temperature (0C or 0F), and
Tskin the mean weighted skin temperature (350C or 950F).
Evaporation
Evaporative heat loss from humans body
E (W or Btu/h) due to evaporation of
water (sweat) or other liquids from the
skin or clothing surfaces is a function of
air flow over the skin and clothing
surfaces (m/s or fpm), the water vapour
partial pressure gradient between the
skin surface (pskin mmHg) and the
surrounding air (pa mmHg), the area
from which water or other liquids are
evaporating, and mass transfer
coefficients at their surfaces.

E = 2.4Va 0.6 (ρkin − ρa )

 Good health people can adjust
physiologically to thermal stress only
over a narrow range of environmental
conditions. Unrestricted blood flow to
Adaptive the skin, an unimpeded flow of dry, cool
Mechanism air over the skin surface and sweating
of the Body are prime defenses in heat stress.
Diminished health status, medications,
limited prior thermal exposure, among
other factors, increase danger from
thermal stresses.
The reflex control of blood flow is the
body's most effective and important first
line of defense in facing either cold or
heat stress.
Reducing blood flow to the skin is an
important measure for reducing heat
loss in a cold environment. However,
blood flow to the skin increases many-
fold during heat stress.
 Its cost is to reduce perfusion
Its effect is to increase rates of of other organs, especially
heat distribution in the body the brain, and reduce
and maximize conductive, systemic arterial blood
convective, radiative and pressure, leading to reduced
evaporative heat losses to the consciousness, collapse, heat
environment. exhaustion and other heat-
induced illnesses.
Acclimatization
Acute Heat Disorders
Good health people normally develop heat
A variety of heat disorders can be
acclimatization in a week or so after
distinguished clinically when individuals are
intermittently working or exercising in high
exposed to excessive heat.
heat (i.e., improve the comfort and safety of
Heat (Sun) Stroke.
the heat exposure). Heat acclimatization
Heat Exhaustion.
rapidly diminishes even after a day or so of
Heat Cramps and Heat Rash.
discontinued activity in the heat.
1. Heat stroke Treatment

A major disruption of Placing the patient in a

central nervous function. shady area

A life-threatening condition
that develops when body Removing the outer clothing
heat gains from exercise,
work and/or a hot
environment overwhelm
normal thermoregulatory
defenses. Wetting the skin

Lack of sweating.
Increasing air movement
Deep body temperature
> 400C (1040F).

Professional help
2. Heat exhaustion (exercise-induced heat exhaustion and heat syncope)

Commonly occurs in people who are not heat acclimatized and who are in poor physical condition, obese,
inappropriately dressed, and exercising or working energetically in the heat at unaccustomed and/or
demanding tasks.

Symptoms
Lightheadedness.
Dizziness.
vision disturbances.
Nausea.
vague flu-like symptoms.
Tinnitus.
weakness.
Occasionally, collapse.
Causes Treatment

Reflex demand for blood flow

to the skin to dissipate body
heat and a simultaneous reflex
demand for blood flow to
exercising muscles to meet Resting in a cool
metabolic needs of increased environment where there is
activity.
free flowing, dry air
usually remediates the
symptoms quickly.
Reduction in systemic arterial
pressure and brain blood flow.

Lack of acclimatization

Failure to consume sufficient

water
3. Heat (Muscle) Cramps Treatment

Spontaneous, involuntary, painful and

prolonged muscle contractions that
commonly occur in otherwise healthy
people when both body water and Use of electrolyte replacement
electrolyte levels have not been fluids (e.g., Mg, Ca, K) and rest.
restored after extended periods of
heavy sweating during exercise and/or
heat stress.
4. Heat rash (prickly heat or
Treatment
miliaria)

It is an acute inflammatory skin

disease characterized by small
The infected areas should be
red, itchy or tingling lesions. It
kept dry, unabated and open to
occurs commonly in areas of
free flowing, dry air.
skin folds or where there is
abrasive clothing.
Assessment of Heat Heat stress is the load on thermoregulation. It is defined by
Stress and Heat environmental measurements of:
Strain

Air temperature.
Humidity.
Air flow rate.
The level of radiant heat exchange.
Evaluation of a person's metabolic heat production
rate from exercise and/or work.

Heat strain is the overall physiological responses

related to dissipating excess heat from the body
resulting from heat stress. Heat strain is imposed by
the working environment (i.e., the combination of
the radiant and air temperature, relative humidity
and air velocity).
 There are a number of different indices for evaluating heat stress, but
Evaluation of none is reliable as a sole indicator of heat strain for a specific person.
Heat Stress Because dry-bulb temperature (i.e., registered by a thermal sensor)
provides no information about ambient relative humidity, or heat
exchange by convection or radiation (i.e., gives no estimate of the
metabolic heat production), wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT) is
often used as an index of heat stress.

Psychrometric Wet-Bulb temperature is the temperature

registered by psychrometer.
Globe temperature is the infrared radiant heat transfer
measured by a temperature sensor at the center of a 6
inch hollow copper sphere painted both on the inside
and outside.

Natural Wet-Bulb temperature is the temperature

measured by a thermometer whose bulb is covered by a
wetted wick and exposed to natural air movement
unshielded from radiation.
When there is a source of radiant heat transfer
(solar radiation, hot surfaces of machinery):

WBGT = 0.7t nwb + 0.2t g + 0.1t a

Where tnwb is the natural wet-bulb
temperature, and tg the globe temperature.

When radiant heat transfer is negligible:

WBGT = 0.7t nwb + 0.3t g
WBGT evaluates more factors
contributing to heat stress than does dry-
bulb temperature alone, but it does not
effectively evaluate:

The importance of energy transfer

from human skin by convection
which is essential for the removal of
heat from the skin surface and the
formation of water vapour from
secreted sweat.

The importance of metabolic heat

production (i.e., the predominant
stressor under some environmental
conditions) in the heat stress.
Evaluation of Heat Strain Indications of acute heat strain

Visible sweating.
The incidence and severity Discontinued sweating
of heat strain will vary Elevated heart rate
greatly among people Elevated deep body temperature
exposed to the same level of Decreased systemic arterial blood pressure
heat stress. Personal discomfort
Infrequent urination
Worker Protection
There is improved safety, comfort and productivity when
those working in the heat are:

In generally good physical condition, not obese, heat

acclimatized, experienced in the heat stressing job,
know how to select clothing and maintain whole body
hydration and electrolyte levels.

In areas that are well-ventilated and shielded from

infrared radiant heat sources.

In areas that are well-ventilated and shielded from

infrared radiant heat sources.
Worker Protection continued

Knowledgeable about the effects of their medications on

cardiovascular and peripheral vascular function, blood
pressure control, body temperature maintenance, sweat
gland activity, metabolic effects and levels of attention
or consciousness.

Appropriately supervised when there is a history of

abuse or recovery from abuse of alcohol or other
intoxicants.

Able to recognize the signs and symptoms of heat strain

in themselves and others exposed to heat stress and know
the appropriately effective steps for their remediation.
 Due to the complexity of evaluating a potential heat
Ventilation Control stress-producing situation:

The accepted industrial hygiene method of

recognition, evaluation, and control must be
utilized to its full extent.

In addition to the usual time-limited exposures, it

may be necessary to specify additional protection
(e.g., insulation, baffles, shields, partitions, personal
protective equipment), administrative control, and
other measures to prevent possible heat stress.

Ventilation control measures may require a source

of cooler replacement air, an evaporative or
mechanically cooled source, a velocity cooling
method, or any combination thereof.
 Ventilation Systems

Exhaust ventilation can be used to remove excessive heat

and/or humidity if a replacement source of cooler air is
available. To remove excessive heat from the workroom, it
is necessary to enclose the heat source (e.g., ovens or
certain furnaces, a gravity or forced air stack). Use control
velocities if a partial enclosure or local hood is indicated.

General ventilation may be the only alternative as many

operations do not lend themselves to local exhaust.
To determine the required general ventilation, the designer must:

1. Estimate the acceptable temperature or humidity rise.

2. Determine the sensible (i.e., sun load, lights, motors,

sensible part of people heat load, and other particular
sources of sensible heat), and latent (i.e., latent part of
people heat load, and other particular sources of latent heat)
heat loads. In the case of hot processes which give off both
sensible and latent heat, estimate the amounts or
percentages of each.
The volumetric flow (ft3/min or cfm)
required to dissipate the sensible heat
gain Hs (Btu/h) can be determined by
the following:

Hs
Qሶ s =
ρxcp x∆Tx 60 min/h
Where ρ is the Density of the air
(lbm/ft3), cp the Specific heat of the air
(Btu/lbm-0F), and ΔT is the Change in
temperature (0F).
For air cp = 0.24 Btu/lbm-0F) and ρ = 0.075 lbm/ft3,
the above equation becomes:
Hs
ሶQ s =
1.08x∆T

Determine the volumetric flow to

dissipate the sensible load and the
volumetric flow to dissipate the latent
load.

For the volumetric flow (ft3/min or cfm)

required to dissipate the latent heat load,
the procedure is similar to the sensible
heat calculations, although more
difficult.
The volumetric flow (ft3/min or cfm) required to
dissipate the latent heat gain Hl (Btu/h) can be
approximated by:
Hl
Qሶ l =
ρxhfg x∆Wx 60 min/h x 1 lb/7000 grains

Where ρ is the Density of the air (lbm/ft3), hfg the

latent heat of vaporisation (Btu/lbm), and ΔW is the
change in absolute humidity of the air (i.e., the
difference in moisture content of the outdoor air and
the conditions acceptable for designing the exhaust
system), grains-water/lbm dry air.

For water, hfg is approximately 970 Btu/lbm and p =

0.075 lbm/ft3. Consequently, the equation becomes:
Hl
Qሶ l =
0.6236x∆W
If the rate of moisture released, Ṁ in pounds per
hours, is known, then:
Mሶ l = Qሶ l xρx∆Wx 60 min/h x 1 lb/7000 grains
116.7xMሶ l
⇒ Qሶ l =
ρx∆W

The required general ventilation is the larger

of the two volumetric flows. Furthermore, in
the majority of cases the sensible heat load
far exceeds the latent heat load, so the
design usually can be calculated on the basis
of sensible heat alone.

The ventilation should be designed to flow

through the hot environment in a manner that
will efficiently control the excess heat.
 Velocity Cooling
Supply air temperature should not exceed 26.70C (800F) for
practical heat relief. If the air dry-bulb or wet-bulb temperatures
are in the range 350C – 37.80C (95-1000F), the worker may be
cooled by convection or evaporation. When the dry bulb
temperature is higher than the above range, increased air velocity
may add heat to the worker by convection. If the wet bulb
temperature is high also, evaporative heat loss may not increase
proportionately and the net result will be an increase in the
worker's heat burden.

Air velocities in Table 2-3 can be used successfully for

direct cooling of workers. Directional control of supply
air (Fig. 2-10) should be provided to accommodate
daily and seasonal variations in heat exposure and
supply air temperature.
 Radiant Heat Control

Radiant heat cannot be controlled by ventilation.

Painting or coating the surface of hot bodies with
materials having low radiation emission characteristics is
one method of reducing radiation. Radiation shields (i.e.,
metal plates, screens, or other material interposed
between the source of radiant heat and the workers) that
reflect the major portion of the incident radiant heat
away and by re-emit only a portion of that radiant heat
which has been absorbed are effective for materials
which cannot be controlled directly (e.g., molten masses
of metal or glass).
 Protective Suits for Short Exposures
Insulated aluminized suits and other
protective clothing may be worn to reduce
the rate of heat gain by the body for brief
exposures to very high temperatures (i.e.,
only short exposures may be tolerated).

Respiratory Heat Exchangers

For brief exposure to air of good quality but
high temperature, a heat exchanger on a half-
mask respirator that will bring air into the
respiratory passages at a tolerable temperature
but will not remove contaminants nor furnish
oxygen in poor atmospheres is available.
Refrigerated Suits
Where individuals must move about, cold air may be
blown into a suit or hood worn as a portable enclosure.
The usual refrigeration methods may be used with
insulated tubing to the suit.

Enclosures
In certain hot industries (e.g., steel mills) an air-
conditioned booth or cab can be utilized to keep the
operators reasonably comfortable in an otherwise
intolerable atmosphere.

Insulation
Insulation at the surface will reduce the heat transfer if
the source of heat is a surface giving rise to convection.