MODULE 2

HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Use laboratory equipment to determine specific heat of the substance and final
temperature of the mixtures and verify the observed value by calculation
2. Demonstrate understanding of how heat is transferred
3. Demonstrate competence in solving heat problems

INTRODUCTION

Within some reasonable temperature range, we can get a rough idea how warm something is by
touching it. But this can be unreliable—if you put one hand in cold water, one in hot, then plunge
both of them into lukewarm water, one hand will tell you it’s hot, the other will feel cold. For
something too hot to touch, we can often get an impression of how hot it is by approaching and
sensing the radiant heat. If the temperature increases enough, it begins to glow and we can see
it’s hot! The problem with these subjective perceptions of heat is that they may not be the same
for everybody. If our two hands can’t agree on whether water is warm or cold, how likely is it that
a group of people can set a uniform standard? We need to construct a device of some kind that
responds to temperature in a simple, measurable way—we need a thermometer.

CONTENT

Heat is a form of energy that flows from a hotter body to a cooler body. It can be expressed in
terms of joule, erg, calorie or BTU (British Thermal Unit). While, Specific Heat is the amount of
heat needed to change one gram of a substance by 10C.

The formula in determining the specific heat of a substance is given below;

Q
Cp = mΔt

Where;

Cp = specific heat expressed in cal/g-0C , J/Kg-0K

Q = heat , cal, Joule

m = mass expressed in gram or kilogram

Δt = change in temperature

NOTE:

Δt = T2 – T1 (if the temperature increases)

Δt = T1 – T2 (if the temperature decreases)

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. How much heat in calorie is required to raise the temperature of 35.2 g of aluminum from
170C to 850C?

Given:
mAl = 35.2 g
T1 = 170C
T2 = 850C

Required:
Q in cal
Solution:
Q
Cp = mΔt NOTE: 1 cal = 4.184 joule
Q = CpmΔt
From the table; Cp Al = 0.212 cal/g-0C
Q = (0.212 cal/g-0C)(35.2 g)(85-17)0C
Q = 507.44 cal

2. Calculate the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 10 g of gold from 200C
to 1000C. This amount of heat will raise the temperature of 10 g of water @ 200C to what
temperature?

Given:
mAu = 10 g mH2O = 10 g
T1 Au = 200C T1 H2O = 200C
T2 Au = 100)C

Required:
a. Q
b. T2 H2O

Solution:

a. For Gold;
 Q
Cp Au = mΔt

Q = mCpΔt

From the table Cp Au = 0.0312 cal/g-0C

Q = (0.0312 cal/g-0C)(10 g)(100-20)0C

Q = 24.96 cal

b. For water:
Heat lost by gold = Heat gained by water
QAu = QH2O
(CpmΔt)Au = (CpmΔt)H2O

( Cpm Δt ) Au
ΔtH2O =
( Cpm ) H 2O

( Cpm Δt ) Au
( )
(T2 – T1)H2O = Cpm H 2O

( Cpm Δt ) Au
( )
T2 H2O = Cpm H 2O + T1 H2O

( 0 .0312 cal/ g−0 C ) ( 10 g ) ( 800 C ) 0

+20 C
T2 H2O = ( 1 cal/g −0 C ) ( 10 g )
T2 H2O = 22. 4960C
 Activity # 1
1. A 500 gram cube of lead is heated from 25 °C to 75 °C. How much energy was
required to heat the lead? The specific heat of lead is 0.129 J/g°C.

2.  A 25-gram metal ball is heated 200 °C with 2330 Joules of energy. What is the
specific heat of the metal?

3. A hot 1 kg chunk of copper is allowed to cool to 100°C. If the copper gave off 231 kJ
of energy, what was the initial temperature of the copper? The specific heat of
copper is 0.385 J/g°C
HEAT TRANSFER

1. CONDUCTION

Conduction is the method of transfer of heat within a body or from one body to the other
due to the transfer of heat by molecules vibrating at their mean positions. The bodies
through which the heat transfer must be in contact with each other. There is no actual
movement of matter while transferring heat from one location to the other.Conduction
occurs usually in solids where molecules in the structure are held together strongly by
intermolecular forces of attraction amongst them and so they only vibrate about their
mean positions as they receive heat energy and thus pass it to the surrounding
molecules by vibrations.

FOURIER’S LAW

Fourier's law states that the negative gradient of temperature and the time
rate of heat transfer are proportional to the area at right angles of that
gradient through which the heat flows. Fourier's law is the other name of
the law of heat conduction.

Conduction through plane wall is given by the equation;

kA(t 1 −t 2 )
x

Q=

Where;

Q = heat transmitted, watts or BTU/hr

A = heat transfer area, m2 or ft2

 t1 = surface temperature on hot side, 0C or K, 0F or R

t2 = surface temperature on cold surface, 0C or K, 0F or R

x = thickness of wall, m

k = thermal conductivity, W/m – 0F or BTU/hr – ft – 0F

Conduction through composIte walls is given by the equation;

A ( t 1 −t 4 )
AΔt x1 x2 x3
+ +
Q=
R t = k 1 k2 k3

Where;

RT = overall resistance

Q = heat transmitted

K = thermal conductivity

2. CONVECTION
Convection is the mode of heat transfer which occurs mostly in liquids and gases. In this
method, heat transfer takes place with the actual motion of matter from one place within
the body to the other.

Convection’s formula is derived from Newton’s Law of Cooling;

Q = hA(ti – to)
Where;
Q = heat transferred
h = convection coefficient, W/m2 – K
A = convection heat transfer area
to = temperature outside
ti = temperature inside
3. RADIATION
Radiation is another form of heat transfer. It does not require any medium and can be
used for transfer of heat in a vacuum as well. This method uses electromagnetic waves
which transfer heat from one place to the other. The heat and light from the sun in our
solar system reach our planet using radiation only.

The radiant exchange between two surfaces can be computed from;

Q = eσA(T14 – T24)
Where;
A = radiating area, m2
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 – K4
T1 = absolute temperature at the radiating surface
T2 = absolute temperature of the absorbing surface
e = emissivity factor

Sample Problem
1. A wall is made of firebricks 6 inches thick and has a 500C difference in temperature
both sides. Calculate the heat transferred through the wall if the thermal conductivity
of the bricks is 0.65 BTU/hr-ft-0F
Given:
x = 6 in
Δt = 500C
K = 0.65 BTU/hr-ft-0F
Required:
Q
A
Solution:
Convert 5 in to ft and 500C to 0F

x = 6 in x 1 ft/12 in = 0.5 ft
Δt = 9/5 ( 50) + 32 = 1220 F
 kA(t 1 −t 2 )
x

Q=

Q kΔt
A = x

Q ( 0 .65 BTU /hr−ft−0 F ) ( 122 F )

0

A = 0. 5 ft
Q
A = 158.6 BTU/hr-ft2

2. The hot gas temperature in a heat exchanger is 3500C. What is the surface
temperature on the wall if the heat transferred is 1500 W/m2 if ho = 220 W/m2 – K?

Given:
ti = 3500C
Q/A = 1500 W/m2
ho = 220 W/m2 – K

Required:
to

Solution:

Q = hA(ti – to)

Q
=h Δt
A o

1500 w/m2 = 220 W/m2 – K ( 3500C – to)

 to = 343. 180C

3. Two block square plates of size 2m x 2m are placed parallel to each other at a
particular distance to have a shape factor of 0.52. The plates are maintained at a
temperature of 10000C and 5000C respectively. Determine the radiation between the
two plates.

Given:
A = 2m x 2m = 4m2
e = 0.52
T1 = 10000C + 273 = 1273 K
T2 = 5000C + 273 = 773 K

Required:
Q

Solution:
Q = eσA(T14 – T24)
Q = 4m2 ( 0.52)(5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 – K4)[ (1273)4 – (773)4 ) ] k4
Q = 267, 605.43 watt or 267.6 Kw
 Activity # 2

1. Compute the amount of heat transferred in one hour through a solid brick wall 6m x 2.9
m x 225 mm when the outer surface is at 50C and inner surface 170C. The coefficient of
thermal conductivity of the brick is approximately 0.6 W/m – K

2. An incandescent lamp filament has an area of 50 mm2 and operates a temperature of

21270C. If all the energy furnished to the bulb is assume to be radiated from it and the
filament’s emissivity is 0.83, by how much power must be furnished to the bulb when it is
operating?

3. A glass window has an area of 1.60 m2 and thickness of 4 mm. If one side is at a
temperature of 6.800C and the other is at -50C, how much thermal energy flows through
the window in a time of 24 hrs? The thermal conductivity of glass is 1.89 x 10-4 Kcal/m-
s-.0C.