Building Services

Condensation
BUILDING SERVICES & ENVIRONMENTAL
SCIENCE

Condensation
 Objectives and Content

Objectives Content

● Be Understand the principles of

condensation ● Condensation

● Identify sources of moisture within a

building
● Be familiar with psychrometric charts
● Understand structural and dew point
temperature gradients
● Determine the purpose of a vapour barrier
 Condensation

● Humidity
● Condensation in buildings
● Structural temperature gradient
● Dew point temperature gradient
● Interstitial condensation risk
● Minimising condensation risk
 Humidity

Moisture in the air, or humidity, influences the heat balance and comfort of the
human body, the durability of building materials and also causes condensation in
buildings

Air always contains some water vapour (wv) ie has humidity. The amount of water
that can be present in air is related to the ambient temperature. Warmer air can
contain more moisture than cooler air. When the upper limit of wv is reached, the air
is saturated.

The actual amount of wv in the air relative to the maximum saturation level is the
relative humidity (RH). The temperature at which air is fully saturated (ie at 100%
RH) is the dew point temperature. If the temperature falls below the dew point
temperature, the air cannot contain all the wv present and some wv will condense
into a liquid (ie condensation will occur).

Water vapour is a gas, suspended in air. It exerts a pressure which increases with
wv content and/or temperature. The pressure exerted by the molecules of wv
contained in the air is the vapour pressure. Pressure and temperature differentials
will cause warm, humid air to diffuse to colder areas, colder surfaces and permeate
colder structures, leading to cooling of the air and possible condensation.
 Humidity: Definitions

The amount of moisture in a given sample of air can be specified using a number of
different variables:
1) Vapour pressure - The pressure exerted by the molecules of water vapour
contained within the air. Units: Pascals (Pa)
2) Saturated vapour pressure - Vapour pressure which would be given by
saturated air at a specific temperature. (Units Pa)
3) Dew point temperature - The temperature at which a sample of air with a given
moisture content becomes saturated. (Units: oC)
4) Moisture content - The actual quantity of water vapour in a given sample of air.
(Units: g/kg of dry air)
5) Relative humidity - Quantity of water contained within a given sample of air
expressed as a percentage of the maximum quantity of water which could be
contained within that air at that temperature. (Units: %RH at temp. in oC)

CIBSE recommend that for most applications, the relative humidity should be
between 40% and 70% for human comfort.
 Humidity: Sources of

If no moisture is added to the internal air of a building, then condensation would

not be significant. However, in practice this is not the case.

The majority of the moisture within buildings comes from:

1) Building occupants - sweating and breathing.

However, moisture also comes from:

2) Cooking
3) Clothes washing
4) Clothes drying
5) The use of un-flued heating appliances
6) Industrial processes

Table 1.12 in the ASHRAE Journal (January, 2002) shows the amount of
moisture produced from a variety of sources.

In addition, building materials will absorb moisture from the environment. This
moisture will then be released back into the atmosphere when the internal
conditions allow it.
Humidity: Sources of (Cont.)
 Humidity: Psychrometric Chart
The variables used to specify the amount of water vapour (wv) in the air are
interrelated. The relationships can be shown graphically in a Psychrometric Chart.
One version of this type of chart is shown below:

[Source: Burberry, 1997]

 Vertical axis: water vapour (wv) in air exerts a pressure - the vapour
pressure (vp), so air containing a large mass of wv has a higher vp
than drier air. The amount of water contained in air can be expressed
as either vp (in kPa) or the ratio of the mass of the wv to the mass of
the air (in g/kg) – the Moisture Content

Relative Humidity (RH) curves

These RH curves show the combinations of temperature and
moisture content that produce a given RH%

Saturation curve
Shows the combination of temperature and moisture
content at which the air is saturated, i.e. RH of 100%.
The temperature at which saturation occurs is the Dew
Point Temperature. The curve is also known as the
Dew Point curve.
Examples:
1. What is the vapour pressure of air which
is at 20oC and has a relative humidity (RH)
of 60% ? 

1400 Pa

2. What is the vapour pressure of air which

is at 16oC and is saturated ?

1800 Pa



Example
If we have air at 20OC and 50% RH (point A) all the
moisture can be held in the air. If more
water vapour is introduced into this air and
the temperature of the air remains
constant, the RH of the air will increase. If
the RH is increased to 100% (saturation
point) point B, then any additional water vapour
that is introduced into this air will be
deposited as condensation. If on the
other hand, the amount of water vapour in B
the air remains constant but the
temperature of the air falls, the RH of the
air will rise because the cooler air can
support less moisture. If the air is cooled
to around 10OC, the RH will rise to 100%
(saturation point) point C and any further
cooling will cause the water vapour C A
within the air to condense.
 Condensation in Buildings

There are two (2) types of condensation:

1) Surface - occurs on surfaces of the building envelope which are at or below the
dew point of the air immediately adjacent to them

2) Interstitial - occurs within or between the layers of the building envelope when
the temperature of some part of the structure within the building envelope equals
or drops below the dew point temperature.

Surface condensation may occur:

a) On the internal surface of external elements of a building.
b) On cold pipes and cisterns within a building.
 Condensation in Buildings (cont.)

Interstitial condensation may occur:

a) On the surfaces of materials within a structure, particularly on the warm side of
relatively vapour resistant layers.
b) Within the material when the dew point and structural temperatures coincide
throughout the material.
c) On more than one surface in a structure. This is because moisture may
evaporate from one surface and re-condense on a colder one.

Interstitial condensation [Source: McMullan, 2007]

 Condensation in Buildings

The dampness caused by condensation can result in the following problems:

1) Lead to mould growth
2) Damage decorations and fittings
3) Make insulating materials less effective
4) Damage important structural materials, i.e. steelwork and timber
5) In severe conditions it may even lead to structural failure

In addition, condensation can cause:

a) Dimensional changes
b) Reduction of thermal resistance
c) Migration of salts and the liberation of chemicals
d) Electrical failure
 Structural Temperature Gradient
Heat will flow through the building fabric from an area of high temperature to one of
lower temperature.

For homogeneous materials:

1) The temperature gradient through a construction will change uniformly
through each material within the construction.
2) The temperature difference across a particular material is proportional to
the resistance of the material.

Therefore:
a) Materials which have the highest thermal resistances will have the
steepest temperature gradients.
b) Materials with the lowest thermal resistances will have the shallowest
temperature gradients.

High R Low R

Inside Outside Inside Outside

 Structural Temperature Gradient

The boundary temperatures between the individual layers of the building fabric
can be determined from the thermal resistances which make up the U-value of
that element.

The boundary temperature at any point within a building element can be predicted
using the following equation:

where
= temperature difference across a particular layer (oC)
= total temperature difference across the structure (oC)
= resistance of that layer (m2K/W)
= total resistance of the structure (m2K/W)

The calculation of the boundary temperatures within a building element enables

the temperature gradient throughout the element to be drawn on a scaled
diagram.
 Structural Temperature Gradient: Example

1. Find the inside surface temperature of an external wall which has a U-value of
1.8 W/m2K, when the internal temperature is 21OC and the external temperature
is -1OC. Rwall = 0.123m2K/W, Rsi = 0.123m2K/W, Rso = 0.055m2K/W

Solution:
Total temperature drop across the wall

Total resistance of the wall

Using:

Therefore, temperature drop across internal surface layer = 4.8ºC

so inside surface temperature = 21 - 4.8 = 16.2 ºC
 Dew Point Temperature Gradient
A dew point temperature gradient can be plotted across a wall in a similar manner
to a structural temperature gradient.

Whereas thermal resistance is important to determine the temperature gradient,

vapour resistance is important in determining the dew point gradient.

The vapour resistance (RV) describes the ease with which a material will permit
the diffusion of water vapour.

where
= vapour resistance of the material (GNs/kg)
= vapour resistivity of the material (GNs/kg m)
= thickness of the material (m)

The total vapour resistance (RVT) of a multi-layered element is the sum of the
vapour resistances of all of the separate components.
 Vapour Resistivity
The vapour resistivity of a number of materials can be seen below.

Material Vapour resistivity (GN s/kg m)

Aluminium foil >4000

Plywood 150-520
Polythene film 125
Concrete 30-200
Wood 50
Plaster 35-50
Brickwork 25-40
Wood wool 15
Gloss paint 8
Mineral wool 5-6
Building paper 5

[Source: CIBSE, 1988]

 Dew Point Temperature Gradient
The vapour pressure drop across a building element can be determined in a
similar way to the temperature drop across a building element i.e.

where
= vapour pressure drop across a layer
= vapour resistance of that layer
= total vapour pressure drop across the structure
= total vapour resistance of the structure

The vapour pressure changes can be used to produce a vapour pressure

gradient. However, it is more useful to obtain the dew point temperature at each
boundary layer from the psychrometric chart using the corresponding boundary
temperatures and vapour pressures.

If the structural and dew point temperature gradients are drawn on the same
scaled diagram and compared, the points at which the structural temperature falls
below the dew point temperature will indicate a risk of interstitial condensation
occurring.
 Interstitial Condensation Risk Analysis – (Prob. 5.3)

An external wall is constructed of 10mm plasterboard, 25mm of expanded

polystyrene board (EPS) and 150mm dense concrete. The thermal resistances of
the components, in m2 K/W, are: internal surface resistance 0.123, plasterboard
0.06, EPS 0.75, concrete 0.105, and external surface resistance 0.055. The vapour
resistivities of the components, in MN s/g m, are: plasterboard 50, EPS 100, and
concrete 30. The inside air is at 20OC and 59% RH; the outside air is at 0OC and
saturated.

Use a scaled cross section diagram of the wall to plot the structural temperature
gradients and the dew point gradients, like this:
 Example 5.3 – (Handout, Page 114)
Data:
Wall Thickness
LPlasterboard = 10 mm = 10/1000 = 0.01 m
LExp. Poly. Board (EPS) = 25 mm = 25/1000 = 0.025 m
Xconcrete (dense) = 150 mm = 150/1000 = 0.15 m

Thermal Resistance
RSi = 0.123 m2 K/W
RPlaster Board = 0.06 m2 K/W
REPS = 0.75 m2 K/W
RConcrete (Dense) = 0.105 m2 K/W
RSO = 0.055 m2 K/W

Vapour Resistivity
RVSi = negligible (very small, - MN s/g m)
RV1 (Plaster) = 50 MN s/g m
RV2 (EPS) = 100 MN s/g m
RV3 (Concrete) = 30 MN s/g m
RVSO = negligible (very small, - MN s/g m)

Temperatures
TInside (T1) = 200C ……………….. 59% RH ………. (1400 Pa)
 Interstitial Condensation Risk Analysis – (Solution)

Step 1: Use the thermal resistances to calculate the temperature drop across
each layer and the temperature at each boundary.

Total temperature drop(θT ) = 20 - 0 = 20OC

RT = 1.093

Item
Thermal resistance Temperature drop Boundary temperature
Rn Layer R (m2K/W) Δθ(ºC) (ºC)
Inside air - - 20
Rsi Internal surface 0.123 ([0.123/1.093) *20) = 2.3 -
Boundary - - 17.7
R1 Plasterboard 0.06 1.1 -
Boundary - - 16.6
R2 EPS 0.75 13.7 -
Boundary - - 2.9
R3 Dense concrete 0.105 1.9 -
Boundary - - 1.0
Rso External surface 0.055 1.0 -
Outside air - - 0.0
RT = 1.093 θT = 20
 Interstitial Condensation Risk Analysis
(Solution Continue)
Step 2: Use vapour resistances to calculate the vapour pressure drops across
each of the layers then, using the psychrometric chart, find the dew point
temperature at each boundary.

Inside vapour pressure = 1400 Pa

Outside vapour pressure = 600 Pa
Total vapour pressure drop = 1400 - 600 = 800 Pa

Thickness Vapour Vapour VP drop VP at Dew point at

Item Layer (m) resistivity resistance (Pa) boundary (Pa) boundary (ºC)
Rn L rv RV = L x rv ΔP
Rvsi Internal surface - - negligible - - -
Boundary - - - - 1400 12
Rv1 Plasterboard 0.010 50 0.5 53 - -
Boundary - - - - 1347 11.5
Rv2 EPS 0.025 100 2.5 267 - -
Boundary - - - - 1080 7.4
Rv3
Dense concrete 0.150 30 4.5 480 - -
Boundary - - - - 600 0
External surface - - negligible
Rvso
RVT = 7.5 ΔP = 800
 Interstitial Condensation Risk Analysis
(Solution Continue)
Step 3: Plot the boundary temperatures on a scaled section of the wall and join
the points to produce a temperature gradient.

Step 4: Plot the dew point temperatures on the scaled, section diagram and
produce a dew point gradient.

Scaled section diagram [Source: McMullan, 2007]

 Minimising Condensation Risk: Vapour Barriers

In walls constructed from permeable materials, water vapour can pass through the
structure, and evaporate from the outside surface.

However, if a wall has an impermeable outer face, evaporation will be prevented,

and the material may become saturated. This may lead to deterioration of the
building fabric and structure and mould growth.

The risk of interstitial condensation in building elements can be reduced if water

vapour is prevented from permeating through the construction.

Although no material is a perfect barrier to the transfer of water vapour some

materials do offer an acceptably high resistance. Such materials when used in this
way are called vapour barriers or a vapour check e.g., aluminium foil and
polythene sheeting - all of which have high vapour resistances.

Vapour barriers should be fitted to the warm side of the structure to minimise
vapour penetration.
 Minimising Condensation Risk: Design

There are a number of ways in which good design can prevent the occurrence of
condensation within buildings. The factors that should be considered during the
design process are:

Factor Means of Reducing Condensation Risk

(1) Moisture input Moisture production from occupants cannot be controlled. However, the
moisture input from other sources should be either controlled by
extracting the moisture at source, or reduced by changing processes.

(2) Ventilation Increasing the ventilation rate will help to remove the moist air within the
building. Ventilation will be most effective if it is near the source of
moisture generation. Care should be taken to avoid excessive ventilation as
this will have an energy penalty.

(3) Heating Heating a building will raise the internal surface temperatures, keeping
them above the dew point temperature of the air inside the building. Care must
be taken to prevent excessive heating as this will not only incur an energy penalty,
but may also raise temperatures above comfort conditions. If heating is
intermittent, more continuous heating will raise internal surface temperatures and
structural temperatures, thus reducing the condensation risk.

Insulation Insulating the building envelope will help to raise the internal surface
(4) temperatures of the building.
 References
BSI (2005) BS 5250: Code of Practice for Control of Condensation in Dwellings. London: British Standards
Institution.

BURBERRY, P. (1997) Environmental Services 8th Edition. Mitchell’s Building Construction Series

CIBSE (1999) Volume A Design Data, 5th Edition. London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

CIBSE (2004) Guide to Energy Efficiency, London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

CIBSE (2006) Energy Assessment and Reporting Methodology, London: Chartered Institution of Building
Services Engineers

CIBSE (2007) , Environmental Design Guide A, London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

CIBSE (2007 a) Sustainability Guide, London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

DEFRA (2005) The Government’s Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of
Dwellings 2005 Edition, Watford: BRE

JOHNSTON, D. (2009) GHA monitoring programme – Phase 1. Report Number 1 – Draft Co-heating Testing
Proposal Leeds: Leeds Metropolitan University

McMULLAN, R. (2007) Environmental Science in Buildings. 6th Edition, London: MacMillan

RIBA (2007) Low Carbon Standards and Assessment Methods London: Royal Institute of British Architects

UK Green Building Council (2007) Report on Carbon Reductions in Non-Domestic Buildings London: DCLG

WINGFIELD, J. BELL, M. MILES-SHENTON, D. LOWE, B. and SOUTH, T. (2007) Interim Report Number 7 –
Co-heating tests and Investigation of party Wall Thermal Bypass. Partners in Innovation Project: CI 39/3/663.
Leeds: Leeds Metropolitan University.