Señales II

Signal Transformations Singularity Functions
Contents
2 Singularity Functions
1 Signal Transformations
Definition
Arithmetic Operations
Addition of a Constant Unit Step
Constant Multiplication Unit Impulse
Signal Addition CT Unit Impulse
Signal Multiplication DT Unit Impulse
Operations in the Independent Properties of the Unit Impulse
Variable Unit Ramp
Time Shifting Relationships between
Time Reversal Singularity Functions
Time Scaling
Polynomial Singularity
Precedence Rule
Functions
S. A. Dorado-Rojas Signals 2
Addition of a Constant
Addition of a constant A (A ∈ R) to the signal x (t) (or x [n]) is expressed as
g (t) = x (t) + A
(1)
g [n] = x [n] + A

At each instant, the amplitude of the result g (t) (g [n]) is equal to the
amplitude of the signal x (t) (x [n]) plus the constant offset value A

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Figure: Addition of a constant A to the signal x (t) [Alkin, 2014]

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Figure: Addition of a constant A to the signal x [n] [Alkin, 2014]

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Constant Multiplication
The multiplication of a signal x (t) (x [n]) with a constant gain B (B ∈ R) is written as
g (t) = Bx (t)
(2)
g [n] = Bx [n]

The result of this operation is a signal g (t) (g [n]), whose amplitude equals the product
of the value of the signal x (t) (x [n]) and the constant gain factor B at each time instant

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g (t) = Bx (t)
g [n] = Bx [n]
I B = −1 means amplitude reversal (reflection about the horizontal axis);

I |B| > 1 means amplitude stretching or elongation;
I |B| < 1 means amplitude compression;
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Figure: Constant multiplication Bx (t) [Alkin, 2014]

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Figure: Constant multiplication Bx [n] [Alkin, 2014]

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Signal Addition
Signal Addition
Signal addition is accomplished by adding the amplitudes of the signals at each time instant. For
two (or more) signals x1 (t) and x2 (t) (x1 [n] and x2 [n]), then
g (t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t)

(3)
g [n] = x1 [n] + x2 [n]
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Signal Addition
Figure: Signal addition (CT) [Alkin, 2014]
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Signal Addition
Figure: Signal addition (DT) [Alkin, 2014]
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Signal Multiplication
Given two (or more) signals x1 (t) and x2 (t) (x1 [n] and x2 [n]), their product is given by
g (t) = x1 (t) x2 (t)

(4)
g [n] = x1 [n] x2 [n]

The amplitude of g (t) (g [n]) at any time instant is equal to the product of the values of
the signals x1 (t) and x2 (t) (x1 [n] and x2 [n]) at any time instant

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Figure: Signal multiplication CT [Alkin, 2014]
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Figure: Signal multiplication DT [Alkin, 2014]
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Time Shifting
Time Shifting
Given a signal x(t) or x [n], their time-shifted forms g (t) = x (t − td ) and g [n] = x [n − k]
(td ∈ R, k ∈ Z are constants) are obtained as follows:
I If td > 0 or k > 0, the signals x (t − td ) and x [n − k] are delayed and shifted to the right
relative to t = 0 and n = 0 respectively.
I If td < 0 or k < 0, the signals x(t − td ) = x(t + |td |) and x [n − k] = x [n + |k|] are
advanced replicas of x(t) and x [n], with the signals shifted to the left.
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Time Shifting
g (t) = x (t − td )
g [n] = x [n − k]
Consider an event that happens at time instant t1 (n1 ). In the signal g (t) (g [n]), the
same event takes place at the time instant t1 + td (n1 + k)
I If td (k) is positive, then g (t) g [n] is a delayed version of x (t) (x [n])
I If td (k) is negative, then g (t) (g [n]) is an advanced version of x (t) (x [n])
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Time Shifting
Figure: Time shifting in CT [Alkin, 2014]

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Time Shifting
Figure: Time shifting in DT [Alkin, 2014]

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Time Reversal
Time Reversal
A time reversed version of the signal x(t) or x [n] is obtained through
g (t) = x (−t)
(5)
g [n] = x [−n]
This transformation is a reflection of x(t) or x [n] about the vertical axis

I We obtain x(−t) by replacing every t with −t
I We obtain x [−n] by replacing every n with −n
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Time Reversal
Figure: Time reversal in CT [Alkin, 2014]
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Time Reversal
Figure: Time reversal in DT [Alkin, 2014]
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Time Scaling in CT
Time Scaling in CT
A time scaled version of the signal x (t) is obtained through the relationship
g (t) = x (at) (6)
I The scaled signal x (at) will be compressed if |a| > 1 (i.e., time goes faster)
I The scaled signal will be expanded if |a| < 1 (i.e., time goes slower)
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Time Scaling in CT
Consider an event happening at t = t1 . Substituting t = ta1 in g (t) = x (at) produces

t
1
g = x (t1 )
a

The corresponding event in g (t) takes place at the time instant t = ta1

I Scaling parameter value of a > 1: results in the signal g (t) being a compressed version
of x (t)
I Scaling parameter value of a < 1: leads to a signal g (t) that is an expanded version of
x (t)
I Scaling parameter value a = −1: corresponds to time reversal
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Time Scaling in CT
Figure: Time scaling in CT [Alkin, 2014]
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Time Scaling in DT
Time Scaling in DT
For DT signals, we consider time scaling in the following two forms
g [n] = x [kn] k ∈ Z (downsampling)

hni (7)
g [n] = x k ∈ Z (upsampling)
k
When k = −1, time scaling corresponds to time reversal
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Downsampling
Figure: Downsampling of a DT signal (g [n] = x [kn] for k = 2, 3) [Alkin, 2014]

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Downsampling
Consider k = 2, then
g [n] = x [2n]
For several values of n we have
... g [−1] = x [−2] g [0] = x [0] g [1] = x [2] g [2] = x [4] ...
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
n=−1 n=0 n=1 n=2

g [n] retains every other sample of x [n] and discards the samples between them

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Downsampling
Figure: Downsampling (g [n] = x [2n]) [Alkin, 2014]
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Downsampling
For k = 3, the samples of g [n] = x [3n] are
... g [−1] = x [−3] g [0] = x [0] g [1] = x [3] g [2] = x [6] ...
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
n=−1 n=0 n=1 n=2
Every third sample of x [n] is retained, and the samples between them are discarded

In the transformation g [n] = x [kn] (k ∈ Z), every kth sample of x [n] is retained in g [n]

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Downsampling
Figure: Downsampling (g [n] = x [3n]) [Alkin, 2014]
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Upsampling
n
We study now the transformation g [n] = x k(k ∈ Z). Let k = 2, then
hni
g [n] = x
2
Recall that a DT signal is only defined for integer values of its argument
n
→ n = 0, ±2, ±4, . . .
2
|{z}
Must be
an integer
The sample amplitudes of the signal g [n] for odd values of n are not linked to the signal x [n] in
any way. Let us set those undefined samples equal to zero.
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Upsampling
hni
g [n] = x
2
... g [−2] = x [−1] g [−1] = x [−0.5] = 0 g [0] = x [0] g [1] = x [0.5] = 0 g [2] = x [1] ...
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
n=−2 n=−1 n=−2 n=1 n=2
Alternatively, we can rewrite this as g [n] = x [m] m = 2n n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . .

The transformation g [n] = x kn (k ∈ Z) is defined as g [n] = x [m] where

m = kn n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . .

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Upsampling
Figure: Upsampling [Alkin, 2014]
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Precedence Rule
Precedence Rule
Consider a signal y (t) or y [n] obtained from x(t) or x [n] by time shifting and time-scaling operations such that
y (t) = x(at − b) y [n] = x [an − b]
a

Notice that y (0) = x (−b) and y b
= x (0). The time shifting operation is applied first

b b b
v (t) = x(t − ) v [n] = x n − iff ∈ Z
a a a
and the time-scaling operation is performed in the last step by evaluating the intermediate signal v (t) at t = at (or v [n]
at n = an)

b
y (t) = v (at) = x a t − = x (at − b)
a

b
y [n] = v [an] = x a n − = x [an − b]
a
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Precedence Rule
We will present two approaches to determine the relationship between the original and the transformed
signal
Approach 1
b

First, apply time shifting to the point x (0) in the original signal to obtain it at y a

b
v (t) = x t − (8)
a
Then, perform the time scaling by evaluating the intermediate signal v (t) at t = at

b
y (t) = v (at) = x a t − = x (at − b) (9)
a
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Precedence Rule
Approach 2
In the transformed signal, consider y (0)
y (0) = x (−b)
to identify b.
In the original signal, concentrate on x (0)

b
x (0) = y
a
to determine ba , and therefore find a. Thus
y (t) = x (at − b)
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Definition of Singularity Function
Definition (CT Singularity Function)

A (CT) singularity function is one that is discontinuous or has discontinuous derivatives
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CT Unit Step

The unit-step function is useful in
CT Unit Step or Heaviside
situations where we need to model a
Function
signal that is turned on or off at a
The CT unit step function is defined as
specific time instant
(
1 t≥0
u(t) = (10)
0 t<0

The information or energy of CT
signals depends on not only
amplitude but also time duration Figure: CT unit step function
[Chen, 2004, Chen, 2009] [Alkin, 2014]

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CT Unit Step
Figure: Turning on a signal after t1 s (modeled by shifted CT unit step) [Alkin, 2014]
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CT Unit Step
Figure: Turning off a signal after t1 s (modeled by shifted and reversed CT unit step) [Alkin, 2014]
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DT Unit Step
DT Unit Step
The unit step sequence is defined as
(
1 n≥0
u [n] = (11)
0 n<0 Figure: DT unit step [Alkin, 2014]
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CT Unit Impulse
CT Unit Impulse
The unit impulse function, or Dirac-delta function, occurs at t = 0 and is defined as
(
∞ t=0
δ(t) = (12)
0 t 6= 0
and it has the property
Z ∞ Z 0+
δ(t)dt = δ(t)dt = 1 (13)
−∞ 0−
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CT Unit Impulse
Figure: CT unit impulse (delta-dirac function) [Alkin, 2014]
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How to Obtain a CT Unit Impulse?

imp_demo

Figure: Pulse approximation to unit impulse [Alkin, 2014]
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DT Unit Impulse
DT Unit Impulse
The unit impulse sequence (Kronecker delta function) is defined as
(
1 n=0
δ [n] = (14)
0 n 6= 0
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DT Unit Impulse
Figure: Shifted and scaled DT unit

Figure: DT unit impulse [Alkin, 2014]
impulse [Alkin, 2014]
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Sampling Property (CT)

Sampling Property (CT)
f (t) δ (t − t1 ) = f (t1 ) δ (t − t1 ) (15)
Figure: Sampling property of the CT unit impulse [Alkin, 2014]
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Sifting Property (CT)
Sifting Property (CT)

Z ∞
f (t) δ (t − t1 ) = f (t1 )
−∞
Z t1 +∆t (16)
f (t) δ (t − t1 ) = f (t1 )
t1 −∆t
Proof:
Sampling
Z ∞ Property
Z ∞
f (t) δ (t − t1 ) dt → f (t1 ) δ (t − t1 ) dt
−∞ −∞
Z ∞
=f (t1 ) δ (t − t1 ) dt
−∞
=f (t1 ) (1) = f (t1 )
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Impulse Decomposition for CT Signals
Impulse Decomposition for CT Signals

Z ∞
x (t) = x (τ ) δ (t − τ ) dτ (17)
−∞

id_demo
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Sampling Property (DT)
Sampling Property (DT)

x [n] δ [n − n1 ] = x [n1 ] δ [n − n1 ] = x [n1 ] (18)
Figure: Sampling property of the CT unit impulse [Alkin, 2014]
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Sifting Property (DT)
Sifting Property (DT)

∞
X
x [n] δ [n − n1 ] = x [n1 ] (19)
n=−∞
Proof:
Sampling
∞ ∞
X Property X
x [n] δ [n − n1 ] → x [n1 ] δ [n − n1 ]
n=−∞ n=−∞
∞
X
=x [n1 ] δ [n − n1 ]
n=−∞
=x [n1 ] (1) = x [n1 ]

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Impulse Decomposition for DT Signals
Consider an arbitrary discrete-time signal x [n].Let us define a new signal by using the kth sample
of the signal x [n]
(
x [k] n = k
xk [n] = x [k] δ [n − k] = (20)
0 n 6= k
If we repeat this definition for all possible values of k (k = −∞, . . . , ∞), we would obtain an
infinite number of signals xk [n]. In each of these signals there would only be one non-trivial
sample, the amplitude of which equals the corresponding value of x [n] at n = k. If we add all of
those samples, we reconstruct the signal x [n]
∞
X ∞
X
x [n] = xk [n] = x [k] δ [n − k] (21)
k=−∞ k=−∞
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Impulse Decomposition for DT Signals
Example
 
 
x [n] = . . . , 3.7, 1.3 , −1.5, 3.4, 5.9, . . .
 ↑ 
n=0
   
   
x−1 [n] = . . . , 3.7, 0 , 0, 0, 0, . . . x2 [n] = . . . , 0, 0 , 0, 3.4, 0, . . .
 ↑   ↑ 
n=0 n=0
   
   
x0 [n] = . . . , 0, 1.3 , 0, 0, 0, . . . x3 [n] = . . . , 0, 0 , 0, 0, 5.9, . . .
 ↑   ↑ 
n=0 n=0
 
 
x1 [n] = . . . , 0, 0 , −1.5, 0, 0, . . .
 ↑ 
n=0
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Unit Ramp
Unit Ramp Function Unit Ramp Seqence

The unit ramp function is defined as: The unit ramp sequence is defined as
( (
t t≥0 n n≥0
r (t) = (22) r [n] = (23)
0 t<0 0 n<0
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Unit Ramp
Figure: CT unit ramp [Alkin, 2014] Figure: DT unit ramp [Alkin, 2014]
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Constructing CT Ramp
Figure: Constructing CT ramp [Alkin, 2014]
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Constructing DT Ramp
Figure: Constructing DT Ramp [Alkin, 2014]

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CT Steps and Impulses
Running Integral
Z t
u (t) = δ (τ ) dτ (24)
−∞
Figure: CT unit step as the running integral of the unit impulse [Alkin, 2014]
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CT Steps and Impulses
Step Derivative
d
δ (t) = [u (t)] (25)
dt
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DT Steps and Impulses
Running Sum
n
X
u [n] = δ [k] (26)
k=−∞
Figure: DT unit step as the running sum of the unit impulse [Alkin, 2014]
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DT Steps and Impulses

First Difference
δ [n] = u [n] − u [n − 1] (27)
Figure: DT unit impulse as the first difference of the unit step [Alkin, 2014]
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Relationships between Singularity Functions
Continuous-Time Discrete-Time
d
I u(t) = dt [r (t)] I δ [n] = u [n] − u [n − 1]
d
I δ (t) = dt [u(t)] I u [n] = r [n] − r [n − 1]
Rt Pn
I r (t) = −∞ u (τ ) dτ
I u [n] = k=−∞ δ [k]
Rt Pn
u (t) = I r [n] = k=−∞ u [k]
−∞ δ (τ ) dτ
I
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Polynomial Singularity Functions
Polynomial Singularity Functions 4

Singularity functions
For n ≥ 0, we denote a polynomial

singularity function as 3
f(t)
g(t)
( Out[129]=
2 h(t)
n
n (t − a) t≥a k(t)
ht − ai = (28)
0 t<a 1
t
For instance, the step function can be -1 1 2 3
expressed as
( Figure: Plots of some polynomial
0 1 t≥a singularity functions
ht − ai = (29)
0 t<a
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Derivatives and Integrals of Polynomial Singularity Functions
For n ≥ 0
Z
n 1 n+1
ht − ai dt = ht − ai (30)
n+1
and for n ≥ 1
d n n−1
ht − ai = n ht − ai (31)
dt
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References I
Alkin, O. (2014).
Signals and Systems - A MATLAB Integrated Approach.
CRC Press.
Chen, C.-T. (2004).
Signals and Systems.
3 edition.
Chen, C.-T. (2009).
Signals and Systems : A Fresh Look.
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Signal Transformations Singularity Functions

Figure: Addition of a constant A to the signal x (t) [Alkin, 2014]

Figure: Addition of a constant A to the signal x [n] [Alkin, 2014]

I B = −1 means amplitude reversal (reflection about the horizontal axis);

Figure: Constant multiplication Bx (t) [Alkin, 2014]

Figure: Constant multiplication Bx [n] [Alkin, 2014]

g (t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t)

Figure: Signal addition (CT) [Alkin, 2014]

Figure: Signal addition (DT) [Alkin, 2014]

g (t) = x1 (t) x2 (t)

Figure: Signal multiplication CT [Alkin, 2014]

Figure: Signal multiplication DT [Alkin, 2014]

Figure: Time shifting in CT [Alkin, 2014]

Figure: Time shifting in DT [Alkin, 2014]

This transformation is a reflection of x(t) or x [n] about the vertical axis

Figure: Time reversal in CT [Alkin, 2014]

Figure: Time reversal in DT [Alkin, 2014]

g (t) = x (at) (6)

Consider an event happening at t = t1 . Substituting t = ta1 in g (t) = x (at) produces

Figure: Time scaling in CT [Alkin, 2014]

g [n] = x [kn] k ∈ Z (downsampling)

When k = −1, time scaling corresponds to time reversal

Figure: Downsampling of a DT signal (g [n] = x [kn] for k = 2, 3) [Alkin, 2014]

Figure: Downsampling (g [n] = x [2n]) [Alkin, 2014]

For k = 3, the samples of g [n] = x [3n] are

Figure: Downsampling (g [n] = x [3n]) [Alkin, 2014]

Alternatively, we can rewrite this as g [n] = x [m] m = 2n n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . .

m = kn n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . .

Figure: Upsampling [Alkin, 2014]

Definition of Singularity Function

Definition (CT Singularity Function)

Figure: CT unit impulse (delta-dirac function) [Alkin, 2014]

How to Obtain a CT Unit Impulse?

Figure: Pulse approximation to unit impulse [Alkin, 2014]

Figure: Shifted and scaled DT unit

Sampling Property (CT)

Figure: Sampling property of the CT unit impulse [Alkin, 2014]

Sifting Property (CT)

Sifting Property (CT)

Impulse Decomposition for CT Signals

Impulse Decomposition for CT Signals

Sampling Property (DT)

Sampling Property (DT)

Figure: Sampling property of the CT unit impulse [Alkin, 2014]

Sifting Property (DT)

Sifting Property (DT)

=x [n1 ] (1) = x [n1 ]

Impulse Decomposition for DT Signals

Impulse Decomposition for DT Signals

Unit Ramp Function Unit Ramp Seqence

Figure: Constructing CT ramp [Alkin, 2014]

Figure: Constructing DT Ramp [Alkin, 2014]

CT Steps and Impulses

CT Steps and Impulses

DT Steps and Impulses

DT Steps and Impulses

Relationships between Singularity Functions

Polynomial Singularity Functions

Polynomial Singularity Functions 4

For n ≥ 0, we denote a polynomial

Derivatives and Integrals of Polynomial Singularity Functions

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