Signals & Systems

Introduction to Communication System

Contents:
o Signal, its types and properties
o Systems, its types and properties
o Review of Fourier series & Fourier transform
o General communication system & its characteristics
1.1) SIGNALS

The variation of dependent parameter with respect to X(t)

independent parameter constitutes a signal. Signal can be
also defined as a singled value function of time that X(t)=f(t)
conveys information. It may be of real value or complex
t
value. Signals may be of different types, e. g. audio signal,
video signal or data signal etc. Fig: Illustration of Sigal

CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS

Signals may describe a wide variety of physical phenomena. Although signals can be represented
in many ways, in all cases, the information in a signal is contained in a pattern of variations of
some form. Signals are classified into following categories:

1. Continuous Time & Discrete Time Signal

In continuous time signal, the independent variable is a continuous function. Therefore,
the amplitude of the signal exists continuously over the range of time.

X(t) X(nT) X(t)

X(t)=f(t)
t nT t

CT Signal DT Signal CT Digital Signal

In discrete time signal, the independent variable is a discrete in type. Therefore they are
just defined only at discrete interval of time. A discrete time signal is a sampled form of
continuous time signal. When each sample is quantized into a finite series of value, we
get a digital signal.

DT Signal

Analog Signal
Sampling Quantization Digital Signal
(CT Signal)

Fig: Process of Analog to Digital Converstion

The process of representing a continuous or analog signal by a finite number of discrete

states is called quantization.
Page2

Prepared By
Er. Shree Krishna Khadka
(Lecturer: AITM/KIST/MAMTS)
2. Deterministic & Random Signal
Deterministic signals are those which can be determined by a simple algebraic equation
or tabular form or by graphical representation. That is the solution of which are
consistent, e.g. x(t) = sin(t)
Random signals are those which cannot be determined by a simple algebraic equation
or tabular form or graphical representation. They are non deterministic and inconsistent.
For example: noise signals.

3. Causal & Non Causal Signal

Causal signal is the one in X(t) X(t)

which there is no signal part
for: t<0 1

i.e. x(t) = 0; t < 0 t t

Fig: Causal Signals

X(t)
So, in other words, signals having
0
t no future values are also called
Future Present Past
causal signal.
Values State Values

Non causal signal is the signal X(t) X(t)

in which there is some signal 1
part for: t<0 t t
0
-1
i.e. x(t) ≠ 0; t < 0 Fig: Non Causal Signals

X(t)
A signal is said to be anti-causal if it has no signal
part for: t>0.
t
0
Fig: Anti Causal Signal For example: devices having storage value.

4. Periodic & Non Periodic Signal

Periodic signal is that which repeats itself

X(t) X(t)
over a certain interval of time regularly.
A signal x(t) is said to be periodic with T: t t
If x(t + T) = x(t) -1 1 -1 1

If the signal violates the above condition,

Fig: Periodic Signal Fig:Non Periodic Signal
then it is called non periodic signal.
Page3

i.e. x(t + T)  x(t)

Prepared By
Er. Shree Krishna Khadka
(Lecturer: AITM/KIST/MAMTS)
5. Even & Odd Signal
Any signal x(t) is said to be even if it satisfies the condition: x(t) = x(-t) otherwise
considered to be odd. For odd signal: x(t) = - x(-t).

X(t)=cos(t) X(t) X(t)=sin(t) X(t)=t3

t t t t
-1 1 -1 1

Fig: Even Signals

Fig: Odd Signals

Every signal x(t) can be represented as sum of odd and even part of x(t).

i. e. x(t) = Ev{x(t)} + Od{x(t)}

1 1
Where: Ev{x(t)} = {x(t) + x(−t)} & Od{x(t)} = {x(t) − x(−t)}
2 2

Example:
Find even and odd part of the signal x(t).

X(t)+X(-t)
2
X(t) X(-t) ½{X(t)+X(-t)}
1 1 1 1 1

+ = = 0.5 0.5
t t t t
-2 0 2 -2 0 2 0 0

Fig: Even Part of the Signal x(t)

X(t)-X(-t)
1 ½{X(t)-X(-t)}
X(t) X(-t) 0.5
1 1
= t
0 t 0
- =
-0.5
t t -1
-2 0 2 -2 0 2

Fig: Odd Part of the Signal x(t)

6. Real & Complex Signal

Any signal x(t) is said to be real signal xR(t) if it takes the real number system.

x(t)  xR(t) R (Real Number)

Complex signals take the value in complex number system.

x(t)  xC(t) C (Complex Number)

Page4

Prepared By
Er. Shree Krishna Khadka
(Lecturer: AITM/KIST/MAMTS)
TYPES OF SIGNALS USED IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

In communication system, we need to use some standard signals and express them graphically
and mathematically.

1. DC Signal

In DC signal, the amplitude A remains constant X(t)=d(t)

independent of time. It can be represented A
mathematically as:
t
x(t) = A; For − ∞ < 𝑡 < ∞ Fig: DC Signal

2. Rectangular Pulse

A rectangular pulse of unit amplitude and duration is X(t)=rect(t)

shown below with following mathematical representation. 1
1 1
1; for − ≤ t ≤ t
rect(t) = { 2 2} -T/2 0 T/2
0; Otherwise
Fig: Rectangular Pulse

3. Triangular Pulse

A triangular pulse or signal with unit magnitude is defined X(t)= D(t)

by the equation:

1 − t; 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
∆(t) = { } t
1 + t; −1 ≤ t ≤ 0 -1 0 1
Fig: Triangular Pulse

4. Sinusoidal Signal

A sinusoidal signals include sine or cosine signals, X(t)=sin(t)

mathematically, they can be represented as:

A sine signal: x(t) = Asin(ωt) = Asin(2πft)

A cosine singl: x(t) = Acos(ωt) = Acos(2πft) Fig: Sinusoidal Signal

5. Delta/Unit Impulse Function

A delta function is defined only at t = 0 with width tends X(t)= d(t)

to zero. So that the area under the pulse is unit so called
1
unit impulse function. Mathematically:
t
1; t = 0 0
δ(t) = { }
0; Otherwise Fig: Delta Function
Page5

Prepared By
Er. Shree Krishna Khadka
(Lecturer: AITM/KIST/MAMTS)
6. Unit Step Signal

It has constant amplitude of unity for the zero or positive X(t)=u(t)

values of time whereas zero value for negative value of
1
time. Mathematically
t
1; t ≥ 0 Fig: Unit Step Signal
u(t) = { }
0; t < 0

7. Unit Ramp Signal

X(t)=r(t)
The value of unit ramp signal increases linearly with
increase in time. Mathematically,
t
t; t ≥ 0 0
r(t) = { }
0; t < 0 Fig: Unit Ramp Function

8. Signum Function
X(t)=sgn(t)
A Signum function is an odd or asymmetrical function
1
guided by the following mathematical equation:
t
0
-1
1; t > 0
sgn(t) = { }
−1; t < 0 Fig: Signum Function

9. Exponential Function

The exponential functions are also extensively used in X(t)=e ±at

signal analysis and has two types described by:

Decaying Exponential Function, x(t) = Ceαt t

Rising Exponential Function, x(t) = Ce−αt 0
Fig: Exponential Function

Where C & α both are real

10. Sinc Function

The Sinc function has the shape of sine wave but its X(t)=sinc(t)
amplitude goes on decreasing as the value of ‘t’ increases. 1
Mathematically:
t
1 ; for t = 0 0
Sinc(t) = {sin(πt) }
; for t ≠ 0
πt Fig: Sinc Function
Page6

Prepared By
Er. Shree Krishna Khadka
(Lecturer: AITM/KIST/MAMTS)
SOME USEFUL SIGNAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Some of the signals can be transformed from one form to another just with some standard
mathematical relationship, which is considered as a transformation tool or simply a system with
defined protocols.

∞ d(t) U(t) d(t)

u(t) = ∫0 δ(t)dt X(t) Y(t) y(t) X(t)
òx(t)dt 1 d/dt(y(t))

0 t t 0 t
d System Inverse System
δ(t) = {u(t)}
dt

∞ r(t)
r(t) = ∫0 u(t)dt U(t)
X(t) Y(t) y(t)
U(t)
X(t)
1 òx(t)dt d/dt(y(t)) 1

d t t t
0
u(t) = {r(t)} System Inverse System
dt

sgn(t) = {2u(t) − 1} U(t)

Sgn(t) U(t)

X(t) Y(t) 1 y(t) X(t) 1

1
X(t)-1 {Y(t)+1}/2
1 0 t
u(t) = {sgn(t) + 1} t -1
2 Inverse System
System

TRANSFORMATION OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

The transformation of a signal is a central concept in signal and system analysis. It is necessary
to transform a signal in order to enhance desirable characteristics, to remove unnecessary
noises or to balance the several components of the signal. Thus, an elementary signal
transformation involves simple modification of the independent variable i.e. the time axis in
order to achieve such attempts.

X(t) X(t-T) X(t+T)

1
1 1
0
t t t
0 T 0 t-T 2T t+T/2 T/2
Original Signal Time Delayed Signal Time Advanced Signal

Fig: Time Shifting

X(-t) X(2t)
X(t/2)
1 1 1

0 T/2 0 T/2 0 2T

Reflection Compressed Signal Expanded Signal

Page7

Fig: Time Scaling

Prepared By
Er. Shree Krishna Khadka
(Lecturer: AITM/KIST/MAMTS)
1.2) SYSTEMS
A mathematical model of a physical or logical entity or processes that relates its input or
excitation signals to the output or response signals is a system. A system maps input
signals into output.

Input/Excitation System Output/Response

CLASSIFICATION/PROPERTIES OF SYSTEMS

1. Continuous Time & Discrete Time System

Continuous time system takes continuous time signal as an input and maps it into
continuous time signal as output.

X(t) CT System Y(t)

Discrete time system takes discrete time signal as an input and manipulates it to give
discrete time signal as output.

X[n] DT System Y[n]

2. Linear and Non Linear System

A system is said to be linear, if it holds the principle of superposition, i.e. the response of
a linear system to a weighted sum of inputs is equal to the same weighted summer
output signals.

Mathematically,
Linear System = Homogeneity Property + Additivity Property
For the following system with x(t) as an input and y(t) as an output.

X(t) Y(t)
f

System

If x1(t) and x2(t) are two different inputs then

Homogeneity Property states: y1(t) = ax1(t) and y2(t) = ax2(t).

Additivity Property states: ay1(t) + by2(t) = ax1(t) + bx2(t)

Page8

Prepared By
Er. Shree Krishna Khadka
(Lecturer: AITM/KIST/MAMTS)
3. Time Invariant and Time Variant System
If the property of the system is not altered with the time, it is said to be time invariant or
shift invariant system. In other words, if output and input characteristics does not
change with time, the system is called time invariant system.
Mathematically,

The system: y(t) = f{x(t)} is time invariant system, If: y(t − t 0 ) = f{x(t − t 0 )}

Rect(t)
sin(t)

X(t) Y(t)
F{X(t)}
-1 1 -1

Rect(t-1)
sin(t-1)

X(t) Y(t)
F{X(t-1)}
2

Any other systems violating the above condition are regarded as time variant systems.

4. Static and Dynamic System

A system is memory less (static), if its current output at any time depends only on the
input at the same time but does not depend on past or future inputs.

Mathematically, y(t) = f{x(t)}

In any other case, the system is said to be dynamic or memory system.

Mathematically, y(t) = f{x(t), x(t − t 0 ) … }

5. Causal and Non Causal System

A causal system is one for which the output of the system at any time depends only on
present and past inputs but does not depend on future inputs.

Mathematically,
y(t) = f{x(t), x(t − 1), x(t − 2) … . }
Or, y(t) = f{x(t), x(t − t 0 )} for t 0 ≥ 0

Any system violating the above condition falls under non causal system. These systems
are not physically realizable since in real time signal application, we cannot get future
values of the signal.
Page9

Prepared By
Er. Shree Krishna Khadka
(Lecturer: AITM/KIST/MAMTS)
6. Stable and Unstable System
There are various definitions of stability of the system. One of them is BIBI (Bounded
Input Bounded Output) stability criteria. So, if a system gives bounded output for
bounded input, it is called BIBO stable system. That is: for input: |x(t)| ≤ Mx if the
system produces the output: |y(t)| ≤ My the system is BIBO stable, where Mx and My are
any finite values.

7. Invertible and Non Invertible System

Any system is said to be invertible, if an inverse system exists such that when connected
in series with the original system produces and output equal to the input of the first
system otherwise said to be non-invertible system.

f1* f2 = d(t)
X(t) Y(t) X(t)
f1 f2

System Inverse System

Fig: Invertible System

Note:
What is linear time invariant system?
A system exhibiting both linearity property and the time invariant property is considered
as linear time invariant system. That is: it investigates the response of a linear and time
invariant system to and arbitrary input signal.

Any LTI system can be characterised

entirely by a single function called
the system’s impulse response. The
output of the system is simply the
convolution of the input to the
system with system’s impulse
response.

Equivalently, any LTI can be characterized in the frequency domain by the system’s transfer
function, which is the Laplace Transform of the system’s impulse response (or Z Transform
in the case of discrete time system). As a result of the properties of these transforms, the
output of the system in the frequency domain is the product of the transfer function and
the transform of the input.
Page10

Prepared By
Er. Shree Krishna Khadka
(Lecturer: AITM/KIST/MAMTS)
1.3) REVIEW OF FOURIER SERIES & FOURIER TRANSFORMATION

1. Why frequency analysis is needed?

- It is easier to analyse the signal components in the easily perceivable domain i.e.
nothing but frequency domain.
- In time domain, we cannot see what frequency signals are dominating. Alternatively
what sine waves should be added to create a duplicate of a given signal but this can
only be possible in frequency domain through signal analysis.
- For filtering and enhancement of particular or set of frequency components.

2. Fourier Series Concept

Sinusoidal ultimately complex exponential signals play a major role in the analysis of the
signal and system. The harmonically related complex exponentials are the sets of periodic
complex exponential with frequency that are multiple of single positive frequency called
fundamental frequency.

… Note:
… Existence of Fourier Series (Dirichlet’s Condition)
S-1(t) = e−j.1.ω0 t The continuous time Fourier Series exists only when the
S0 (t) = e−j.0.ω0 t = 1 function x(t) satisfies the following conditions.
S-1(t) = e−j.1.ω0 t
- x(t) is well defined and a singled valued function.
S-2(t) = e−j.1.ω0 t - x(t) must possess only a finite number of
… discontinuities in the period T.
… - x(t) must have a finite number of positive and
SK (t) = e−j.K.ω0 t negative maxima in the period T.

Fourier found that, the weighted sum of these infinite complex exponentials can
represent a general periodic signal having fundamental frequency ‘ ω0 ′ i.e. Xp(t) is
2π
periodic with T0 = , then it can be represented as:
ω0

xp (t) = ∑∞
K=−∞ CK e
jKωo t
… (i)

Where, CK is the weighting factor called exponential Fourier Series Coefficients; physically
it represents the amplitude of Kth harmonics present in the signal. Equation (i) is known
as synthesis equation. Also:

1
CK = ∫ x (t)e−jKω0t dt …. (ii)
T0 <T0 > p

This is known as analysis equation.

Equation (i) can be transformed into:

K=1(a K cosKω0 t + bK sinKω0 t) …. (iii)

xp (t) = C0 + ∑∞
Page11

Prepared By
Er. Shree Krishna Khadka
(Lecturer: AITM/KIST/MAMTS)
Equation (iii) is known as Trigonometric Fourier Series, where:

1
C0 = ∫<𝑇> xp (t) dt … (iv)
T

2
aK = ∫<𝑇> xp (t)cosKω0 t dt … (v)
T

2
bK = ∫<𝑇> xp (t)sinKω0 t dt … (vi)
T

Example 1)
A signal has fundamental frequency of ‘wo’ with following Fourier
Coefficients. Synthesize the signal.
C0 = 5, C1 = ejπ/2 , C2 = 2ejπ/3 , C−1 = e−jπ/2 , C−2 = e−jπ/3
S𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
xp (t) = ∑∞
K=−∞ CK e
jKωo t
= ∑2K=−2 CK ejKωot
= C−2 e−j2ωot + C−1 e−j1ωot + C0 + C1 ej1ωot + C2 ej2ωot
= e−jπ/3 e−j2ωot + e−jπ/2 e−j1ωot + 5 + ejπ/2 ej1ωot + ejπ/3 ej2ωot
π π π π
= 2e−j( 3 +2ωot) + e−j( 2 +ωot) + 5 + ej( 2 +ωot) +2ej( 3 +2ωot)
π π
xp (t) = 5 + 4 cos ( + 2ωo t) + 2 cos ( + ωo t)
3 2

Example 2)
Find the Fourier series coefficients of the signal: Asinω0 t and plot the
magnitude and phase graph.
S𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
|Ck|
A/2 A/2
xp (t) = Asinω0 t
A K
= (ejωot − e−jωot ) -1 0 -1
2j
A A Magnitude Plot
= ejωot − e−jωot
2j 2j
ÐCK
p/2

A A A π
i.e. C1 = = (−j) = ( , − ) and -1 0 -1
K
2j 2 2 2
A A A π p/2
C -1 = -- = (j) = ( , )
2j 2 2 2
Phase Plot
Page12

Prepared By
Er. Shree Krishna Khadka
(Lecturer: AITM/KIST/MAMTS)
3. Fourier Transformation
- We can use this approach to develop the frequency domain representation of a non-
periodic signal over an entire interval.
- Since, the aperiodic signals are infinitesimally close in frequency, they are
represented in terms of an integral rather than sum. The resulting spectrum of
coefficient in this representation is called the Fourier Transform.
If x(t) be any aperiodic signal then its Fourier Transformation is given by:

FT{x(t)} = x(j)

∞
i.e. X(jω) = ∫−∞ x(t)e−jωt dt … (i) and

IFT{X(j)} = x(t)

1 ∞
i.e x(t) = ∫ X(jω)ejωt dω … (ii)
2π −∞

Where, equation (i) is called analysis equation while equation (ii) is known as synthesis
equation. Both equations in combine, recognized as Fourier Transform Pair.

Fourier Transform of Special Functions

Table of Fourier Transforms

Time Domain {x(t)} Frequency Domain {X(f)}
d(t) 1
1 d(f)
d(t-t0) e−j2πft0
ej2πft0 d(f-f0)
cos(2πf0 t) 1
{δ(f − f0 ) + δ(f + f0 )}
2
sin(2πf0 t) 1
{δ(f − f0 ) − δ(f + f0 )}
2j

Some Important Properties of Fourier Transformation

Time Domain {x(t)} Frequency Domain {X(f)} Property

ax(t)+by(t) aX(j) + bY(j) Linearity
x(at) 1 jω
X( ) Time Scaling
|a| a
x(t±t0) X(j).e±jt0 Time Shifting
x(t)e−jω0 t X[j(-0)] Frequency Shifting
d
{x(t)} jX(j) Differentiation
dt
t
∫0 x(t)dt
X(jω) Integration
jω
x1(t)*x2(t) X1(jω).X2(jω) Convolution
x1(t).x2(t) X1(jω)*X2(jω) Multiplication
X(t) 2πx(−jω) Duality
x(t)cos(0t) 1 Modulation
Page13

[X(jω + jω0 ) + X(jω − jω0 )]

2

Prepared By
Er. Shree Krishna Khadka
(Lecturer: AITM/KIST/MAMTS)
1.4) ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Communication is a system in which message signal or information is transferred from

one point to another point i.e. the purpose of a communication system is to transmit an
information bearing signal from source located at one point to destination located at
another point some distance away. The following block diagram shows the components
for communication.

Information Information
Source Destination
Noise &
Disturbances

Input Communication Output

Transmitter Receiver
Transducer Channel Transducer

Fig: Communication System

Description:

 Information Source: A communication system serves to communicate a message or

information; originates for the information source as in the form of words, groups of
words, codes, symbols, sound, signals etc. We can say that the function of information
source is to produce required message which has to be transmitted.
 Input Transducer: The message from the information source may or may not be
electrical in nature. In the case when message produce by the information source is not
electrical in nature and input transducer is used to convert it into an electrical signal.
 Transmitter: The transmitter modifies the message signal for efficient transmission.
Transmitter is required to make the signal suitable for signal conduction over the
channel. Modulation is the main function of the transmitter. In modulation the message
signal is superimposed upon the high frequency carrier signal.
 The Channel & Noise: Channel means the medium through which the modulated signal
travels from the transmitter to receiver. The function of the channel is to provide a
physical connection between the transmitter and the receiver. During the process or
transmission and reception the signal gets distorted due to noise introduce in the
system. Noise is an unwanted signal which tends to interfere with the required signal.
Noise signal is always random in nature. Noise may interfere with signal at any point in
a communication system; however the noise has its greatest effect on the signal on the
channel.
 Receiver: The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal in
electrical form the distorted received signal. This reproduction of the original signal is
accomplished by a process known as the demodulation or detection. Demodulation is
the reverse process of modulation carried out in transmitter.
 Destination: It is the final stage which is use to convert an electrical message signal
into its original form.
Page14

Prepared By
Er. Shree Krishna Khadka
(Lecturer: AITM/KIST/MAMTS)
a) Noise & its effect in communication system
Noise is an unwanted signal which is always random in nature and cannot be predictable.
That’s why in the process of transmission and reception, the signal get distorted or
attenuated. Signal strength attenuates with distance, so need repeaters to amplify the
signals at stages, though the received signal is corrupted by noise.
Mathematically, R(t) = A.S(t) + n(t)
Where, R(t) is received signal quality that depends on channel noise and noise between
repeaters, S(t) is the modulated signal and n(t) is noise.
Noise and attenuation go hand on hand. Signal and its quality degrade or attenuate
because of noise introduced in the channel through which the transfers of intelligence or
message occur. Attenuation (a), thus, defined mathematically as the reciprocal of gain, it
is a total loss.

Attenuation (a) = 20 log (Vin/Vout) dB

i.e. a = -20 log (Vout/Vin) dB
b) Types of Noise
1. Thermal Noise
It is produced due to movements of free electrons within the conducting portion of
electrical circuitry of the system.
Average thermal noise (Pn) = KTB watt, where, K is Boltzmann Constant, T is absolute
temperature, B is bandwidth of noise.
2. Shot Noise
This term is used to describe anode current noise in vacuum tubes resulting from
random fluctuation in electron emission from the cathode. In semiconductor devices
shot noise is used to describe the variation in number of electrons crossing potential
barrier.
3. Partition Noise
It is a result of random fluctuation in division when current is divided into two or more
paths.
4. Flicker/Low Frequency Noise
At frequency below few KHz, a noise appears in the devices whose spectral density
increases as frequency decreases, called flicker or (1/f) noise.
5. Transit Time/High Frequency Noise
In semiconductor, if the signal period is very low (i.e. frequency is very high), some of
the carriers may diffuse back to the source before crossing the junction barrier and
produce noise known as high frequency noise. The power spectral of this kind
increases with frequency.
6. Generation-Recombination Noise
Random process of generation and recombination of free electrons in semiconductor
Page15

devices due to random ionization of impurities produces this kind of noise.

Prepared By
Er. Shree Krishna Khadka
(Lecturer: AITM/KIST/MAMTS)
c) Concept of bandwidth and Shannon’s Channel Capacity Theorem
Bandwidth measures the capacity of channel. Normally channel is power limited or
bandwidth limited for example, telephone communication is band limited while satellite
communication is power limited.
For a channel with additive Gaussian white noise, the relation between channel capacity
(C), channel bandwidth (B) and the received signal to noise ratio (SNR) is given by:

C = B.log2 (1+SNR) bits/sec

 Implication of the theorem

- This theorem provides the upper limit of data transmission for a reliable
communication i.e. signal to noise ration and channel bandwidth can be adjusted to
have required capacity.
- The theorem provides the trade-off between B and SNR.

 Theoretical limitation
a) For noise less channel
As: C = B.log2 (1+SNR)
Where: SNR = (Ps/Pn) = (Signal Power/Noise Power)

If noise less channel, Pn = 0, i.e. SNR  , i.e. C  

Therefore, a noiseless channel has infinite capacity; such channel is called an ideal
channel which is practically not realizable.

b) For infinite bandwidth channel

As: C = B.log2 (1+SNR)

i.e. lim C = lim {B. log 2 (1 + SNR)}

B→∞ B→∞

As, SNR = Ps/Pn. If No be the Psd (Power Spectral Density) of Gaussian White Noise,
then: Pn = No.B. Then: SNR = Ps/No.B
Now:
i.e. lim C = lim {B. log 2 (1 + SNR)}
B→∞ B→∞
PS PS
= lim {B. log 2 (1 + )} = lim {log 2 (1 + )B }
B→∞ NO .B B→∞ NO .B

NO .B NO .B
PS PS PS PS
= lim {log 2 (1 + ) PS
}= lim {log 2 (1 + ) PS
}
B→∞ NO NO .B NO B→∞ NO .B

PS PS
= . log 2 e = 1.44( )
NO NO
Page16

That is for infinite bandwidth channel, capacity does not tend to infinite.

Prepared By
Er. Shree Krishna Khadka
(Lecturer: AITM/KIST/MAMTS)