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INVESTIGATION OF CRACKS IN CONCRETE PAVEMENTS BY

NONDESTRUCTIVE TECHNIQUES

Conference Paper · April 2004

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 INVESTIGATION OF CRACKS IN CONCRETE PAVEMENTS BY
NONDESTRUCTIVE TECHNIQUES

Hisham Qasrawi∗ and Iqbal Marie

Civil Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering
Hashemite University
Zarqa, Jordan
E-mail: hqasrawi2000@yahoo.com

Summery: Evaluation and assessment of cracking in rigid concrete

pavements is important for both safety provisions and maintenance. An
introduction to the commonly used nondestructive techniques for
investigation and evaluation of cracks in concrete pavements is
introduced. Types, possible causes, assessment and evaluation of these
cracks is discussed. Both visual and instrumental evaluation is shown.
Evaluation of the cracks by the use of nondestructive techniques is
extensively discussed, especially by the use of the ultra sonic pulse
velocity detectors. Theoretical equations, as well as, experimental results
have been introduced in order to estimate the depth, extent and inclination
of cracks appearing on the surface.
Furthermore, a special new experimental technique using the ultra sonic
pulse velocity detector is introduced in order to evaluate the possible
width of an internal crack. This can be obtained by the use of simple plots.
Also, using these plots, the inspector can predict the possibility of failure
of the tested concrete.

INTRODUCTION:

Rigid concrete pavements often suffer cracking during their lifetime. For the purpose
of good repair and maintenance, it is important to identify the cause, the extent and
the suitable repair material and technique. Practically, there are two basic types of
concrete pavements that can be used:
1. Reinforced concrete slabs.
2. Plain concrete slabs.

Worldwide, both systems are used and developed. Therefore, concrete pavements can
be constructed as one of the following systems:
1. Jointed unreinforced concrete slabs having well designed and detailed contraction
and expansion joints.
2. Jointed reinforced concrete slabs having well designed and detailed contraction
and expansion joints.
3. Continuously reinforced concrete slabs having no contraction or expansion joints.
4. Continuously reinforced concrete slabs having no contraction or expansion joints
with 100 mm bituminous surfacing. In this system, the concrete slabs, actually,
forms the roadbase.

∗
Corresponding Author: Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Hashemite University,
Zarqa 13115, Jordan.
E-mail: hqasrawi2000@yahoo.com
CONCRETE PAVEMENTS CRACKS

Cracks in concrete pavements can classified into the following major categories:
1. Joint cracks.
2. Surface cracks.
3. Structural cracks.
4. Cracks due to deterioration.

The cracks and defects in concrete pavements have been discussed in detail
(Mildenhall and Northcott 1986, Northcot 1992 and Wright and Dixon 2004 ).
It is important for engineers to understand the possible causes, extent and dangers of
any cracks before final judgment. Hence, the following paragraphs discuss the
cracking and crack patterns in concrete pavements.

Joint Cracks

Large number of cracks in concrete pavements occur at joints resulting in spalling of

concrete. These cracks are identified as shallow spalling, deep spalling, and various
cracking near joints extending to full depth. In some cases, even pop-outs close to
joints can occur. Figure 1 (Northcott 1992) shows possible patterns of these cracks.

a
a
a

c
b

Figure 1: Plan of concrete pavement showing joint cracks:

a: shallow spalling; b: deep spalling; c: D cracking.
 Joint cracks and defects in concrete pavements, their causes and description is
summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: Joint Cracks and Defects

Crack or Defect Possible Cause(s) Description

Shallow Spalling - Improper compaction
- Inadequate sealing of joint.
- Seepage of water through joint.
- Frost action.
Deep Spalling - Dowel misplacement.
- Build-up of detritus deeply in
the joint.
- Temperature effects.
- Frost action.
D Cracking - Temperature effects.
- Frost action.
- Improper construction.
- Improper joint design.
Full-Depth Cracks - Improper joint design.
- Improper construction of joint.
- Excessive unpredicted
contraction of concrete.
- In proximity of joint.
- Shallow (extends to depths
not exceeding 50 mm).
- Takes any shape with straight
edge at crack.
- Circular, elliptical, semi-
circular or semi-elliptical.
- Extends to high depths.
- Forms around joints.
- Pop-outs may be observed.
- Small cracks.
- Adjacent and parallel to
transverse joints.
- Continues around corners to
longitudinal joints.
- Extends to the full depth.
- Extends to the full length
between joints or edges.

Surface Cracks

Surface cracks are those non-structural cracks that appear on the surface (excluding
those of chemical deterioration). Figure 2 (Northcott 1992) shows possible patterns of
these cracks.

a b c

Figure 2: Plan of concrete pavement showing surface cracks:

a: plastic shrinkage cracking; b: surface scaling; c: pop-outs.
Surface cracks and defects in concrete pavements, their causes and description is
summarized in Table 2.

Table 2: Surface Cracks and Defects

Crack or Defect Possible Cause(s) Description

- Can be shallow or deep.
Plastic Settlement - Improper compaction.
- Usually parallel to
Cracks - Improper mix design.
reinforcement.
- Short and fine.
- Rapid drying. - Parallel.
Plastic Shrinkage
- Delayed curing. - Usually diagonal.
Cracks
- Insufficient curing. - Shallow (less than 50 mm
deep).
- Small bumps.
Surface - Construction errors. - Low areas at surface.
irregularities. - Improper compaction. - Causes stepping between
slabs (later ages).
- Improper mix design.
- Frost action. - Various surface cracks.
- Loss of air entrained during - Loss of mortar matrix at
Surface Scaling construction. surface.
- Excessive permeability of - Pop-outs can be observed.
concrete in cold weather. - Various spalling can occur.
- Wear and abrasion.

Structural Cracking

Structural cracks are those related to excessive stresses due to one or more of the
following:
1. Excessive wheel load.
2. Differential settlement of soil beneath pavement.
3. Stresses induced by contraction of restrained concrete.
4. Stresses induced by expansion of continuous concrete.

These cracks can take various shapes, position and length. They may extend to
limited depths and / or lengths, or they may extend to the whole depth and / or
length of any section of the pavement slab.

These cracks may extend or proceed in any direction: parallel or perpendicular

to the pavement centerline or they may extend diagonally in any slab section.
In many situations, these cracks can be seen near services and cutlities of the
road.

Figure 3 (Northcott 1992) shows possible patterns of these cracks.

 a b

e d

f
g

i i
h

Figure 3: Plan of concrete pavement showing structural cracks and defects:

a: transverse crack; b: crack at joint; c: longitudinal crack (construction errors);
d: longitudinal crack; e: short longitudinal crack; f: diagonal crack; g: corner crack;
h: cracks at gulleys and manholes; i: expansion failure (blow-up).
Structural cracks and defects in concrete pavements, their causes and description is
summarized in Table 3.

Table 3: Structural Cracks and Defects

Crack or Defect Possible Cause(s) Description

Longitudinal - Lack of crack inducer. - Short.
Cracks - Insufficient crack inducer depth. - Longitudinal.
- Settlement and loss of slab - Extends to any depth.
support.
- High compressive and shear
forces between particular slab
sections.
- Restriction of movement of one
side of a particular slab
section.
Transverse Cracks - Local settlement and loss of - Occurs at mid-bay.
support. - Parallel to transverse joints.
- Improper design of joint leading - Behind dowel bars.
to its malfunction.
- Excessive contraction in winter.
Diagonal Cracks - Local settlement and loss of - Extends diagonally in sections
support. between joints.
- Inadequate compaction. - Usually accompanied with
- Forces due to rise-up of simply- cracks at corners.
supported corners. - Associated with local
- Incomplete formation of joint. subsidence.
Vertical Joint - Improper structural design. - Stepping between slab
Movement - Poor load transfer at joints. sections.
- Soil upheaval and loss of - Water and mud, pumped from
support at a particular slab beneath slab) may be seen at
section. joints.
- Soil settlement and loss of
support.
- Poor sub-base or base of low
bearing capacity.
Expansion Failures - Inadequate number of - Blow-ups with one slab riding
expansion joints. up on the adjacent damaged
- Improper design of expansion one.
joint leading to its malfunction. - Can occur at any section or
- Excessive unpredicted summer any place.
temperature.
- Loss of shear between slabs and
base during summer.
Cracks due to Deterioration:

These cracks form due to the environmental effects and the accompanied chemical
deterioration of the concrete. The main causes are:
1. Sulfate attack.
2. Alkali-silicate reaction.
3. Corrosion of steel reinforcement.
4. Biodeterioration.
Well-designed and constructed concrete should suffer low deterioration. Therefore,
cracking due to these factors will only occur if special conditions are available. Such
Cracks and defects in concrete pavements due to these causes, their possible causes
and description is summarized in Table 4.

Table 4: Structural Cracks and Defects

Crack or Defect Possible Cause(s) Description

- Presence of sulfates in soils or
groundwater.
Sulfate Attack - Improper mix proportioning.
Cracking - Improper type of cement.
- Bad construction and quality
control.
- Presence of relatively high
amounts of alkalis
accompanied with reactive
silica and moisture.
Alkali-silica
- Improper type of cement.
(Alkali-aggregate)
- Bad construction and quality
Reaction Cracking
control.
- Improper mix proportioning.
- Presence of alkalis in the
surrounding environment.
- Presence of chlorides in the
surrounding environment.
- Bad construction and quality
control.
Cracking due to
- Improper mix proportioning
Corrosion of Steel
leading to concrete of high
Reinforcement
permeability.
- Improper type of cement.
- Loss of alkalinity of concrete.
- Carbonation of concrete.
- Presence of micro organisms
and their nutrients in the
Biodeterioration surrounding environment.
Cracking - Bad construction and quality
control.
- Various-sized cracks.
- Ettringite can be observed.
- Near contact with soil or salty
water.
- Small and large spalls can be
seen.
- Irregular cracks.
- Appears on surface and
extends inside concrete.
- Only on damp areas.
- Appears after years of
construction (most probably
after 5 years).
- Cracks parallel to steel bars.
- Usually accompanied with
reddish color of the corrosive
material leaching from crack.
- Cracks vary in width from
tiny to large cracks.
- Extends in depth to reach steel
bars.
- Various cracking modes
depending on the type of the
micro-organisms and their
effects.
- Aerobic and anaerobic steel
corrosion may take place.
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Direct determination of the strength or any other property of concrete implies that
concrete specimens be extracted, shipped and tested at laboratories. This procedure
would result in the actual strength (or property) of concrete, but would cause trouble
and delay in evaluating existing structures. Because of that, special techniques had
been developed in which attempts were made to measure some concrete property,
other than strength, and then relate it to strength, durability or any other property.
Some of such properties of concrete are its hardness, its resistance to penetration or
projectiles, its rebound number, its resonance frequency, and its ability to allow
ultrasonic pulse velocity to propagate through it. Concrete electrical properties, its
ability to absorb scatter, and transmit x-rays and gamma rays, its response to nuclear
activation, and its acoustic emission allow us to estimate its moisture content, density,
thickness, and its cement content. However, the term “non-destructive” is given to
any test which does not damage or affect the structural behavior of the elements and
also leaves the structure in an acceptable condition for the client. Malhotra 1976
presented a comprehensive literature survey for the nondestructive methods normally
used for concrete testing and evaluation. However, a successful non-destructive test is
the one that can be applied to concrete structures in the field, portable and easily
operated with the least amount of cost. Various literature have been introduced in this
(All references)

Furthermore, Qasrawi 2003, Nogueira et al 1998 and Spooner et al 1975 have

introduced the use of the ultrasonic pulse velocity tester to evaluate cracks in concrete
stressed in compression. Qasrawi 2003 has used the results to predict the possibility of
failure of concrete loaded in compression and also to measure the possible crack
width in concrete under direct compressive stresses.

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

The test is described in ASTM C597 and BS 1881: Part 203. The principle of the test
is that the velocity of sound in a solid material, V, is a function of the square root of
the ratio of its modulus of elasticity, E, to its density, d, viz.;:

1
gE
V = ƒ( )2 (1)
d
where g is the gravity acceleration.

The method starts with the determination of the time required for a pulse of vibrations
at an ultrasonic frequency to travel through concrete. Once the velocity is determined,
an idea about quality, uniformity, condition and strength of the concrete tested can be
drawn out.

It is clear from the previous equation that the velocity is dependent on the modules of
elasticity of concrete. Relationships between pulse velocity and modulus of elasticity
of concrete are shown in references Neville 1995, Nilsen et al 1992, Philleo 1955 and
Willets 1958. Monitoring modulus of elasticity for concrete through results of pulse
velocity is not normally recommended. On the other hand, it has been shown that the
strength of concrete and its modulus of elasticity are related (ACI 318-95, Sharma et
al 1960).
In the test, the time the pulses take to travel through concrete is recorded. Then, the
velocity is calculated as:
L
V= (2)
T
where: V = pulse velocity in m / sec,
L = length in meters, and,
T = effective time in seconds, which is the measured time minus the zero time
correction.
The zero time correction is equal to the travel time between the
transmitting and receiving transducers when they are pressed firmly
together.

The ultrasonic pulse velocity results can be used:

(a) to check the uniformity of concrete,

(b) to detect cracking and voids inside concrete,
(c) to control quality of concrete and concrete products by comparing results to a
similarly made concrete,
(d) to detect condition and deterioration of concrete,
(e) to detect the depth of a surface crack, and,
(f) to determine the strength if previous data is available.

Table (5) is suggested by Whitehurst 1951 and shows the use of the velocity obtained
to classify the quality of concrete.

Table 5: Quality of Concrete as a Function of the USPV

USPV (m / sec.) > 4500 3500-4500 3000-3500 2000-3000 <2000

Concrete Quality Excellent Good Doubtful Poor Very Poor

Since strength is the major property in structural concrete, the measured velocity was
related to strength and plots of velocity vs. strength were obtained. However, the test
result is sensitive to surface properties, presence of steel reinforcement, presence of
voids and cracks, properties of aggregates and mix proportions. (ACI 228.1R 2000,
ASTM 597-83, Malhotra 1976, Yun et al 1988, Qasrawi 2000). According to Sturrup
et al 1984, factors other than concrete strength can affect pulse velocity, and changes
in pulse velocity may overshadow changes due to strength. Hence, there is no unique
relationship between pulse velocity and strength; variations were found between
results when using wet and dry pastes, mortars and concrete.

The test is fast and easy to perform, therefore it can be considered as a successful site
test for quick comparative studies. Yuen et al 1988, showed that the pulse velocity
test results showed the lowest degree of correlation among five different tests used to
estimate the strength of concrete. Kheder 1998 and El Shikh 1998 found little
correlation between ultrasonic pulse velocity and strength under general conditions.
Comparing with rebound number test, Kheder showed that the ultrasonic pulse
velocity test was less reliable in predicting concrete strength if concrete constituents
are not known.

RESEARCH IDEA

The determination of the level of failure may be difficult and unreliable without the
use of complicated methods and procedures such as the load test. Sometimes special
procedures and methods have to be designed, tried and then applied to the element
under consideration. Such methods are usually slow and costly. However, no final
conclusion can be drawn without the application of such methods, especially when the
engineer has to decide on various remedial measures including the demolition of the
structure.

The method presented here, is just a technique that can be applied to the structurally
cracked element in order to obtain a simple conclusion about the tested region.

The basic idea is to measure the velocity through concrete in cracked and uncracked
regions. It is obvious that the velocity of concrete is reduced when there is an internal
crack as shown in Figure 4 because velocity through concrete is higher than velocity
through air or water (the crack is either filled with air or water). Hence, a reduction in
the measured velocity can be noticed when concrete cracks. However, when the
cracks are wide, the sound waves are wholly reflected and no signal is received
(Baker 1992).

Receiver
Transmitter

a. NonCracked Section

Receiver
Transmitter

b. Cracked Section

Figure 4: Test Procedure in Cracked and Nonracked Samples.

Furthermore, a relation between the pulse velocity and the crack width was deduced.
The basic idea was that the reduction in the velocity through concrete is, basically,
due to the formation of cracks in concrete as shown in Figure 4. These cracks are
assumed to be filled with water because all samples were saturated surface dry at test.
The velocity of waves in water was assumed to be 1450 m/sec. The relationship, in its
final form, was as follows:

1 1
−
V V0
w= xS (3)
1 1
−
Vw V0

where:
w is the crack width,
V is the velocity in concrete at any stress level,
V0 is the velocity in concrete at zero stress level,
Vw is the wave velocity in water, taken 1450 m / sec., and,
S is the side length of the cube.

Moreover, the depth and inclination of a crack appearing on the surface can be
determined by measuring the speed the waves travel around the crack. The basic idea
is to measure the velocity through concrete in cracked and uncracked regions. It is
obvious that the waves-travel time through concrete is increased when there is an
internal crack as shown in Figure 5 because the path is longer. The velocity through
uncracked concrete can be approximately obtained by measuring the time travels at
the surface of concrete. However, the velocity on the surface does not really represent
the actual velocity through concrete.

In order to obtain the inclination and depth of a crack appearing on the surface, two
methods can be applied: the simplified or the extended method.

The simplified method is based on measuring the time the waves travel on the surface
of concrete in a free-cracked region. Several measurements can be obtained and then
the average velocity through concrete can be estimated. Later, measurements around
the cracks can be taken. From Figure 5, the following relationships can be obtained:

The velocity through concrete, fa away from crack, is:

x
V= (4)
T
When the transmitter and receiver are positioned around the crack, the time can be
measured and the wave travel distance can be calculated using the relationships: the
velocity through crack can be obtained using the relationships:

li2 = xi2 + lc2 - 2 li hc cos θ (5)

li+12 = xi+12 + lc2 + 2 li+1 hc cos θ (6)

 li + li+1
V= Tn (7)

T R

xi xi+1

T R

hθ lc
li
li+1

Figure 5: Arrangement of Transmitter (T) and Receiver ® of the USPV

Tester Around Crack

where:
lc is the crack length,
li and li+1 are the distances around the crack at any trial i.
V is the velocity in concrete,
x is the distance between the transmitter and the receiver far away from crack,
Tn travel time durinf trail n., and,
θ is the inclination of the crack.

Of course, a minimum of two measurements are needed in order to obtain two

equations containing the values of the length and inclination of the crack. The depth
of the crack can then be obtained using the relationship:

h = lc sin θ (8)

The other method is the extended method, which is based on taking various
measurements about the crack without taking the measurement on the surface. In this
case, at least three measurements are needed around the crack. The two equations can
be obtained by introducing the fact that the velocity through the same concrete is
constant and hence the equations can be solved and the depth and inclination of the
crack can be obtained.
In the cases where the crack extends to the total depth of the slab, no measurement is
recorded and therefore the crack depth will be the depth of the slab and the inclination
cannot be measured.

RESULTS

Qasrawi et al 2003 have used the results of the ultrasonic pulse velocity to predict the
crack width of concrete tested under compression. The use of the ultrasonic pulse
velocity tester is introduced as a tool to monitor basic initial cracking of concrete
structures and hence to introduce a threshold limit for possible failure of the
structures. Experiments using ultrasonic pulse velocity tester have been carried out,
under laboratory conditions, on various concrete specimens loaded in compression up
to failure. Special plots, similar to the one shown in Figure 5 showing the relation
between the velocity through concrete and the stress during loading, have been
introduced. By the use of such plots, severe cracking and possible concrete failure can
be predicted. Also, stress-strain measurements have been carried out in order to obtain
the corresponding strains. Results showed that severe cracking occurred at a stress
level of about 85% of the rupture load. The average velocity at this critical limit was
about 94% of the initial velocity and the corresponding strain was in the range of
0.0015 to 0.0021. The sum of the crack widths (or the width of a single crack) has
been estimated using Equation 3. The value that corresponds to the 94% relative
velocity was between 5.2 – 6.8 mm.

The same procedure and conclusions can be applied to plain concrete pavement
sections, provided that the transmitter and the receiver can be positioned oppositely.

1.2
1.1
1
0.9
Normalized Velosity

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Normalized Stress

Figure 5: Relationship between Normalized Velocity and Stress during Loading

LIMITATIONS OF THE METHODS

The previously described methods can be applied to concrete pavements considering

the following:

1. The determination of the depth and inclination of a crack in a concrete rigid

pavement can be applied to:
a) plain concrete slabs having no reinforcement interrupting the waves' path.
b) reinforced concrete slabs where the crack is far from rebars.
c) cracks located at distances relatively far from edges, allowing the transmitter
and the receiver of the USPV tester to be located at both sides of the cracks.

2. The determination of the depth and inclination of a crack in a rigid pavement can
be applied to pavements with wearing surface if the wearing surface is carefully
removed from the cracked area and the surface to be tested is thoroughly cleaned
and smoothed.

3. The width of a crack in a pavement can only be estimated by the USPV tester only
if the transmitter and the receiver can be positioned opposite to each other.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on this study and taking into consideration the limitations shown in the
previous paragraph, the following can be concluded:

1. The depth and inclination of a crack in a plain concrete pavement can be

obtained using the ultrasonic pulse velocity tester.
2. The width of a crack can be determined using the ultrasonic pulse velocity
tester.
3. The concrete quality can be assessed using the results from the ultrasonic
pulse velocity tester and Table 5.

REFERENCES

ACI 228.1R (2000), In Place Methods for Determination of Strength of Concrete;

ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 2: Construction Practices and Inspection
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ACI 318-95 (1995), Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-
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