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THE INFLUENCE OF CHANNEL BED RECTANGULAR CONFIGURATION ON
SEDIMENT TRANSPORTATION
OMED MOHAMMED PIROT
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

PSZ 19:16 (Pind. 1/13)
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
DECLARATION OF THESIS / UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT REPORT AND

COPYRIGHT
Author’s full name : OMED MOHAMMED PIROT
Date of Birth : 5th/11/1991
Title : THE INFLUENCE OF THE BED CHANNEL RECTANGULAR

CONFIGURATION ON SEDIMENT TRANSPORTATION
Academic Session : 2020/2021-2
I declare that this thesis is classified as:
CONFIDENTIAL (Contains confidential information under the Official

Secret Act 1972)*
RESTRICTED (Contains restricted information as specified by the

organization where research was done)*
 OPEN ACCESS I agree that my thesis to be published as online open

access (full text)
I acknowledged that Universiti Teknologi Malaysia reserves the right as follows:

The thesis is the property of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
The Library of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia has the right to make copies for the
purpose of research only.
The Library has the right to make copies of the thesis for academic exchange.
Certified by:
SIGNATURE OF STUDENT SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR
MKAG191042 DR. ZULKIFLEE BIN IBRAHIM

MATRIC NUMBER NAME OF SUPERVISOR
Date: 8th JULY 2021 Date: 8th JULY 2021
NOTES : If the thesis is CONFIDENTIAL or RESTRICTED, please attach with the letter from
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“I hereby declare that I have read this project report and in my
opinion this project report is sufficient in term of scope and quality for the
award of the degree of Master of Engineering (Hydraulic and Hydrology)”
Signature : ________________________________
Name of Supervisor I : DR. ZULKIFLEE BIN IBRAHIM
Date : 8 JULY 2021
Signature : ________________________________
Name of Supervisor II : PROF. DR. SOBRI BIN HARUN
Date : 8 JULY 2021

THE INFLUENCE OF CHANNEL BED RECTANGULAR CONFIGURATION
ON SEDIMENT TRANSPORTATION
OMED MOHAMMED PIROT
A project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Engineering (Hydraulic and Hydrology)
School of Civil Engineering

Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
JULY 2021
DECLARATION
I declare that this project report entitled “The Influence of Bed Channel Rectangular
Configuration on Sediment Transportation” is the result of my own research except
as cited in the references. The project report has not been accepted for any degree
and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other degree.
Signature : ....................................................
Name : OMED MOHAMMED PIROT
Date : 8 JULY 2021
i
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my father, who taught me that the best kind of
knowledge to have is that which is learned for its own sake. It is also dedicated to my
mother, who taught me that even the largest task can be accomplished if it is done
one step at a time.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is a great pleasure to address those people who helped me throughout this

project to enhance my knowledge and practical skills especially in research area. My
deepest and most heartfelt gratitude goes to my supervisors, Dr. Zulkfilee Bin
Ibrahim and Prof. Dr. Sobri Bin Harun for continuous guidance and support from
both of them have enabled me to approach work positively, and make even the
impossible seem possible.
I wish to express my special thanks to my beloved parents and family who

gives me spirit, support and encouragement to me in completion this project.
I want to extend thanks to all my classmates for their helped and support. I
would also like to thank everyone who has contributed whether directly or indirectly
to this project. This project would have been impossible without your guidance,
advice and support.
Finally yet importantly, I would like to thank all those who I gave forgotten
to mention here. Thank you for everything.
iii
ABSTRACT
Sediment transportation is the movement of organic or inorganic particles by

water. Sediment of various sizes, shapes and densities are carried away by different
modes of transportation such as bedload, suspended load and dissolved load
depending on the flow and sediment characteristics. It is one of the great problems in
some hydraulic structures, such as open channels and dams. Sediment deposition in
reservoirs has negative influences on dam safety and leads to environmental
pollution. This project presented the experimental study to determine the effect of
weir height with or without the rectangular configuration structures and their spacing
to reduce sediment transportation rate in the open channel. This project was prepared
in the lab by using the rectangular open channel 30cm wide and 60cm deep. A sharp-
crested weir was installed in the channel, and the wooden rectangular configurations
were fixed in the particular locations for each weir to reduce bed load transportation
rate and sediment motion. The weirs heights were different according to 0.25B,
0.35B, 0.45B, and 0.55B, where B was equal to the channel width. The spacing
among block configurations was divided into four steps based on S= 4Y, 8Y, 12Y,
and 16Y, where Y was the maximum water depth without using baffle blocks. The
channel bed slope was 0.01, and its length was 10m. The result showed that the
maximum transported bedload weight for the lowest weir was 1.4 kg/min, but only
4.4×10-3 kg/min transported for the weir 16.5cm for case used-baffle blocks.
Compared to no blocks case, configurations with long baffle blocks had a negative
result. The sediment-transported rate increased for 1.66 kg/min for the weir 7.5cm
due to block configurations. As a conclusion, the result is the opposite of the
prediction, and using baffle blocks led to a higher sediment transportation rate.
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ABSTRAK
Pengangkutan sedimen adalah pergerakan zarah organik atau bukan organik

oleh air. Sedimen dengan pelbagai ukuran, bentuk dan ketumpatan terbawa oleh mod
pengangkutan yang berbeza seperti beban dasar, beban terampai dan beban terlarut
bergantung pada ciri aliran dan sedimen. Ini adalah salah satu masalah besar dalam
beberapa struktur hidraulik, seperti saluran terbuka dan empangan. Pemendapan
sedimen di takungan mempunyai pengaruh negatif terhadap keselamatan empangan
dan membawa kepada pencemaran alam sekitar. Projek ini mengemukakan kajian
eksperimen untuk menentukan kesan ketinggian empang dengan atau tanpa struktur
konfigurasi segi empat dan jarak antara mereka untuk mengurangkan kadar
pengangkutan sedimen di saluran terbuka. Projek ini dilaksanakan di makmal dengan
menggunakan saluran terbuka segi empat tepat selebar 30cm dan sedalam 60cm.
Sebuah empang berpuncak tajam dipasang di saluran, dan blok baffle konfigurasi
segi empat tepat kayu dipasang di lokasi tertentu untuk setiap struktur untuk
mengurangkan kadar pengangkutan beban dasar dan pergerakan sedimen. Ketinggian
empang berbeza iaitu 0.25B, 0.35B, 0.45B, dan 0.55B, di mana B adalah lebar
saluran. Ruang antara konfigurasi blok dibahagikan kepada empat jarak iaitu S = 4Y,
8Y, 12Y, dan 16Y, di mana Y adalah kedalaman air maksimum tanpa menggunakan
blok baffle. Cerun dasar saluran adalah 0.01, dan saluran sepanjang 10m. Hasil
kajian menunjukkan bahawa beban dasar maksimum yang diangkut pada bendung
terendah adalah 1.4 kg/min, dan sebaliknya hanya 4.4 × 10-3 kg/min yang diangkut
untuk empang 16.5cm untuk kes penggunaan blok. Berbanding dengan kes tanpa
blok, dengan blok panjang memberi hasil yang negatif. Kadar pemindahan sedimen
meningkat sebanyak 1.66 kg/min untuk empang 7.5cm kerana konfigurasi blok.
Sebagai kesimpulan, hasilnya adalah sebaliknya dari apa yang telah diramalkan, dan
penggunaan blok baffle kepada kadar pengangkutan sedimen yang lebih tinggi.
v
TABLE CONTENT
DECLARATION i
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT iv
ABSTRAK v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF FIGURES viii
LIST OF SYMBOLS X
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of Study 1
1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Objectives of the Study 4
1.4 Scope of Study 4
1.5 Significant of the Study 5
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Erosion Process 7
2.3 Factors Influencing Erosion 8
2.3.1 Climate Factor 8
2.3.2 Topography 10
2.3.3 Soil cover 11
2.3.4 Soil Characteristics 12
2.4 Impact of Erosion 12
2.5 Sediment Transportation Process 13
2.6 Sediment Properties 13
2.6.1 Shape 14
2.6.2 Size 15
2.6.3 Density and porosity 16
2.7 Angle of Repose ϕn 17
2.8 Terminal Flow Velocity and Stokes Law for Sediment Particles 18
2.9 Cohesive Sediment 20

2.10 Sediment Transportation Mode 21
vi
2.10.1 Suspended Load transportation 22
2.10.2 Bedload transport 24
2.11 Threshold Velocity Concept. 26
2.12 Quasi Smooth Flow Based On Concept Roughness Flow 27
2.13 Bed Load equation 28
2.13.1 Einstein Equation 28
2.13.2 Meyer-Peter Muller Equation 29
2.14 Weir and Sedimentation Control 30
2.14 Type of bed form 32
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 35
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Main Experimental Model 35
3.3 Discharge Measurement 36
3.4 Experimental Setup 36
3.4.1 The Flume Setup 37
3.4.2 Sharp Crest Weir Setup. 38
3.4.3 Sediment Preparation 38
3.4.4 Rectangular Configuration Structure 39
3.4.5 Project Calculation Symbols 39
3.4.6 Sediment Trap 40
3.5 Research Procedure 41
3.6 Flowchart 43
CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 45
4.1 General Introduction 45
4.2 Channel Slope Fixing and Maximum Flow 45
4.3 Weir Experiment Model 46
4.4 Sediment layer and laying in the channel 47
4.5 Running Models and Data Collection 47
4.5.1 Installing Weir without Rectangular Configuration 48
4.5.2 Installing Weir with Rectangular Blocks Configurations 56
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 68
5.1 Conclusion 68
5.2 Recommendation 69
REFERENCES 70
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE TITLE PAGE

NO NO.
1-1 Sediment transportation in the reservoir. 3
2-1 (a) raindrop falling to a ground, (b) splash the soil particles, and (c) 9
erosion process.
2-2 An example for soil loss and runoff with crop cover value, for sandy 11
soil and slope %4.5 during five years.
2-3 Process of erosion, transportation, and sedimentation in river channel. 13
2-4 angle of repose for sediment particles. 18
2-5 Drag coefficient for sphere particles. 20
2-6 Individual clay particles, flocs and floc group. 21
2-7 Fraction xb total load travelling bedload and function ws/u* 22
2-8 Suspended sediment motion through the diffusion and convection 24

method.
2-9 Different modes for bedload sediment transportation. 24
2-10 Sketch for threshold velocity. 26
2-11 Diagram force on solitary particles and stream-wise angle 27

2-12 Quasi smooth flow. 28
2-13 Validation of the modified einstein formula with measured data. 29
2-14 Diagram showing the flow and sediment processes for a vertical wall 30
weir
2-15 Main concept for block effect on streamline inside water bode 32
according.
2-16 England & hansen method.

33
3-1 Ultrasonic current flow meter. 36
3-2 Plan view for straight channel. 37
3-3 Side view for straight channel. 37
3-4 Scheme of sharp crested weir. 38
3-5 Side view for cross section channel and rectangular configuration 39
arrangement.
viii
3-6 Weir structure and rectangular configuration structures (long baffle 42
blocks).
3-7 Rectangular configuration blocks and bed layer. 42
3-8 Rectangular configuration structure (long baffle blocks) model. 42
3-9 Flowchart of working study. 43
4-1 Channel setup procedure. 45
4-2 Mobile weir model. 46
4-3 Sediment layer along the channel. 47
4-4 Portable current meter to detect the mean velocity. 48
4-5 Sediment morphology in channel for weir (16.5cm). 53
4-9 Bed layer thickness for channel centerline for different weir heights. 55
4-10 Bed load morphology after running model (a) weir height 10.5cm ,(b) 59
weir height 7.5cm for blocks space.
4-11 Surface area for bedload after running model with different distance 60
among weir.
4-12 Dead load thickness in front of the weirs face for different weir 60
heights.
4-13 Bed forms during the process. 61
4-14 Scouring and lifting particles near the rectangular blocks. 63
4-15 Sediment profile for (a) weir 16.5cm height, (b)13.5cm, (c) 10.5cm 64
and (d) 7.5 cm height with interval spaces 0.4m.
and (d) 7.5 cm height with interval spaces 0.8 m.
ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Re Reynolds number
g Gravitational acceleration
Fluid kinematic viscosity
ρdry Dry density for sediment

Mid sediment diameter
ϕn Angle of Repose
CD drag coefficient,
ρw Water density
D Diameter of the particle and
γs Specific weight of the particles
γ Specific weight of the fluid
ws Average settling velocity and
u* Friction velocity
Qs Sediment suspended rate at different water level
Qb Weight of the bed lad transport
Qsr Rate of sediment transport
Hs Water Depth above the bed layer
Ks Bed Roughness
h Water depth after installing weirs
Zb Bed layer thickness
V Mean channel velocity
Lb Bed form length
ϴ Stream wise angle
τ* Dimensionless tractive force
Y Initial maximum water depth without using
Weirs and blocks
W Weir height
Qmc Channel discharge
R Hydraulic radius
Cv Sediment concentration
ψ Flow parameter
x
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
Hydraulic structures are submerged or partially submerged structures in

water, for example, dam, spillway, channel, culvert, and others (Abubakar Tadda,
2020). Usually, all of them face some problems such as seepage water, erosion, and
maximum unwanted load. One of the main problems in the reservoir and open
channel structures is sediment transportation. Channel bed level and water velocity
are varied due to sediment overloading, especially during flood time. Slope and
water velocity increase the sediment transportation rate (Hassan, 2014). Sediment
transportation is the hydrological process for particle transportation in waterways as
channels and rivers. If the stabilizing resistance force smaller than shear resistance,
the particles are transported.
Sediment transportation can be bedload transportation for coarse particles or

suspended mode in different water levels. Sediment accumulates in the river, channel
length, or a special point near the barriers (Rowinski, 2011). Reservoir sedimentation
is a serious problem in the dam. It has negative environmental consequences. The
principle of sedimentation includes deltaic deposition for coarse particles. Fine
particle settles through the homogenous water flow, and stratified flow usually
transports and settles down the fine sediment. When the stream flows in the
reservoirs upstream, the deltaic deposit for sediment occurs. Delta deposit current has
two sides as a top set bed and a foreset bed. Plunge point produces and sediment
settles along the channel length if the sediment current flows toward the end. Still,
fine particles may be suspended in different levels and moves for kilometers.
Generally, sediment transportation causes to raising in riverbed level and leads to
overflow. Water is ponded through the accumulation problem and causes the flood
1
event. Sedimentation decreases the spaces between the bridge body and river bed
level also damages the water quality (Fan & Morris, 1992).
The surface texture of the bed channel responds to vary the sedimentation
ratio. Some methods to solve this issue are used, for controlling the reservoir water
quality, for example, releasing the turbid water before reaching the reservoir pool
area, hydraulic flushing to flow out the deposited layer to manage the reservoir water
quality and minimizing sediment issue. The objective of flushing a hydraulic system
is to eliminate sludge, varnish, debris, contaminated or degraded fluid from
conductor walls and other internal surfaces and system dead spots. The Flushing
process can be divided in two types. First, free flow flushing, to empty the upstream
water and flow out sediment to downstream. Drawing the head water in the reservoir
to particular level outlets with riverine flow through the reservoir. Second, pressure
drawdown, to empty reservoir to less level but less effective (wang & hu,2009).
Sediment transportation in the open channel is another great problem. Open channel
conveys water for the irrigation system. When particles' diameters are greater than
0.15mm, these particles are moved as bed transportation mode. Channel shape also
affects the sediment delivery ratio. Travel velocity for particles is less than water
velocity in the channel. Flow in the river and channel moves particles with different
layers, in which the heavier particles are transported on the bed surface, and the
lighter ones are suspended (Gomez, 1991).
Small block as stilling basin has been used for energy dissipation purpose in
hydraulic jump phenomenon. Block structure can change the jump characteristic and
reduction the near-bed velocity (Abbas et al., 2018). The long block structures are
simple structures and rectangular shape. Their lengths equal channel bed width, and
their heights and widths change according to water depth. A rectangular
configuration has been used in this project as an assistant structure to investigate
bedload transportation problems with a weir to consider the best situation.
Rectangular configurations are installed in different spaces to analyze the result and
specify the best trail.
2
Figure 1-1 Sediment Transportation in the Reservoir (Guoxiang & Hesing, 1992)
1.2 Problem Statement
The current development of science and high technology helps the engineer
build a great hydraulic structure project, such as orifice, weir, dam, and sluice gate.
These structures are built on rivers, lakes, streams, or other water bodies. Nearly all
hydraulic structures face excess water load, swelling, erosion, and scouring. They are
responsible for the failure. Sedimentation is one of the common problems for
hydraulic structures. (Wang & Hu, 2009) concluded that the sediment problem
reduces the reservoir capacity at the rate of 66% for storage water somewhere. This
problem can be observed for many dams in China, where 8 billion cubic meters of
the storage capacity of 20 large reservoirs has been lost due to sedimentation. This
problem has environmental consequences and damaging the water quality. Generally,
the sediment transportation problem for dams and other barriers is related to the
upstream water area and affects the hydropower project.
Channel hydraulic structure also faces these problems. It conveys water from
one place to another. During the flood season, the channel transports much sediment
for the downstream or reservoir areas. Erosion is the main factor to make the
3
sedimentation, especially in (non- vegetated land). This project investigates the role
of the block configuration structure to solve this issue related to the weirs.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
This project is prepared to show the activities and progress of the

experimental studies of sediment transportation over rectangular structures. This
project investigates and identifies the relationship between weir height with various
distances, arrangement, and spacing of rectangular configuration structures (long
baffle blocks) to specify the best situation for sediment reduction. Generally, this
project focuses on the three main objectives, which are:
1. To investigate the optimum weir height for minimum sediment transportation

and sediment accumulation at upstream structures without baffling blocks.
2. To derive the relationship between the weir height and rectangular

configurations distance to lower sedimentation problem. Detecting the best
position to install the rectangular configuration structure. Plotting profile for
sediment motion.
3. To design the best rectangular configuration structure for maximum

efficiency and economical.
1.4 Scope of Study
The determination of the scope of the study is obtained from the literature
review through searching for information and various information resources. The
vital part of this project is to produce the model of the channel, which can be
observed the water discharge equal to the water discharge in hydraulic structure in
the field. Bed load can be computed according to water discharge. Rectangular
4
configuration can be arranged and changes their spaces. The scope of the study
includes the following:
1. Rectangular water channel in the lab for testing, the water flow in the channel
is 0.025m3/s (25 l/s). The channel body should be transparent to measure the
water depth. The channel height is 60 cm, and the width is equal to 30cm.
2. Weir structures are mobile and adjustable. They can be produced on a simple
plate. The width of weirs is equal to channel width, but their depth depends
on the maximum water level for transport the maximum sediment.
3. Rectangular configuration blocks can be made of simple wood. The number

of them is four block configuration structures. Take into account the distance
between each wooden block.
1.5 Significance of the Study
The experimental study can improve the understanding of bedload sediment

transportation over the weir. The focus of this study is to assess the suitability of the
rectangular structure to get the effect of bedload transportation and motion in the
open channel based on the height and arrangement of these structures. This study
also presents the overall relationship of flow velocity with respect to sediment
transport for uniform sediment, with detecting the scouring and sediment
accumulation consequences to transport the bedload. It also means creating
awareness for engineers about accumulation, bedload motion, scouring and further
inspiring them to react to obstacle structures to find solutions for these problems.
5
6
CHAPTER 2
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses on the previous ways of sediment transportation

reduction and some ideas about the sedimentation mechanism. It discusses all factors
that produce sediment particles. In addition, the sediment characterizes and their
influences on the hydraulic structures are described with explaining the main formula
for sediment accumulation and bead load transportation. Also, movement sediment
in the channel will be explained. Based on the early research and experimentations,
one of the effective ways to reduce sediment transportation is to construct the barrier
in the channels and streams to prevent this issue. This chapter includes the general
open flow aspect. Design weirs have mentioned related to design block configuration
structure.
2.2 Erosion Process
It is the physical process that includes the breakdown of soil particles and
rock fragments. Soil clods are separated into smaller particles. Soil erosion has many
negative consequences, for example, environmental and economic problems.
Sediment problem causes to damage the soil quality. Also, underground soil erosion
leads to structural failure. Soil erosion process may be occurred through biological
factors as root growth beneath the earth, burrowing animals, decomposition of some
organic matter. Also, hydrological factors such as raindrops, wind, the drought of the
moisture content, and groundwater runoff are the main sources for soil erosion.
Sometimes, the erosion process refers to human activities, for example, land tillage,
construction, and mining (Poesen, 2018). Erosion is the first step of the
7
sedimentation process. Soil erosion has cost USA US$44 billion annually. Soil
erosion reduces the moisture content and redistributes the soil over the agricultural
land. Maximum erosion occurs during the rainy season. Rain splash is an essential
detaching agent. Potential and kinetic energy are necessary to erosion processes.
Potential energy mainly relies on the difference in the levels between two bodies
(high difference) (h), mass (m), and acceleration gravity (g).
2.3 Factors Influencing Erosion
The erosion process produces the quantity of sediment accumulation. Erosion

depends on many factors, such as climate, soil type, topography, and vegetation
(alVarado garcía, 2016).
2.3.1 Climate Factor
Climate factors have a significant role in the erosion process. Rainfall

intensity, duration, and temperature are the main climate parameters that have an
impact on erosion. Higher temperature increases the evaporation rate in soil spaces
and changes the biomass production level. Again, biomass varies soil erosion. The
erosion ratio will increase if the annual rainfall intensity increases by 1% to 1.7 %
annually (Ochoa et al., 2016). Raindrop impact plays the dominant role in hillslope
soil erosion and soil aggregate loss. Soil loss due to raindrop impact is 3.6–19.8
times higher than that caused by runoff detachment. The contributions of raindrop
impact to hillslope soil erosion are 78.3% to 95.2%.
The loss of each size aggregate was greatly reduced is 46.6% to 99.4% after
eliminating raindrop impact. Meanwhile, the contributions of the raindrop effect for
sizes more than 2, 1 to 2, 0.5 to 1, 0.25 to 0.5, and less than 0.25 mm, the soil
aggregate loss is 79.1% to 89.7%. Runoff is a great agent to make the erosion
process. Erosion can make the new area of the land because erosion makes the new
8
sediment particles, and these particles distribute over the ground through the wind,
runoff, or water flow in the channel. Some organic matters can be produced by
decomposing the soil clods, and cultivated land is produced. The Mollisol in
Northeast China, which is rich in organic matter, 37.9% of the total cultivated land in
this area was subject to water erosion (Ochoa et al., 2016).
Erosion is the source of 99% of the total suspended solids, 80% of the total
phosphorus, and 73% of the total nitrogen in the waterways of the United States and
undoubtedly around the world (Gao et al., 2005). Raindrops hit the soil surface,
scatter, and splash the soil particles from one place to another. Splash is the first
stage of the erosion process. It occurs when raindrops hit bare land. The explosive
impact breaks up soil aggregates so that individual soil particles are 'splashed' onto
the soil surface (Ackermann, 1976).
Figure 2-1 (a) Raindrop falling to the ground, (b) splash the soil particles, and (c)
erosion process (Ackermann, 1976).
9
2.3.2 Topography
The slope of the land (orientation and degree of length) influences soil
erosion. In the stepper slope, the rate of erosion soil is higher than flat land due to
higher energy with more water velocity. Soil loss in hill slope occurs when the
resistance force for soil erosion capacity is lower than the capability of water runoff.
The erosion process includes three stages based on the topography. First, rainfall
intensity in this area should be greater than the infiltration process to occur the runoff
process and water pond on the ground. Then, scouring ability force will be achieved
for separate the particles. Finally, moving particles for different places according to
water runoff (Chen & Liu, 2001) . The empirical relationship between the slope
gradient and erosion quantity can be given as in equation (2.1):
Y= 0.065 X 1.48 2.1
The percentage of soil erosion is different and changes according to the slope
angle. When the slope gradient is less than or equal to 58%, the washing loss due to
erosion increases. When the slope gradient is more than 58%, the washing loss
decreases steadily (Fu et al., 2011). The polynomial relationship between soil erosion
quantity and soil type can be shown for clay and silty clay soil (Singer & Blackard,
1982).
For silty clay:
Sl = 0.22 + 9.37 sin Ɵ - 8.43 sin2Ɵ ‎2.1
For clay:
Sl = -0.10 + 7.66 sin Ɵ + 59.49 sin2 Ɵ – 101.65 sin3 Ɵ ‎2.2
Where, Sl= soil loss ratio, Ɵ = angle of slope land.
10
2.3.3 Soil Cover
Vegetation and plant cover has a significant role in the erosion mechanism.
Vegetation protects the land surface from splash erosion. The plant roots under the
earth make the soil to be strong. The relationship between the soil cover and land
loss can be shown as:
2.4
Where SLR = ratio between the soil loss with the plant cover, PC = cover
percentage with plants and grasses, j = is constant and varies at (0.025 to 0.06, and
0.035).
Figure 2-2 An example for soil loss and runoff with crop cover value, for sandy soil
and slope 4.5 %during five years (Centre, 1976)
11
2.3.4 Soil Characteristics
Soil characteristics include the soil mass density, porosity, and moisture
content, and soil texture. Sandy soil is less cohesive than clay soil, and it has higher
porosity. Thus, the particles of sandy soil are separated easily than the other one.
Water infiltration in coarse particles with high spaces is more than fine particles, but
lower runoff occurs for coarse particles. (Ekwue & Harrilal, 2010) investigated that
the degree of the compaction increases the surface runoff and decreases the spaces
among the particles so that the erosion and infiltration rate are reduced.
A study illustrated that the peat continent leads to decreasing soil loss during
the erosion process. Still, soil strength reduces, and bulk density for soil aggregate
decreases (Ekwue, 1992). Peats act as a mulch to make the protective layer and
protecting the soil particles at raindrops hitting. Larger particle size for sandy loam
means larger spaces among particles, enhancing the erosion ratio. (Govers & Loch,
1993) concluded that shear stress and unconfined compressive strength for soil that
initially got higher moisture content are higher than dry soil. Moisture content leads
to increasing runoff résistance for detaching particles and internal bonds increases.
2.4 Impact of Erosion
Soil erosion is a global problem. It has many negative consequences. Erosion

causes water pollution and damages hydraulic structures. Sometimes, erosion can be
controlled through planting. Erosion is responsible for sediment transportation and
producing the suspended materials. The negative impact on soil erosion includes two
types that are on-site (long-termed effect) and short-term effect. The last one is called
the off-site effect. The long term causes damaging the soil quality and reducing the
agricultural area of the land. The on-site effect reduces the organic matter and loss of
plant nutrients with water content. The off-site effect damages the water quality,
spreading sediment and makes a significant load on structures (Pimentel, 1995). The
erosion problem causes air pollution due to dusty wind and releasing some harmful
12
gasses. The global estimation for food production showed that the loss due to erosion
problem is 190 × 106 Mg of cereals, 6 × 106 Mg of soybeans, 3 × 106 Mg of pulses,
and 73 × 106 Mg of roots and tubers (Lal, 1998).
2.5 Sediment Transportation Process
Sediment is a fragment of rock or soil particles. Sediment particle range starts

from suspended small particles called colloidal particles to boulder. The property of
the particles is different according to their sources and forming process. Their shapes
vary such as angular shape and rounded shape. Sediment particles are formed
through many chemical and physical reactions. Sediment particles are transported
through the wind, water flow, and gravity. Transporting sediment through the water
flow called the fluvial process (Van Rijn, 1990).
Figure 2-3 Process of erosion, transportation, and sedimentation in river channel

(Julien, 2010)
2.6 Sediment Properties.
(Van Rijn, 1990) concluded that the sediment particles are formed through
many chemical and physical reactions. They have some unique physical properties.
13
Sediments can be classified into three groups according to their genetic origins,
which are:
 Lithogenous Sediment: it is composed of small preexisting rocks. The range

of these sediment particles is from clay to boulder.
 Biogenous Sediment: It is composed of organic material such as plants or

animals. The main organic matters are carbon, opal, and calcium phosphate.
 Hydrogenous Sediment: These particles are formed through the precipitation

in seawater. Many dissolved substances are available in seawater. Finally, the
solid particles accumulate together through chemical reactions in different
conditions, such as a change in temperature, pressure, or PH (Van Rijn,
1990). The major sediment types are referred to the sand particles according
to chemical composition, which are:
A. Silicate sands.
B. Carbonate sands.
C. Gypsum sands (CASO4.2H2O).
2.6.1 Shape
The shape of the particles can be identified according to their axes. Sphericity
is a parameter for three-dimensional structure and can be determined through the two
axes. The correlation coefficient between sphericities calculated using two
dimensions rather than three, and it is approximately 0.85. Two-dimensional
sphericity indicates the degree of the circle. The ratio between the long and short
direction can be estimated as:
AR=b/a 2.5
14
Where a = longest direction and b= shortest direction, for circle shape, the (AR=
particle aspect ratio) is 1. The round particles have the minimum influence on
hydraulic structures (Li, 2016).
Roundness can be described as the ratio between the mean radius curvature
from the corners of the particles above the mean radius of the particles (Drevin,
2006). A solid may possess a maximum degree of roundness and still not be a sphere
or have a high degree of sphericity and no roundness. The degree of the roundness
for particles can be shown according to this formula:
D.R = 2.6
Where D.R= degree of the roundness, N= number of the corners in the particle, r =
radius of the curvature in the corner.
2.6.2 Size
Usually, sediment particles include sand, silt, clay loam, and gravel. Particles
are classified according to their diameter. Coarse particle sizes can be determined
through the sieve analysis, while particles are smaller than 0.075mm cannot see
clearly as clay, silt, and peat (Murthy, 2002).
Table 2-1 Particle Size Classification According To Different Systems ( Murthy,

2002).
Name of the organization Particle size (mm)

Gravel Sand Silt Clay
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT)
˃2 2 to 0.06 0.06 to 0.002 ˂ 0.002
US Department of Agriculture
(USDA)
˃2 2 to 0.05 0.005 to 0.002 ˂ 0.002
American Association of State
Highway and Transportation 76.2 to 2 2 to 0.075 ˂ 0.002
Officials (AASHTO)
Unified Soil classification system,
Fines (silts
US Bureau of reclamation, US army 4.75 to
76.2 to 4.75 and clays)
corps of engineers and American 0.0075
˂ 0.0075
society or Testing and Materilas
15
2.6.3 Density and Porosity
The density of the sediment particles can be determined through specific

gravity. Specific gravity is a ratio of sediment density over water density, and
specific gravity is unitless. We can make the relation between porosity and dry
density. Porosity is the percentage of volume voids in the substance to total volume.
Porosity is affected by the shape of the particles.
ρdry = (1- n) ρs 2.7
Where ρdry = dry density of sediment (kg/m3), ρs = sediment density(kg/m3) and n=

porosity factor (Rijn, 1990).
The initial porosity of particles (Pm’) can be written in formula according to

median diameter for sediment particles (d50) in the unit (mm) (Wu & Wang, 2006).
Pm’ = 0.13× 2.8
Hydraulic conductivity (K), or the coefficient of the permeability of median

sediment particles, depends on sediment size and their spaces with fluid properties. It
indicates how water easily flows through the soil voids.
Table 2-2 Hydraulic conductivity for different soil types (Nir, 1982)
Sediment type Fine sand Silty sand Silt

K (m/s) 5 ×10-4 to 1 ×10-5 2 × 10-5 to 1× 10-6 5× 10-6 to 1 ×10-7
16
2.7 Angle of Repose ϕn
Beakawi & Baghabra (2018) noted that the angle of repose or

critical angle of repose of the granular material is the steepest angle of descent or dip
relative to the horizontal plane to which a material can be piled without slumping. It
nearly equals the internal friction for particles. It indicates the cohesiveness degree
for particles. Primarily is used for finding the slope stability and designing retaining
walls. This characteristic is affected by many factors, which are:
a. Particle size
b. Internal friction
c. Shape
d. Density
e. Water content
f. Mass material
g. Pouring height
h. Base surface
Table 2-3 angles of repose according to particle type (Beakawi & Baghabra, 2018).
Material (condition) Angle of repose Material (condition) Angle of repose
Ashes 40°
Asphalt (crushed) 30–45°
Bark (wood refuse) 45°
Chalk 45°
Clay (dry lump) 25–40°
Clover seed 28°
Coconut (shredded) 45°
Coffee bean (fresh) 35–45°
Earth 30–45°
Flour (corn) 30–40°
Flour (wheat) 45°
Granite 35–40°
Gravel (crushed stone) 45°
Gravel (natural w/ sand) 25–30°
Malt 30–45°
Sand (dry) 34°
Sand (water filled) 15–30°
Sand (wet) 45°
Snow 38°
Wheat 27°
17
Figure 2-4 angle of repose for sediment particles (Wójcik, 2018)
We can determine the angle repose according to particle diameter and bed
roughness (Rowinski, 2011). The main formula is:
tan ϕn =0.866[ )2 +2( ) - 0.333]-0.5 2.9
Where, d= sediment particle size and Ks = bed roughness.
2.8 Terminal Flow Velocity and Stokes Law for Sediment Particles
When sediment particles fall and submerge in the fluid substance, three
forces act on these particles to move or settle on the base. The equilibrium force for
sediment particles can be written as:
– 2.10
Where Fb = buoyant force (upward), FD = drag force (upward), and W= weight of

the particles downward.
18
Buoyant Force Fb = γ. Volume = γ. (π.D3/6) 2.11
Drag Force FD = CD . ρ . A. ws2 = ρ CD (π.ws2.D2/8) 2.12
(Weight)W = γs .Volume = γs. (π.D3/6) 2.13
Where γ = specific weight of the fluid, γs = specific weight of the particles, CD=
drag coefficient, D= diameter of the particle and ρ= density of the liquid, w.s =
terminal fall velocity Assume the particle shape is spherical.
CD = = 2.14
Substitute the equations (2.11), (2.12), and (2.13) in equation (2.10) to find the
terminal velocity.
18 .ws - D2 (γs – γ) =0 2.15
Finally, the terminal velocity can be written as:
w.s = (γs – γ).g 2.16
Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity needed for a particle to settle on

the base. When the sediment particles fall to the liquid station, this particle acted by
drag force and buoyant force. The summation of drag force and buoyant force are
equal to gravity force in the downward direction. Finally, the equilibrium situation
occurs.
19
Figure 2-5 Drag coefficient for sphere particles (Rowinski, 2011)
2.9 Cohesive Sediment
The reservoir and water channel contain the height percentage of the clay
particles. The cohesive natural size usually is less than 0.075mm. There is required to
evaluate the cohesive particle transportation to solve the turbidity problem. The main
type of cohesive soil is mud that is consisted of clay particles and non-clay particles
such as organic matter and fine sand (Oktaviani, 2018). The cohesive particles
produce four motions during transportation such as:
 Brownian motion
 Gravitational settling
 Motion of the suspending fluid
 Rebounds from inter-particle collision
The clay particles have a negative charge, two or more clay particles
attractive together to form the greater particles through the Van Der Waals bonds.
These bonds can be produced even between two natural atoms. In natural atoms, the
electronics continuously make a circle around the positive nuclei. Sometimes, the
repulsive force is produced between two molecules if two positive atoms move to
meet each other. The attractive force is produced between the positive and negative
20
atoms to make the bonds and greater particles. This process is called flocculation.
Greater particles have a heavier weight, and they settle on the bed (Oikawa, 2002).
When the cohesive soil sample is submitted under the water, the shear stress of water
on soil particles can be determined through this formula:
τ = τy + σt ∫an ϴ 2.17
Where τy = yield stress, ϴ= angle of internal stress, and σ = normal pressure.
Figure 2-6 Individual clay particles, flocs, and floc group (Van Rijn, 1990)
2.10 Sediment Transportation Mode
Sediment can be transported in different ways. Sediment particles separate in

sources then roll, slide, skip, or hop along the channel bed to make the bedload. The
bed load particles connect with the channel bed according to their properties. Friction
is the main factor in retaining particles. Some particles supported by turbulence flow
through the water shear force called suspended particles in different water levels.
21
Figure 2-7 Fraction Xb total load travelling bedload and function ws/u* (Dade &
Friend, 1998)
Where xb is total fractional load traveling, ws = average settling velocity and u* =
friction velocity, ζ = relative depth = h/Zb in which (h) is water depth and (Zb) is the
thickness of the sediment layer.
2.10.1 Suspended Load Transportation
When the particles are suspended in different water levels due to turbulence
flow and flow velocity, called the suspended particles. Calculation of suspended
particles is need for determining the degree of the concentration in water. For steady
and uniform flow, the discharge for suspended particles can be integrated by this
formula:
∫ 2.18
Where Qs = is sediment suspended rate at different water levels, V = horizontal

velocity according to the x-axis, h = water depth, Cv= sediment volume
concentration at z = an above the bed (McLean, 1992).
22
2.10.1.1 The mechanism of suspended particle transportation
The particles remain at different levels through the turbulent forces. When
the bed shear velocity is greater than the falling velocity, this particle is lifted.
Turbulent flow makes the currents, and it produces the force around the particle to
suspend it. This force is more significant than submerged force (Van Rijn, 1990).
Suspended sediment motion leads to both advective diffusion processes and
convection.
1. Advective diffusion process: It is the random motion and mixing of the

sediment particle with water along the waterway. A time-averaged balance
between settling and diffusive flux derives from the continuity equation for
sediment matter:
Ds = = ws .Cs 2.19
Where Cv = local sediment concentration, ws= Settling velocity for particles

in the water, y = sediment location on the channel bed level, and Ds is
sediment mixing coefficient (Chanson, 2004).
2. Convection: This is a current water force generated by flowing water over a

small object. The Convection phenomenon can happen as pore-water in
porous bed, by an imbalance in pressure, hydraulic head, temperature, and
density. Sand waves are produced near the bottom layer. When the water
flows over the rectangular configuration or drops at a higher level. It makes
the water vortex upward with different velocities. The streamline behind the
object rotates toward the object. The vortex generates eddy force that
transports particles (Thibodeaux, 1987).
23
Figure 2-8 Suspended sediment particles through the diffusion and convection
method.
2.10.2 Bedload Transport
It is one of the modes for sediment transportation and includes sliding,

rolling, jumping, and saltation. Particles set on the bed when the gravity force is
more than the bouncy force to upward. Sometimes, the turbulence procedure near the
bedload layer makes several currents and lifts the bedload particles to different levels
by balancing the submerged weight and upward diffusion by eddy force (Rowinski,
2011). The main bedload diameter for this test (d50=0.8mm) and uniform. Generally,
bedload diameter is bigger than 0.075mm. The main diameter of the bedload is
greater than 0.1mm. When sediment diameter is smaller than 0.1mm will be the
suspended particles.
24
Figure 2-9 Different modes for bedload sediment transport.
Bedload motion depends on settling velocity and friction velocity between the
particles and bed surface.
6 > Ws / u* ≥ 2 Contact Load, Bedload

2 > Ws / u* ≥ 0.6 Saltation, Bedload
0.6> Ws / u* Suspended Load
Where, Ws= settling velocity and u* = Shear velocity (Rowinski, 2011). The bed
shear stress in the alluvial channel can be classified as grain-related shear stress and
form related bed shear stress.
2.20
τb" = = . Cf . ρ . V 2 2.21
τb’ = ( ) . τs 2.22
Where, τb" = bed form related shear stress, τb' = grain-related shear stress, Zb =
bedform height, Lb= bedform length, ɑ= coefficient ≈ 5, Cf = drag coefficient, ρ= is
the specific mass of water and V = is the mean velocity.
25
√
V= . (ln -1 ) 2.23
Where V = mean bed velocity, Ks = grain roughness, K= von Karman constant

related to bed.
2.11 Threshold Velocity Concept.
It is a near-bed velocity to move bed particles. It is the critical velocity.

Determining the near-bed velocity is complicated and needs complex processes with
various assumptions. However, the average water velocity can be corresponded by V
and the near-bed velocity is ucr.
Figure 2-10 sketch for threshold velocity (Rowinski, 2011)
Incipient condition plays a significant role in sediment transport and channel

stability. Different parameters based upon it are used in the sediment initiation and
transport formulas for development and application purposes (Fellow, 2006). Near
shear, velocity has a significant role in moving the particles (Pérez., 2017).
When water starts to flow on the special surface with loose sediment from
zero to higher velocity, some particles are moved to another point during this
26
condition. This procedure is called the threshold of sediment movement (Bengal,
2000).
V= 107(Δ g d) 0.5. log ( 8.8 ) 2.24
ucr = 1.9 ( Δ gd)0.5. (tan ϕn. cosϴ - sin ϴ)0.5 2.25
Where, h= flow water depth, d= sediment diameter, g= acceleration, Δ= submerged

relationship is (relative density of sediment-1), ϕn = angle of repose and ϴ = stream
wise angle.
Figure 2-11 Diagram of forces on solitary particles and streamwise angle (Bengal,
2000)
2.12 Quasi Smooth Flow Based On Concept Roughness Flow
When the roughness elements are placed very close together, the flow skims
over the crest elements. The groves between the pieces will be filled with dead water,
contain stable eddies, and create a pseudo wall. Large roughness projections are
absent in pseudo walls, and the surface acts as hydraulically smooth. As such, the
27
ratio of k/λ or j/ λ will be a significant parameter. Quasi-smooth flow has a higher
friction factor than flow over an actual smooth surface. Eddies in grooves consume
an amount of energy (Chow Ven, 1959).
Figure 2-12 Quasi smooth flow (Chow Ven,1959).
2.13 Bed Load Equations
In this study, two bed-material formulas are presented in this subsection. The
term bed-load transportation refers to the amount of transported bed particles by
different modes as jumping, saltation, rolling, and sliding in unit time. In wide
channel or river amount of bedload is nearly 5% to 25% is suspended load
(Rowinski, 2011).
2.13.1 Einstein Equation
The Einstein bed load function was determined based on empirical data,
which also expressed the φ orɸ and ψ relationship as below.
Flow parameter ψ = (Ss-1) d50 / R ϴ 2.26
28
Where ss = specific gravity for sediment, ϴ = water surface slope, and R= hydraulic
radius.
Figure 2-13 Validation of the modified Einstein formula with measured data (Wang
et al., 2008)
2.13.2 Meyer-Peter Muller Equation
The transport formula of Meyer-Peter and Müller, originally developed in

1948 was designed for well-sorted fine gravel.
Flow parameter ψ = (Ss-1) d50 / R ϴ 2.27
Transport Parameter, φ =8 [( ) -0.047] 1.5 2.28
CV = 2.29
Where Cv is the volumetric concentration, V is the velocity, g is the gravity

acceleration and d50 is the median grain size.
29
2.14 Weir and Sedimentation Control
Hassan (2014) investigated that sediment transportation can be minimized in

the open channel by using the weir structure. The concentration of suspended
sediment is measured upstream and downstream the weir through each experiment to
calculate the sediment reduction ratio (SRR %). The laboratory experiments showed
that the sediment reduction for suspended sediment transportation ratio increases
with the increase of weir height and reaches about (63%) at a channel bed slope of
(0.015) and a weir height of 1.5B.
Vertical wall weir makes the strong downflow vertex flow, and scouring
phenomenon is produced. All sediment reaching the scour hole, both suspended and
bedload material entrained by the vortex and transported over the weir. In the sloped
wall weir, streamflow acceleration increases suddenly. Acceleration flow transports a
great part of the sediment. Particles move over the sloped face, and scouring holes
are always formed in the upstream weir part. In the downstream of the weir, a
deposition problem occurs, and the vortex is formed.
Interestingly, the sloped weir deposition was also not observed over time in
the region upstream of the weir. Thus, the effect of flow angle is also likely to
influence sedimentation in the field (Lauchlan, 2004).
Figure 2-14 Diagram showing the flow and sediment processes for a vertical wall
weir.
30
Bhuiyan et al, (2009) noted that the sediment sizes of (d50, d90) in the bend
part of the meandering channel are more coarse and more uniform than the central
line particles along the channel. Installing the vane and W-shape weir can reduce the
sediment phenomenon, but they create scour holes in the raffle section. He
established the weir in the downstream part at the crossover between the riffle and
pool because the maximum sediment is transported at this location. Due to the effect
of scour hole and the low invert of the weir level, sediment transportation increased
slightly at the right of the center line of the channel. When the weir structure is
installed to the meandering channel and during the overbank flow, the rate of
sediment transportation reduces by 69%. This result is less than without using the
weir. The scouring problem creates due to installing a weir structure and leads to
higher sediment transportation ratio.
Tabata (2019) investigated not only the weir structure but also its location
can reduce the sediment particles. He has done research on Yamada weir in Chikugo
River and known as the rivers of rampage. The main model for sediment
transportation in the river is suspended and bedload sediment. He mentioned the
special formula for sediment transportation ratio.
Qb = 17 τ*1.5(1 - )(1-√ )√ -1)gd3 2.30
Where Qb =is the amount of bed load sediment, (=2650 kg/m3), density of
sediment, d=diameter of sediment, τ*= dimensionless tractive force, and is
dimensionless critical tractive force. (Zhu & Yu, 2019) Investigated that amount of
bedload transportation depends on sediment particles and flow rate. The Bendway
weirs are new series structures that are installed at the outer bank with a special angle
toward the flow direction. The following weirs (7 weirs) are installed at different
crest slopes. The volume of the eroded sediment particles in the bare river channel
bed increased by 53, 36, and 15 percent due to installing the weirs at crest slopes at 0,
5, and 10 percentage. The maximum downstream scour holes and erosion quantity
can be seen downstream of the first and last weir. Bed morphology changes based on
crest slope and decreasing fraud number (Hemmati & Daraby, 2019).
31
2-15 Main concepts for block effect on streamline inside water bode according
(Agelinchaab & Tachie, 2008).
2.15 Types of the Bed Form
During the sedimentation process, when the total shear stress τo is more than
the threshold value τoc, the particle moves. Moving sediment in the water makes the
different bedforms. Bed shear stress increases when the average velocity increases.
Therefore, the size of the bedforms, their shape, and the scouring process depend on
the water velocity and average water depth (Rowinski, 2011). Type of the bedforms
can be classified based on Froude number value:
Fr =V/(gR)0.5 2.31
Where V= average velocity for the channel in (m/s) and R= hydraulic radius (m).
Fr > 1 (subcritical flow), namely ripples, ripples on dunes, and dunes

Fr =1 (about critical flow), namely washed-out dunes.
Fr <1 (supercritical flow), namely plane bed, antidunes, chutes, and pools.
32
Figure 2-16 Engelund & Hansen Method
 Plane bed: A bed surface devoid of bedforms is also known as a smooth bed.
 Ripple: small bedforms and their wavelength are less than 300mm, and wave
heights lower than 50mm.
 Bars: which are bedforms in which wavelength is equal to channel width, but
wave height depends on the flow depth. They can be divided into bars,
middle bars, alternate bars, and tributary bars.
 Dunnes: bedform waves are smaller than bars and bigger than ripples.
 Antidunes: when water and flows toward the downstream, sand waves and
surface flow waved move back for upstream.
Source (Moustafa & El Sayed, 2007)
33
34
CHAPTER 3
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the methods used to analyze the pattern of bed
sediment transport in the water channel using the rectangular configuration structures
and weir barrier. This chapter has tried to determine the best relationship between the
sediment transportation reduction and block configuration spaces related to weir
height. The experiment for the sediment transport in the open channel was conducted
in the Hydraulic and Hydrology Laboratory at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
3.2 Main Experimental Model
For doing this project, we need some simple equipment. The equipment can
produce at plate wood and simple transparent plate. The Rectangular open channel is
the main equipment, the height of the channel (H) and width (B). Height (H) is equal
to 2×B or larger. The total length of the flume is 10m and width is 0.3m also, the
flume depth is 0.6m. This flume includes some elements such as depth gauge, weir,
control valve, slump, pump stilling tank, and working station. Non-cohesive material
is used for this study. The bed slope of the channel is (0.01). The weirs can be
produced at the simple transparent plate. They should be mobilized, and the height of
the weir is different. Increasing the weir height according to flume width as 0.25,
0.35B, 0.45B and 0.55B. The maximum average discharge of flume is 0.025m3/s.
The rectangular configurations are produced at simple rectangular wood. Their
length is equal to channel width, but their height is 0.2Y, where Y is the maximum
water depth without using weirs and blocks.
35
3.3 Discharge Measurement
The channel's water velocity is measured through using two methods: the
conventional method and the current flow meter, as shown in (Figure 3-1). The
values of the velocity of these methods are approximately the same. The water pump
is used to flow water in the channel. At maximum discharge flow, maximum water
depth in the channel is found to design the other models. Maximum expected
uniform discharge has been determined through the ultrasonic flow meter and valve
rotation. It is 25 l/s.
Figure 3-1 Ultrasonic Current Flow Meter
3.4 Experimental setup
The experimental setup includes all processes from the beginning until the
end of the project work.
36
3.4.1 The Flume Setup
This channel should be transparent to consider the sediment transportation

and measure the spaces between the rectangular configurations and detect the
sediment motion during the process. The height of channel (H) must be equal to
twice times width of the channel (B), H=2B or greater. After the channel has been
prepared, we open the valve to measure the water flow to fix discharge at 0.025 m3/s
or (25L/s) without pouring sediment into the channel. The main channel slope is 0.01
Figure 3-2 Top-view for straight channel
Figure 3-3 Side-view of straight channel
37
3.4.2 Sharp Crest Weir Setup.
Weir structure (sharp-crest weir) width is equal to width channel (B), but height
(W) is different according to width channel. The Weir structure is installed at the end
of the flume at the downstream point. The discharge in sharp crest can be determined
by:
Qmc = cd.√ .B.Z3/2 3.1
Where, Cd= coefficient of discharge is equal to 0.7, B= weir width to flow out water
and Z= maximum water height above the crest weir.
Figure 3-4 Scheme of sharp-crested weir (Arvanaghi & Oskuei, 2013)
3.4.3 Sediment Preparation
The sediment sample is prepared through the sieving analysis. Uniform

graded sand at d50 = 0.8 mm used as its bed material. Naturally occurring sediment
38
samples exhibit a range of grain diameters. The median size is denoted as d50. Sand
sediment should be washed and dried in the oven at 100Co to remove some organic
materials with silt and clay.
3.4.4 Rectangular Configuration Structure
Rectangular configurations (baffle block): The number of blocks is four

blocks. Their height is different according to Maximum water depth. If water depth is
10cm, the width of each rectangular configuration (b) = 0.15 × 60cm = 1.5 cm. The
height of the each rectangular configuration object (a) = 0.2 × 10 = 2 cm. The length
of each rectangular configuration is equal to the width channel. All configurations
can be produced in simple wood.
Figure 3-5 Side View for Cross Section Channel and Configuration Arrangement
3.4.5 Project Calculation Symbols
3. H = channel depth
4. B = channel width.
5. a = height of the rectangular configurations.
6. b = width of the rectangular configurations.
39
7. Y= maximum water depth without using weir.
8. Z = water depth above the weir crest.
9. S= distance (space) between configurations.
10. W= maximum weir Height.
11. Qmc= channel discharge.
12. h = maximum water depth after using weir ≈ Hs
13. Hs= Maximum water depth above the bedload layer ≈ h
3.4.6 Sediment Trap
A sand trap is also placed downstream to collect sediment particles that are
transported from the main channel. For small flumes, the transported particles are
collected at 15 minutes for each different situation. After weighting, the sediment is
returned to the main channel. The mass of sediment transportation and sediment
concentration can be determined according to these formulas:
QSr = 3.2
Where Qb = mass of transported sediment (g), t = time (s) and QSr = the rate of
transported sediment (g/s).
3.3
Where Cv is sediment concentration (ppm), Qmc is the channel discharge

(m /s), and ρ is the water density (kg/m3) (Jumain et al., 2008). The sediment trap has
3
been fixed at the end of the channel to collect the transported sediment from
upstream. The sediment trap is a simple cloth filter that has been fixed with an outlet
pipe. After the experiment is done, the transported sediment is dried in the oven and
weighted by sensitive balance.
40
3.5 Research Procedure
1. Preparing the channel and opening the water valve to measure the maximum
water flow. The full discharge of the flume should be (25 l/s) without adding
sediment to the channel and fixing weirs.
2. Maximum water depth (Y) is measured. A sediment sample is added to the
channel at 1cm thickness, 9m length, and 0.30m width.
3. The Weir structure is fixed in the weir location at 0.55B (16.5 cm) height
without using baffle blocks to determine the bed load transportation.
4. Opening the water valve to flow water and sediment particles in the channel
and measuring transported sediment above the weir.
5. The water flow, sediment transportation, and bed motion are investigated to
determine the maximum sediment transportation at the sediment catcher.
6. Repeating the previous steps for fixing the weir at weir position for weir
height 0.45B, 0.35B, and 0.25B. Where, B is equal to the width of the
rectangular channel.
7. Accepting the best weir height for minimum sediment transportation without
using the rectangular blocks. Repeat previous steps using the rectangular
configuration structure.
8. Rectangular configurations (baffle blocks) are arranged according to different
interval spaces (S), S= 4Y, 8Y, 12Y, and 16Y. (Y) is the maximum water
depth for full discharge without using the blocks and weirs and
(S1=S2=S3=S4).
9. Specifying the best rectangular configuration spaces related to weir height
and minimum sediment transported for each weir.
10. Plotting the graphs between the bed-load transportation ratio and weir
heights.
11. Drawing the sediment morphology graph. Different velocity at each minute is
measured. The total time interval for each trial is 15minutes
41
Figure 3-6 Weir structure and rectangular configuration structures (Long baffle
blocks)
Figure 3-7 Rectangular configuration blocks and bed layer
Figure 3-8 Rectangular configuration structure (long baffle blocks) model
42
3.6 Flowchart
Figure 3-9 Flowchart of experimental work
43
44
CHAPTER 4
4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 General Introduction
This chapter presents all the results obtained from the experiment. As
explained in the methodology, the investigation is divided into two cases: test for
different weir heights without baffle blocks and testing for same weirs with block
configuration (long baffle blocks). Detecting the best situation for minimum
sediment transportation, sediment motion and bed layer morphology have been
shown. Sediment concentration and bed load transportation and accumulation have
been calculated.
4.2 Channel Slope Fixing and Maximum Flow
For fixing the channel slope (0.01), we used the (level instrument). At first,
we got the horizontal difference level between the in-point and out-point of the flume
to take zero levels. Then, we changed the flume base level to determine the 10cm
differences. Total flume length is 10m and slope, θ= = 0.01, Where,
0.20m= out-let level of base flume and 0.10m inlet point level of base flume. The
maximum average water depth was 0.10m at maximum discharge without weir and
configuration structures.
Table 4-1 Maximum expected discharge and velocity without the weir
Number of valve Rotation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Discharge, Qmc L/s 0.30 3.1 7 11.47 18 20.5 25 25 25
45
Figure 4-1 Channel Setup Procedure
4.3 Weir Experiment Model
These experiments are simple transparent fibre, and they are mobile weirs.
The weir heights change according to the channel's width and are 7.5cm, 10.5cm,
13.5cm, and 16.5cm in height. Weir was located at the end of the channel at the
downstream part. All weirs can rise and fall through the manual screw. The weir
sides are fixed to the channel base and side to prevent water leakage, and rubber
strips have been used for the weir base.
Figure 4-2 Mobile weir model
46
4.4 Sediment layer and laying in the channel
Sand particles diameters of 0.8mm was used as bedload layer. At first the
1cm layer was used along the 9m of the flume. The different level was equal to zero.
The layer thickness has been assumed according to ten times of sediment particles
diameters as nearly was equal to saltation height refers to (Fredsøe, 2012)
Figure 4-3 Sediment layer along the channel
4.5 Running Models and Data Collection
The flume has been run to detect the sediment motion and transportation with
various water velocities. The time interval for each step was 15minutes. Maximum
discharge for all cases was constant, and it was 25 l/s. Water temperature for each
case has been detected, and it was almost constant at 20Co. Thus kinematic viscosity
based on this degree was 1×10-6 m2/s. The total average bed layer was measured by
a (vernier). All project procedures can be divided for these two cases below which
are:
i. Installing weir without rectangular configuration.

ii. Installing weirs with rectangular configuration.
47
4.5.1 Installing Weir without Rectangular Configuration
At the first step, sediment transportation was tested. The bed profile related to
different velocities was found. During this step, sediment motion depended on the
flow characteristics in the channel. The crosse-section area changed according to
sediment accumulation and scouring in the particular points. Bedload deformation in
debris transportation was greater than bedload sediment. During water flowing, the
scouring and accumulation of sediment compensated each other according to (Theule
et al., 2015). Water velocity varied according to weir to weirs due to different
heights. Bedload transportation changed the degree of roughness and decreased near-
bed velocity due to bedload thickness variation as mentioned in (Carbonneau &
Bergeron, 2000) .
Figure 4-4 Portable current meter to measure the mean velocity.
48
Table 4-2 Sediment Motion and Transportation for Weir Height 16.5cm
Step One, Using Weir without Rectangular Configuration Profile

Weight of
Weir Sediment Layer
Discharge Velocity Using Transported Distance Right Left
Height, Time Thickness, Center
(Qmc) (V) Rectangular Sediment U/S from Side side
(w) (min) (Zb) (cm)
( l/s) (m/s) Configuration (Qb) Weir (m) (cm) (cm)
(cm) (cm)
(kg)
0 0.4 0 1 2 0
1 0.354 0.5 1.5 2 2
2 0.377 1 1.5 2.2 2
3 0.348 1.5 2.7 2.1 1.5
4 0.354 2 2 2.5 1.5
5 0.519 2.5 2.4 1.5 1.5
6 0.397 3 1.5 1.5 1
7 0.338 3.5 2.7 1 2.5
8 0.489 4 1 1.2 1
16.5 25 9 0.36 No 1 0.06 4.5 2.2 1 2
10 0.421 5 0.1 1.2 0
11 0.446 5.5 6 0 3.7
12 0.469 6 3 0 5.5
13 0.507 6.5 0 2 0
14 0.557 7 3 1.5 0
15 0.46 7.5 0.2 0.5 0
8 0 0 0
Average 0.425 8.5 0 0 0
9 0 0 0
49

Weight of
Weir Sediment Layer
(w) (min) (Zb) (cm)
(cm) (cm)
(kg)
0 0.553 0 2.5 2.5 2.5
1 0.542 0.5 1.8 2 2
2 0.556 1 2.2 2.2 2.2
3 0.552 1.5 1.8 2.5 1.8
4 0.602 2 2.1 1.8 1.8
5 0.58 2.5 1.9 2.5 0
6 0.563 3 4.9 5.9 6.9
7 0.635 3.5 3 6 5.8
8 0.619 4 0 0 0
13.5 25 9 0.656 No 1 0.8 4.5 3.8 2.5 4.8
10 0.551 5 0 0 0
11 0.488 5.5 0 0 0
12 0.545 6 0 0 0
13 0.553 6.5 0 0 0
14 0.54 7 0 0 0
15 0.555 7.5 0 0 0
8 0 0 0
Average 0.568 8.5 0 0 0
9 0 0 0
50

Weight of
Weir Sediment Layer
(w) (min) (Zb) (cm)
(cm) (cm)
(kg)
0 0.55 0 4 2.8 4.5
1 0.691 0.5 3.2 2 2.8
2 0.619 1 4.9 4.7 6.5
3 0.575 1.5 4.6 0 0
4 0.662 2 3.5 4 6.7
5 0.587 2.5 0 5.7 4.5
6 0.664 3 3.6 0 3.8
7 0.622 3.5 2.8 3.4 4.5
8 0.648 4 0 0 1
10.5 25 9 0.608 No 1 0.3 4.5 0 0 0
10 0.628 5 0 0 0
11 0.615 5.5 0 0 0
12 0.612 6 0 0 0
13 0.62 6.5 0 0 0
14 0.604 7 0 0 0
15 0.75 7.5 0 0 0
8 0 0 0
Average 0.628 8.5 0 0 0
9 0 0 0
51

Weight of
Weir Sediment Layer
(w) (min) (Zb) (cm)
(cm) (cm)
(kg)
0 0.9 0 7.2 6.2 4.5
1 0.894 0.5 3 5 6
2 0.801 1 0 2 5
3 0.666 1.5 0 0 0
4 0.618 2 0 3.5 4.5
5 0.728 2.5 0 1 4
6 0.677 3 0 0 0
7 0.782 3.5 0 0 0
8 0.731 4 0 0 0
7.5 25 9 0.821 No 1 21 4.5 0 0 0
10 0.834 5 0 0 0
11 0.833 5.5 0 0 0
12 0.77 6 0 0 0
13 0.8 6.5 0 0 0
14 0.8 7 0 0 0
15 0.75 7.5 0 0 0
8 0 0 0
Average 0.775 8.5 0 0 0
9 0 0 0
52
Figure 4-5 Sediment morphology in the channel for 16.5cm weir cm (unit in cm)
Figure 4-6 Sediment morphology in the channel for 13.5cm weir cm (unit in cm).
53
Table 4-6 Bed load shear velocity (u*) for different weir heights
Hydraulic
W V Qb Hs Qsr u*
radius, R
(cm) (m/s) ( kg) (cm) (g/s) (m/s)
(m)
16.5 0.425 0.06 25.5 0.0667 0.094 0.096
13.5 0.528 0.08 22.5 0.0889 0.090 0.093
10.5 0.628 0.3 19.5 0.333 0.085 0.091
7.5 0.775 21 16.5 23.333 0.079 0.088
In this case, without using the configuration, the maximum sediment quantity
was 21kg transported with minimum weir height. According to increasing weir
height, the sediment-transported ratio decreased inversely. Total sediment
transported quantity was 21.44kg for a minimum weir height of 7.5cm, thus
transported rate was almost 98% of all transported particles quantity for all weirs.
Bedload profile changed from a weir to another one due to their height. For weir
16.5cm, maximum sediment accumulation in the channel center in front of the weir
structure (0 m distance from the weir to upstream) was 2cm. It was higher than both
sides. Maximum water velocity existed in the channel center according to (Chiu &
Tung, 2002). Maximum velocity is at one-third below the water level. The maximum
velocity was noted at the water surface. The retained bed layer length was 7.5m
toward the upstream, and there was no more bed material behind this point.
Bedload layer length decreased according to decreasing the cross-section

water area due to a reduction in weir height. Sheet flow changed according to
velocity. Bed accumulation was maximum in the minimum weir height; it is almost
7cm in length. The greatest dead load was produced in front of the smallest weir. The
continuous bedload layer in the weir of 16.5cm was three times greater than the
lowest weir of 7.5cm. In all different cases, the total bedload moved as mobile
bedload. Transported sediment particles above the weir indicated the movement of
the particles as sheet flow and saltation above the structure due to increasing the
sediment layer by accumulation process in front of the weirs.
54
Figure 4-9 Bed layer thickness for channel centerline for different weir heights.
The maximum sediment length was 7.5m for the highest weir. Its length
reduced gradually according to velocity. Small scouring holes are produced in some
points due to changing in water depth and flow velocity. Scouring hole depth also
depended on the angle of attack of flow and sediment characteristics. It has been
detected the amount of sediment transported in the channel without using block
configurations was lower than using block configuration, and this problem has been
mentioned in (Engelund & Fredsoe, 1976). During the bed load motion, the
streamwise momentum was reduced due to friction. This reduction in streamwise
momentum results in a decrease in flow velocity, which corresponds to an increase in
flow resistance in termed bedload transport resistance as stated by (Gao &
Abrahams, 2004). For the first highest weir 16.5 cm, the bedload moved some
uniformly compared to the other ones, and it indicates the velocity has a significant
role. Flow type in the channel is turbulent flow according to different Reynolds
numbers.
Table 4-7 Flow type for different weir height
Weir Water Wetted Hydraulic

V Area Flow
height, depth Parameter radius, R Re
(m/s) (m2) Type
W (m) (m) (m) (m)
0.165 0.425 0.255 0.08 0.81 0.094 40139 Turbulent
0.135 0.568 0.225 0.07 0.75 0.090 51120 Turbulent
0.105 0.628 0.195 0.06 0.69 0.085 53243 Turbulent
0.075 0.775 0.165 0.05 0.63 0.079 60893 Turbulent
55
Saltation length increased due to accumulating bed form. Channel velocity
reduced near bedload layer. Maximum velocity existed near the water surface and
transported the dunes top particles. A sand type was coarse sand, and bed roughness
was lower compared to the rectangular configuration case. Separation vortices near
the bed did not produce obviously. Vortices forces are responsible for increasing the
particles transported in conformity with (Gyr & Hoyer, 2013).
4.5.2 Installing Weir with Rectangular Blocks Configurations
In this case, four rectangular configuration structures were used. They have
been produced at simple wood. Their space distances were equal, the width of each
one was 1.5 cm, and their heights were 2 cm. The purpose of this procedure was to
increase the bed roughness. Changing their spaces affected bedload transportation
according to (Yager et al., 2007). Eddy forces produced through the turbulent flow.
The vortices forces moved upwelling and downwelling in the free surface as
mentioned in (Shvidchenko & Pender, 2001). Turbidity current flow transported the
sediment particles to long distances due to the quasi flow situation. Also, this
phenomenon already concluded by (Nomura et al., 2020). The model of the
rectangular block to make the vortex forces was shown in Figure (3-8).
At the first trial, the rectangular structures were installed near the weir wall to
increase the resistance bed and reduce the sediment motion toward the barrier face to
get a lower dead load there. Flow characteristics near the block changed according to
block configuration, but all blocks were rectangular. This rectangular structure
disturbed the shear layer above the bed and produced the separation zone streamline
through the near-bed wave (bubble). Separation bubbles and flow constrictions
changed the flow condition and produced the scour depth in keeping with
(Agelinchaab & Tachie, 2008). Baffle blocks made the jump and increased the
turbulent flow properties to make the local scouring phenomenon. The sediment
profile has been changed due to changes in distance. The main concept for block
effect on boundary layer has been shown already in the Figure (2-15).
56
Table 4-8 Sediment concentration for different weir heights for 0.4m spacing
Number and Sediment

Weir
spacing of V Qb Hs Qsr concentration,
height
configurations (m/s) (kg) (cm) (g/s) Cv
(m)
(m) (ppm)
16.5 0.448 0.06 25.5 0. 07 2.67
13.5 0.514 0.12 22.5 0. 13 5.33
4x0.4
10.5 0.647 0.66 19.5 0. 73 29.33
7.5 0.739 27.5 16.5 30.56 1222.22
Number and Sediment

Weir
height
(m)
(m) (ppm)
16.5 0.475 0.1 25.5 0. 11 4.44
13.5 0.595 0.14 22.5 0. 16 6.22
4x0.8
10.5 0.682 3.8 19.5 4.22 168.89
7.5 0.729 29.2 16.5 32.44 1297.78
Table 4-10 Sediment concentration for different weir heights for 1.2 spacing
Number and Sediment

Weir
height
(m)
(m) (ppm)
16.5 0.498 0.1 25.5 0. 11 4.44
13.5 0.571 0.12 22.5 0. 13 5.33
4x1.2
10.5 0.67 4.62 19.5 5.13 205.33
7.5 0.95 20 16.5 22.22 888.89
Number and Sediment

Weir
height
(m)
(m) (ppm)
16.5 0.464 0.12 25.5 0.13 5.33
13.5 4x1.6 0.591 0.08 22.5 0.09 3.56
10.5 0.682 4.67 19.5 5.19 207.56
7.5 1.056 25 16.5 27.78 1111.11
57
During this process, the rate of sediment transportation (Qb) increased due to
installing the block configurations. The mean velocity for the channel is almost
constant and not affected by baffles. Local velocity should be determined by pitot
tube, but it has not been used. Obviously, the most undesirable (worst) case is the
minimum weir height of 7.5cm. When the baffles were installed, the rate of sediment
concentration increases for example, for spaces 0.4m and 0.8m for weir of 10.5cm,
the bedload-transported weights were 0.66kg and 3.8kg. It was because the bed
surface acted as a straight uniform layer. The amount of scouring and hydraulic jump
is higher than the narrow space distance for structures. Some flow properties like
turbulent velocities and other turbulent properties are enhanced significantly. Most of
the turbulence enhancement was observed when the distance among the baffles
increased and in different positions scouring and erosion have been detected, as
already mentioned by (Gajusingh et al., 2010).
Bed-load transportation raised when the distance among the blocks increased
then it fell down again due to very wide spaces. There were serial hydraulic jumps
and following turbulent vertex produced for a distance of 0.8m to transport more
particles. This phenomenon was less observed for very wide distances because the
bed acted as a uniform bed, and particles moved easily. No strong local jumps were
produced. When the blocks are installed with a very wide distance, such as more than
1.2Y, the situation will return to the case of a non-used block.
58
Figure 4-10 Bedlod morphology after running model (a) weir height 10.5cm,(b) weir
height 7.5cm for blocks spacing
4.5.2.1 Sediment Morphology Variation
Morphology sediment mainly depended on the flow velocity, but channel

velocity for this test was almost stable because the heights of the baffles were small
and not affect the flow properties. Therefore, the best situation for collecting
sediment in the smallest area inside the channel during the sediment removal process
was the case of installing baffle blocks in the distance (0.8 to 1.2 times water depth)
related to bedload transportation. The most undesirable situation refers to the
smallest weir because of the maximum amount of sediment transportation. The
sediment thickness in front of the weirs for both cases (without blocks and with
blocks) was equal to (5 cm, 5.5 cm, and 5.8 cm) except the cases of the (0.8m
distance interval for weir 13.5 and 10.5cm height.
59
According to Surfer- Webinar program, the total surface area for spreading bedload
after running the model for the different situations is shown in Figure 4-11.
Figure 4-11 Surface area for bedload after running model with different block
spacing.
Spreading sediment inside the channel and increasing the bedload surface
area changed the roughness coefficient from concrete (n=0.011) or metal to gravelly
or sandy bed (n=0.025). If the rate of roughness increases, the turbulence intensity
and turbulent production will be higher, as claimed by (Groom & Friedrich, 2019).
Maximum bed load thickness has been estimated for centreline points. The worst-
case was installing the obstacle and blocks in the distance 8Y (8 times the maximum
water depth).
Figure 4-12 Dead load thickness in front of the weirs face for different weir heights
60
4.5.2.2 Types Bed Form
Usually, types of bedform depend on the degree of roughness and flow

velocity. There was a strong relationship between resistance to flow, bed
configuration structure, and sediment transport rate. The block interval spaces and
their height should be observed to understand the variation of resistance to flow
under different flow conditions and sediment conditions. The geometric bed structure
had a significant role in identifying the flow regime types near the bed. It has been
focused on a/s (height and interval spaces ratio between blocks) as mentioned by
(Hunter et al., 1990). The shear velocity for the bed surface and average velocity for
all trials were almost equal. All spaces ratio between blocks were less than 0.3. It
was an isolated roughness regime because (a= 0.02m, minimum space is 0.4 m) thus
(a/s is smaller 0.3) based on (Yang & Shao, 2006). It has been depended on
Engelund & Hansen Method for determining the bedform type that is shown in figure
(2-16).
Figure 4-13 Bed forms during the process
61
Table 4-12 Types of the bedform related to Froude number
Both cases,
Weir Using blocks and
V R u* Type of
height Not used blocks, V / u* Fr
(m/s) (m) (m/s) bed form
(m) With interval
distance (m)
Dunes-
16.5 0.462 0.094 0.096 4.811 0.287
Plane bed
Dunes-
13.5 0.567 0.09 0.094 6.034 0.373
All Cases Plane bed
10.5 0.662 0.085 0.091 7.250 0.467 Dunes
Dunes-
7.5 0.850 0.079 0.088 9.655 0.650
Antidunes
Table 4-13 Shear stress for all cases
Both cases,
Weir Using blocks and Stream
τc R τo
height Not used blocks, Power
(N/m2) (m) (N/m2)
(m) With interval (watts)
distance (m)
16.5 0.094 9.4
13.5 0.09 9
All Cases 0.45 2.45
10.5 0.085 8.5
7.5 0.079 7.9
62
4.5.2.3 The Rate of Transported Sediment Increased with Using Baffle Blocks.
In the steep channel, the obstacle structures can produce great energy
dissipation and make the hydraulic jump by releasing the eddy forces
(Christodoulou, 2014). Due to high friction between water flow and blocks body, the
horseshoes vortex created and lifted toward to the water surface. Maximum water
velocity was near the water surface. The strong upward motion of particles traces of
low-speed fluid from the near-bed mixed with higher velocity. Vertical tracers
contain much-lifted bedload particles, then traces storm were expanded behind the
structure toward the downstream as mentioned in (Roy et al., 2004). Great-scoured
holes were produced due to local acceleration-deceleration around the obstacle.
Lifting particles due to boundary layer distribution is shown in Figure 4-14.
Figure 4-15 Scouring and lifting particles near the rectangular blocks
It has been assumed the velocity of the particles is equal to the mean channel
velocity. Therefore, the highest water velocity produced in the channel centerline and
maximum scouring also was created there. The length of bedload of the weir height
(7.5 cm, without using blocks) was two times longer than the remained bed length
for the same weir but blocks (1.6 times water depth) distance interval. Thus, bedload
layer lengths for the non-blocked case were 3m, but 1.5m for 1.6m of distance
interval.
63
Figure 4-16 Sediment profile for (a) weir 16.5cm height, (b) 13.5cm, (c) 10.5cm and
(d) 7.5 cm height with interval 0.4m.
64
(d) 7.5 cm height with interval 0.8 m.
65
(d) 7.5 cm height with interval 1.2m
66
(d) 7.5 cm height with interval 1.6m.
67
CHAPTER 5
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion
Sediment transportation is one of the main problems for reservoir, water

channel, and streams. Experimental works carried out to achieve the objective of the
study. Based on the study objective, estimating the rate of bed sediment transport at
upstream and downstream of the weir structure was successfully measured. From the
results, the following conclusions can be drawn from this investigation:
i. Bed particles can travel above small barriers such as weirs and dams due to
the accumulation process and cross-area reduction based on the time and
mean velocity. Bed transportation quantity mainly depends on the barrier
height. Maximum amount bed particles were transported for smallest weir
such as 21 kg for weir 7.5cm height while only 0.066kg for the highest weir.
Retained bed layer length in the channel upstream directly changes with weir
height. For example, for the highest weir, it was equal to 7.5m. This value
was twice the times greater than 3m for the lowest weir.
ii. Rectangular configurations (long baffle block) are the main structures for this
research to investigate their role in sediment transportation reduction. The
project result was opposite to what was expected. The sediment
transportation rate increased over the barrier due to installing the baffle
blocks. For example, the weight of transported particles for the smallest weir
was (21kg), but for using-baffle block case was (25 kg).
iii. The maximum amount of sediment transported when the baffle blocks were
fixed at a distance of 0.8m to each other. All project data was almost equal
for case with block configuration. All block sizes were similar and small in
which 2cm height × 1.5cm thickness. Using block structures did not
contribute much for sediment reduction. Even the bed-load transportation rate
increased gradully.
68
5.2 Recommendation
Based on the results and conclusion made from this study, some suggestions
below would be useful as a reference for further study:
i. To get more data in the channel and observe sediment transportation, a

sensitive camera should be used to record the sediment motion.
ii. For improving the research, the block height effect should be detected, in
which the ratio for block height to maximum water depth should be (0.5m)
with the same distance interval hat have been used for this project.
iii. The long block structure (block configuration) should be installed with
different face angles with channel walls to detect the best situation.
69
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THE INFLUENCE OF CHANNEL BED RECTANGULAR CONFIGURATION ON

OMED MOHAMMED PIROT

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF THESIS / UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT REPORT AND

Date of Birth : 5th/11/1991

Title : THE INFLUENCE OF THE BED CHANNEL RECTANGULAR

Academic Session : 2020/2021-2

I declare that this thesis is classified as:

CONFIDENTIAL (Contains confidential information under the Official

RESTRICTED (Contains restricted information as specified by the

 OPEN ACCESS I agree that my thesis to be published as online open

I acknowledged that Universiti Teknologi Malaysia reserves the right as follows:

SIGNATURE OF STUDENT SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR

MKAG191042 DR. ZULKIFLEE BIN IBRAHIM

Date: 8th JULY 2021 Date: 8th JULY 2021

Name of Supervisor I : DR. ZULKIFLEE BIN IBRAHIM

Date : 8 JULY 2021

Date : 8 JULY 2021

OMED MOHAMMED PIROT

A project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the

School of Civil Engineering

Name : OMED MOHAMMED PIROT

Date : 8 JULY 2021

It is a great pleasure to address those people who helped me throughout this

I wish to express my special thanks to my beloved parents and family who

Sediment transportation is the movement of organic or inorganic particles by

Pengangkutan sedimen adalah pergerakan zarah organik atau bukan organik

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

2.9 Cohesive Sediment 20

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

2-3 Process of erosion, transportation, and sedimentation in river channel. 13

2-4 angle of repose for sediment particles. 18

2-5 Drag coefficient for sphere particles. 20

2-6 Individual clay particles, flocs and floc group. 21

2-7 Fraction xb total load travelling bedload and function ws/u* 22

2-8 Suspended sediment motion through the diffusion and convection 24

2-9 Different modes for bedload sediment transportation. 24

2-10 Sketch for threshold velocity. 26

2-11 Diagram force on solitary particles and stream-wise angle 27

2-13 Validation of the modified einstein formula with measured data. 29

2-16 England & hansen method.

3-2 Plan view for straight channel. 37

3-3 Side view for straight channel. 37

3-4 Scheme of sharp crested weir. 38

3-7 Rectangular configuration blocks and bed layer. 42

3-8 Rectangular configuration structure (long baffle blocks) model. 42

3-9 Flowchart of working study. 43

4-1 Channel setup procedure. 45

4-2 Mobile weir model. 46

4-3 Sediment layer along the channel. 47

4-4 Portable current meter to detect the mean velocity. 48

4-5 Sediment morphology in channel for weir (16.5cm). 53

4-6 Sediment morphology in channel for weir (13.5cm). 53

4-7 Sediment morphology in channel for weir (10.5cm). 53

4-8 Sediment morphology in channel for weir (7.5cm). 53

4-14 Scouring and lifting particles near the rectangular blocks. 63

Fluid kinematic viscosity

ρdry Dry density for sediment

1.1 Background of Study

Hydraulic structures are submerged or partially submerged structures in

Sediment transportation can be bedload transportation for coarse particles or

1.2 Problem Statement

1.3 Objectives of the Study