Lesson 1

Seismic
Seismicdesign
designand
andassessment
assessmentof
of
Masonry
Masonry Structures
Structures
Course taught by:

Daniel P. Abrams
Professor of Civil Engineering
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
and
GuidoMagenes
Associate Professor of Strutural Design
Università di Pavia and ROSE School
October 2004
Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 1
Introduction
Masonry construction is the oldest and most

common building technique, together with timber
construction.
The word “masonry” actually encompasses

techniques which may differ substantially
depending on type and shape of materials and
construction methods.
A screening of the hystorical masonry heritage

shows the wide variety of construction systems
which fall under the name of “masonry”.

Introduction – Stone masonry

Introduction – Masonry w. clay units
early sundried mud

elements

Introduction – Mixed stone-clay units
“sacco” wall
Mechanical behaviour of masonry

Good behaviour under vertical compression
Low or negligible tensile strength; in particular the
tensile strength of a mortar joint can be of the order of 1/30
of the compressive strength of masonry
- problems for the resistance to horizontal loading (wind,

earthquake)
- horizontal structures were traditionally built with timber or were

arched or vaulted; nowadays floor slabs and roofs are usually built
with materials which can resist tensile stresses and therefore
flexure (r.c., steel, timber..).

Mechanical behaviour of masonry structural elements - Walls
R ⋅ r = W ⋅ a + Vy / 2
Vy
r =a+
2W
Equilibrium of mud brick wall at Palace of Ctesiphon, Iraq
Effect of wind pressure on the line of thrust

Consider a wall subjected to a uniformly distributed horizontal pressure q (e.g. wind) and to self weight
(γ=18 kN/m3).
Assuming zero tensile strength at the base of the wall, where a crack is assumed to develop under the
effect of horizontal forces, evaluate the value of q which leads to overturning of the wall.
Consider a wall strip of unit length (l = 1 M ov − M res = 0

m): q ⋅ h2 t
− P⋅ = 0
2 2
h h/2
P = γ ⋅ t ⋅ h self weight of wall (l = 1)
Q = q ⋅ h resultant horizontal force (l = 1)
q P
t
Qu = P ⋅
q h
h/2 if t = 0.12 m h = 3 m
we have overturning for Qu = 0.259 kN
Rh
l
Rv if l = 3 m Qu = 0.777 kN
t t/2

Same wall with vertical load N at the top, with some eccentricity e w. respect to centreline of wall:
e
Considering a wall strip of unit length (l = 1 m):
N
M rib − M stab = 0
q ⋅ h2 t ⎛ t⎞
− P ⋅ − N ⋅⎜e + ⎟ = 0
h/2 2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
P = γ ⋅ t ⋅ h self weight of wall (l = 1)

q P
Q = q ⋅ h resultant horizontal force (l = 1)
h/2 the presence of a vertical load increases

the resistance to overturning
t ⎛ t + 2e ⎞
Rh
Qu = P ⋅ + N ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ high h/t reduces the resistance to
h ⎝ h ⎠ overturning
Rv
In general, resistance of unreinforced masonry (urm) to out-of-plane
t/2 loading is low.

On the contrary, the resistance of walls to in-plane loading can be high, and
therefore the structural conception of an urm building must be similar to a “box”,
where walls are positioned along at least two orthogonal directions.
Touliatos, 1996
Mechanical behaviour of masonry structural elements – Spanning

across: beams or lintels
Lions Gate in Mycenae (1250 B.C.) equilibrium relies on

tensile strength of stone

across: primitive arch
Position of the thrust line at

midlength of one of the stones:
WL W ⎛L⎞ L
a+ ⎜ ⎟ =W
4h 2 ⎝8⎠ 4
3
a= h
4
By considering other sections, it can be

shown that if the thickness of the stones
Solid abutments are necessary to is approximately constant, then the
provide horizontal restraint complete thrust line is parabolic

across: primitive arch
even
bearing at
abutments
more likely
situation

across: true arches

across and enclosing spaces: vaults and domes
corbelled
dome: tomb of
Agamennon
(1300 BC)
true domes
Pantheon, Rome, AD 123

Mechanical behaviour of masonry structural elements – Collapse
of masonry arch
Limits of a “working
stress” approach: the
stress at a point at a
section does not tell us
how far we are from
collapse
Masonry buildings: from single-storey to multistorey
Contemporary single-story masonry buildings are very similar to simple

ancient domestic buildings such as those built by the Romans. Stability was
achieved using thick walls that were buttressed by orthogonal end walls
apartment block
or “insula” in
Ostia
Multistorey masonry buildings were constructed by Romans as early as the

1st century AD. They had a cellular layout with brick-faced concrete walls
about 1 m thick.

Masonry buildings: from single-storey to multistorey
When multistorey commercial

buildings developed, open space
was required internally, and internal
walls were replaced by timber and
then iron columns to support the
floors.
Walls had variable thickness to
attain stability under wind forces..
This solution, however has lower

stability vs. horizontal loads when
compared to the “cellular” solution
Modern masonry buildings: what solution for stability against

horizontal loads
HORIZONTAL LOADS
UNREINFORCED
use of reinforcement
MASONRY
REINFORCED MASONRY
cellular layout (many
walls, less free surface) or
thicker walls, limited CONFINED MASONRY
interstorey height, low
slenderness, to avoid out-
of-plane collapse

Modern masonry construction
Classification of Modern Masonry Construction
• engineered construction vs. non-engineered construction

• structural masonry vs. non-structural masonry
• reinforced masonry vs. unreinforced masonry
• partially or fully grouted vs. ungrouted
• clay-unit masonry vs. concrete-unit masonry
• solid units vs. hollow units
• single wythe vs. multiple wythe
• cavity walls vs. composite walls
• bearing walls vs. nonbearing walls
• running bond vs. stack bond
• working stress design vs. strength design
Main typologies of modern structural masonry
unreinforced
masonry
confined masonry
reinforced masonry

Masonry elements - Walls
single-leaf
running
bond
stack bond:
bad structural
behaviour
Solid walls
Composite
walls

Reinforced masonry
walls: examples
f) Reinforcement in vertical holes and in

bedjoints
Cavity walls:
examples
The two wythes share the structural

function

Veneer walls
(non
structural)
Nonstructural partition
walls
Diaphragm
walls or
utility walls
The longitudinal wythes are connected by masonry webs to

achieve composite structural action in compression and
vertical bending

Masonry elements – Columns and pilasters
Columns
Pilasters
Masonry elements – Columns and pilasters
Reinforced
masonry
columns and
Pilasters

Masonry elements – Beams and lintels
Reinforced
masonry
beams and
lintels
Masonry materials
fired clay
units
of most
units (bricks, blocks) interest
concrete
usually with approx. units
parallelepiped shape
calcium
silicate units
+
stone units
mortar
sand + binder (cement, in case reinforcement and
+ grout (reinforced masonry)
lime) + water

Masonry materials. Units
mechanical
properties
ease of
construction
durability and properties of the

resistance to unit
weather
fire resistance
thermal and acoustic

insulation, healthiness
Masonry materials. Fired clay units
Normal or lightweight (better for thermal insulation).

They have holes (vertical or horizontal) to reduce weight/ allow grip/
accommodate reinforcement (reinforced masonry)
Fired clay as a material can have a very high compression strength (up
to 130 N/mm2), however units, especially when perforated, show a lower
strength.
Compressive strength (fb ) in Europe is usually referred to the gross area of
the element normal to the bed face, regardless of hole percentage.
However, especially for perforated units in structural masonry, also the
strength parallel to bedjoints (f'b) is of interest.
Typical values of compressive strength for fired clay units: 2-3 N/mm2
for lightweight units with 50-55 % percentage of holes; 30-50 N/mm2 for
holes percentages around 30-40%;

Masonry materials. Fired clay units
Eurocode 6
requirements
for the
grouping of
masonry units
(all types of
material)
Raw Materials used in Clay Units
• surface clays
• shales
• fire clays
• iron oxides
• hydrated silicate of alumina
• miscellaneous impurities: calcium, magnesium, sodium,
titanium, potassium
Ref: ASTM C62 Standard Specification for Building Brick

Manufacturing of Clay Units
• Stiff mud process: (12% – 15% water)
pug
pug mill
mill mixer
mixer extruder
extruder wire
wire cutter
cutter kiln
kiln
grind clays mix clays form clay strip cut bricks fire at 1400-2370oF
• Soft mud process: (20% – 30% water) bricks are formed in molds
• Dry press process: ( 7% – 10% water) bricks are pressed with
500 – 1500 psi pressure
Ref: BIA Tech Note 9 Manufacture, Classification and Selection of Brick
Engineering Properties of Clay Units

• absorption
• durability
• volume change
• compressive strength
• flexural strength
• thermal conductivity
• acoustics
• fire resistance
• elastic modulus

Physical Characteristics of Clay Units
• color
• texture
• form
• size
• dimensional tolerance
Durability Grades for Clay Units

Weathering Index = number of freeze-thaw days times winter rainfall (inches)
< 50 50–500 > 500

vertical surfaces
in contact with earth MW SW SW
not in contact with earth MW SW SW
horizontal surfaces
in contact with earth SW SW SW
not in contact with earth MW SW SW
SW severe weathering resists frost action

MW moderate weathering freeze, but not subjected to water
NW no weathering no freeze
Compressive strength and water absorption are both good indexes of freeze-thaw resistance
because both are related to firing and fusing of clay particles, and porosity.

Water Absorption
ASTM C67: Standard Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Brick
weight of water absorbed after 24 hours in cold water

cold water absorption =
dry weight
primary pores
C
saturation coefficien t = filled by cold
secondary pores
B water
filled by boiling
water
C = absorption after 24 hours in cold water
B = total absorption after boiling for 5 hours and
24 hours in cold water
Saturation coefficient is one measure of freeze-thaw durability.
Water Absorption
30 in 2
initial rate of absorption = IRA = ( W1 − W ) ≤ 30 grams
Anet
where: IRA = initial rate of absorption

W1 = weight of brick after 1 minute in 1/8” of water
W = dry weight of brick
Anet = net area of unit
high IRA is undesirable because of:
• rapid drying of mortar
• poor bond strength between brick and mortar
• poor water penetration of masonry
• pre-wetting of unit may be required if IRA > 30 grams/minute

Unit Compressive Strength (North America)
strength is dependent on:

• clays
• type of manufacturing process
• degree of firing P
• hole pattern
flat - wise compressive strength = f'a = P

Anet
If Anet > 75% Agross then use Anet = Agross

since cores will add strength because of:
• uniform drying and shrinkage
• keying action between mortar and brick
Compressive strength of North American bricks can range from 3,000 to

30,000 psi. Nominal strengths are typically in the range of 8,000 to 15,000 psi.
Unit Properties
Modulus of Elasticity of Clay-Masonry Units

Eb = 1400 ksi to 5000 ksi
Modulus of Rupture of Clay-Masonry Units

P
t
M = P L = PL
2 2 4
f r = mod ulus of rupture = M = PL/4 = 1.5 PL
L S bt 2 /6 bt 2
b

Expansion Coefficients for Clay Units
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

2.8 x 10-6 per °F to 3.9 x 10-6 per ºF
Moisture Expansion
200 in/in x 10-6
Freezing Expansion
148 in/in x 10-6
Ref: Grimm, Clayford T., Design of Masonry for Volume Changes, The Masonry
Society Journal, October 1999, pg. 12.
Concrete Masonry Units
Most common typologies:

•units with normalweight aggregates,
obtained mixing cement, selected aggregates
and admixtures;
•units with lightweight aggregates (e.g.
expanded clay, expanded clayey schist,…)
Typical compressive strength (referred to

the gross area) : from 2-3 N/mm2 in the
case of lightweight concrete, up to about
20-30 N/mm2 .

ASTM C90: Standard Specification for Load-Bearing Concrete Masonry Units
Dimensions of CMU’s
Nominal dimensions are specified in sequence
of width times height times length. Specified
dimension is 3/8” less than nominal
dimension. Actual dimension of unit is height
within 1/8” of specified dimension.
For example, an 8” x 8” x 16” unit is

specified to be 7 5/8” x 7 5/8” x 15 5/8” width
length
and actual block may be plus or
minus 1/8” from these dimensions.
Ref: NCMA TEK 2-1A Typical Sizes and Shapes of Concrete Masonry Units
NCMA TEK 2-3A Architectural Concrete Masonry Units
Raw Materials used in Concrete Masonry Units

• Portland Cement
• pozzolans: reduce expansive characteristics and aggregates; add sulfate
resistance
• other admixtures: air entrainment, pigments, water repellents, etc.
• aggregates: normal weight and lightweight
Ref: NCMA TEK 1-1A ASTM Specification for Concrete Masonry Units
NCMA TEK 18-2 Sampling and Testing Concrete Masonry Units

ASTM Designations of Concrete Masonry Units
1. ASTM C90: load-bearing CMU’s
Type I: moisture controlled units
Type II:non-moisture controlled units
lightweight units: less than 105 pcf

medium weight units: from 105 to 125 pcf
normal weight units: more than 125 pcf
2. ASTM C55: building brick: Grades N and S
3. ASTM C129: non-load-bearing units
4. ASTM C744: prefaced concrete and calcium silicate masonry units
5. ASTM C73: calcium silicate face brick
Method of Manufacture: Concrete Masonry Units
separate
separate and
and
weigh
weigh mixing
mixing molding
molding ejection
ejection curing
curing
aggregates
aggregates
Aggregates are stored Cement, aggre- Mix is fed into Units in sets of 3 Units are put in a
separately by density gates, water, pig- a mold and con- are ejected from kiln for 6 to 8 hours.
and gradation, then ments and other solidated by vibra- molds while be- Curing is done under
weighed and trans- admixtures are tion (feed time); ing supported on saturated conditions.
ported by conveyor to combined to a head lowers to steel pallets. The Temperature may be
mixer. form damp, but press the mix into pallets form the elevated to accelerate
not wet, zero- the mold; a second bottom of the cement hydration.
slump mix. vibration cycle mold cavities. Units are stored out-
consolidates the side for continued
mix (finish time). curing.

Engineering Properties of Concrete Units
ASTM C140: Standard Methods for Sampling and Testing Concrete Masonry Units
absorption: weight change after 24 hour immersion in cold water, 13 to 18 pcf

total linear drying shrinkage: up to 0.065% for Type I units
moisture content: 25 to 45% for type I units, Type II units not controlled
compressive strength: f’ut ranges from 1900 to 6000 psi

tensile strength: frt ranges from 250 to 500 psi
deformational properties: Em = 750 f’m Gm = 0.4 Em v = 0.28
creep: kc = 2.5 x 10-7 per psi
thermal expansion: 4.13 in/in per oF
Mortar
History
• first mortars were used to fill voids between stones unit
• first mortars were mud and then tar mortar
• early mortars consisted of lime and sand
• early admixtures: egg whites, clays, urine, oxblood unit
Basic Ingredients of Modern Mortars
• cements: Portland Cement, Masonry Cement
or Mortar Cement (according to ASTM classification)
• hydrated lime: hydrated calcium oxide (Ca(OH)2) improves workability
and bond
• hydraulic lime: better workability than cement, hardens under water
and faster than common lime
• sands: natural or manufactured sands are used
• pozzolans

Types of Mortar Mixes (US)
The following mortar designations took effect in the mid-1950’s:
M a S o N w O r K
strongest weakest
Relative Parts by Volume (approximate)
Mortar Portland Hydrated Sand
Type Cement Lime
M 1 ¼ 3½
S 1 ½ 4½
N 1 1 6
O 1 2 9
Sum should equal 1/3 of sand volume

(assuming that sand has void ratio of 1 in 3).
Types of Mortar Mixes (Italy)

Designation of mortars according to composition in volume
Class Type Cement Hydrated Hydraulic Sand Pozzolan

lime lime
M4 Hydraulic 1 3
M4 Pozzolanic 1 3
M4 Mixed 1 2 9
M3 Mixed 1 1 5
M2 Cementitious 1 0.5 4
M1 Cementitious 1 3

Types of Mortar Mixes
Equivalence in terms of mean compressive strength (Italy):
M1 : 12 N/mm2
M2: 8 N/mm2
M3: 5 N/mm2
M4: 2.5 N/mm2
Eurocode 6 classifies mortars on the basis of the mean compressive

strength: e.g. M10 refers to a mortar with 10 N/mm2 compressive
mean strength.
Water Content of Mortar

• Water is added to mortar mix to hydrate cement and make it workable.
• Too much water will result in mortar too fluid to support weight of a few courses.
• Good water retention is important:
– to keep water from bleeding out of mortar
– to prevent mortar from stiffening before units are laid
– to ensure proper hydration of cement
• Desirable to have consistent IRA of unit and water retentivity of mortar
– low IRA with low water retentivity or high IRA with high water retentivity
unit If water migrates too quickly from

mortar to the unit, cement may not
mortar hydrate fully resulting in reduced bond
strength.
unit

Mixing of Mortar
ASTM C270: Mortar for Unit Masonry
• Use paddle type mixer.

• Cementitious materials and aggregate mixed for 3 to 5 minutes with
maximum amount of water to produce workable consistency.
• Sand is typically measured by counting number of shovels, however,
• Preferred method is to measure sand amounts in calibrated box.
• Add water as needed for proper flow. Rely on judgment and experience
of mason.
• Place mortar before it starts to set up (could be as short as 20 minutes).
• Retempering of mortar (replacing water lost due to evaporation) on the
board is allowed within 2.5 hours after mixing.
Mortar Compressive Strength (US)

2” cubes cast in brass molds 2” cylinders in steel molds
(laboratory test method) (field test method)
P P
4”
2”
2”
Mortar compressive strength is significantly affected by its water content at the time of
molding test specimens. Laboratory samples may have water removed by suction to simulate
the water content of mortar placed between masonry units. Field mortar samples are often
prepared by placing mortar on top of a unit for one minute before placing in molds.
Ref: NCMA TEK 18-5 Masonry Mortar Testing

Grouting Masonry
Grout Placement Methods
Low Lift:
• grout is placed and consolidated as masonry is constructed
– maximum grout height = 5 feet per TMS 602 Sec. 3.5C
High Lift:
• grout is placed after a story height is constructed vibration needed
• clean-out holes are required at:
– every vertical bar location
– minimum spacing of 32” for all grout pours over 5 feet
Ref: NCMA TEK 3-2 Grouting for Concrete Masonry Walls
Grout Mix Proportions (US)

ASTM C476 Standard Specification for Grout for Masonry
Constituents:
Portland Cement: Fine Aggregate: Coarse Aggregate: Hydrated Lime
(sand) (pea gravel)
Grout Portland Fine Coarse Hydrated

Type Cement Aggregate Aggregate Lime
(3/8” max. size)
Fine 1 2¼-3 - 0.0 – 0.1

Grout
Coarse 1 2¼-3 1–2 0.0 – 0.1
Grout
Note: Proportions are by volume.
Ref: NCMA TEK 9-4 Grout for Concrete Masonry

Grout Compressive Strength (US)
ASTM C1019 Standard Method of Sampling and Testing Grout
31/2” x 31/2” x 6”
grout specimen
porous paper 7”
3 21 " 3 1 "
2
Note: Method also applies to clay-unit masonry.
Reinforcing Steels (US)

Longitudinal and transverse reinforcing bars
#3 through #11 bars: Grade 40 or Grade 60* (ASTM 615*, A616, A617 and A706)
* more common
Grade 60
fy= 60 ksi
Tensile Stress
Grade 40
fy = 40 ksi
0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020

Tensile Strain
Ref: NCMA TEK 12-4A Steel for Concrete Masonry Reinforcement

Joint Reinforcement
ASTM A-951:
Standard specification for cold-drawn wire for joint reinforcement
ladder type
truss type
Ref: NCMA TEK 12-2A The Structural Role of Joint Reinforcement in Concrete Masonry
Differential Movements
• One common cause of cracking is differential movement between
wythes.
• Different materials expand or contract different amounts due to:
– temperature
– humidity
– freezing
– elastic strain
• Cementitious materials shrink and creep
• Clay masonry expands
• Consider differential movements relative to steel or concrete frames
shrink expand
Ref: BIA Tech. Note 18 Movement - Volume Changes and Effect of Movement, Part I

Coefficients of Thermal Expansion
Ave. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Material Linear Thermal Expansion (inches per 100’ for
(x 10-6 strain/oF) 100oF
temperature increase)
Clay Masonry
clay or shale brick 3.6 0.43
fire clay brick or tile 2.5 0.30
clay or shale tile 3.3 0.40
Concrete Masonry
dense aggregate 5.2 0.62
cinder aggregate 3.1 0.37
expanded shale aggregate 4.3 0.52
expanded slag aggregate 4.6 0.55
pumice or cinder aggregate 4.1 0.49
Stone
granite 4.7 0.56
limestone 4.4 0.53
marble 7.3 0.88
Thermal coefficients for other structural materials can be found in BIA Technical Note 18.
Moisture Movements
• Many masonry materials expand when their moisture content is
increased, and then shrink when drying.
• Moisture movement is almost always fully reversible, but in some

cases, a permanent volume change may result.
Moisture
MoistureExpansion
Expansionof
ofClay
ClayMasonry
Masonry==0.020%
0.020%
Freezing
FreezingExpansion
Expansionof
ofClay
ClayMasonry
Masonry ==0.015%
0.015%

Moisture Movements in Concrete Masonry
• Because concrete masonry units are susceptible to shrinkage, ASTM
limits the moisture content of concrete masonry depending on the
unit’s linear shrinkage potential and the annual average relative
humidity. For Type I units the following table is given.
Moisture Content, % of Total Absorption
(average of three units)
Linear Shrinkage, % Humidity Conditions at Job Site

humid intermediate arid
0.03 or less 45 40 35
0.03 to 0.045 40 35 30
0.045 to 0.065 35 30 25
Control Joints in Concrete Masonry

• Control joints designed to control shrinkage cracking in masonry.
Spacing recommendations per ACI for Type I moisture controlled units.
Vertical S pacing of Joint Reinforcement
Recommended control None 24” 16” 8”

joint spacing
Ratio of panel length 2 2.5 3 4

to height, L/h
Panel length in feet 40 45 50 60

(not to exceed L regardless of H)
Cut spacing in half for Type II and reduce by one-third for solidly grouted walls.

Control Joints in Concrete Masonry
Control joints should be placed at:

– all abrupt changes in wall height
– all changes in wall thickness
– coincidentally with movement joints in floors, roofs and
foundations
– at one or both sides of all window and door openings
Control Joint Details for Concrete Masonry
paper grout fill
control joint unit

raked head joint
and caulk
Ref. NCMA TEK 10-2A Control Joints in Concrete Masonry Walls

Expansion Joints in Clay Masonry
Pressure-relieving
Pressure-relievingor
orexpansion
expansionjoints
joints
accommodate
accommodateexpansion
expansionof
ofclay
claymasonry.
masonry.
expansion joint
Ref: Masonry Design and Detailing, Christine Beall, McGraw-Hill

BIA Tech. Note 18A Movement - Design and Detailing of Movement Joints, Part II
Spacing of Expansion Joints

For brick masonry:
W = [ 0.0002 + 0.0000045( Tmax −Tmin )] L

where W = total wall expansion in inches
0.0002 = coefficient of moisture expansion
0.0000043 = coefficient of thermal expansion
L = length of wall in inches
Tmax= maximum mean wall temperature, °F
Tmin = minimum mean wall temperature, °F
24 ,000( p )
S=
Tmax −Tmin
S = maximum spacing of joints in inches
p = ratio of opaque wall area to gross wall area

Expansion Joint Details for Brick Veneer Walls
20 oz. copper silicone or butyl sealant
neoprene extruded plastic
Vertical Expansion of Veneer
flashing with
weep holes
rc
steel shelf beam
angle
1/4” to 3/8”
min. clearance
concrete block
compressible
filler
joint reinforcement
clay-brick or wire tie
veneer

Expansion Problems
In cavity walls, cracks can form at an external corner because the

outside wythe experiences a larger temperature expansion than the
inside wythe.
sun
Expansion Problems
• Diagonal cracks often occur between window and door openings if
differential movement is not accommodated.

Expansion Problems
• Clay-unit masonry walls or veneers can slip beyond the edge of a
concrete foundation wall because the concrete shrinks while the clay
masonry expands. As a result, cracks often form in the masonry at
the corner of a building.
Brick
Veneer
Concrete
Foundation
Expansion Problems
• Brick parapets are sensitive to temperature movements since they are
exposed to changing temperatures on both sides.
Elongation will be longer

than for wall below.
parapet sun
roof

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Seismic

Course taught by:

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 1

Masonry construction is the oldest and most

The word “masonry” actually encompasses

A screening of the hystorical masonry heritage

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 2

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 3

Introduction – Stone masonry

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 4

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 5

Introduction – Masonry w. clay units

early sundried mud

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 6

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 7

Mechanical behaviour of masonry

- problems for the resistance to horizontal loading (wind,

- horizontal structures were traditionally built with timber or were

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 8

Equilibrium of mud brick wall at Palace of Ctesiphon, Iraq

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 9

Mechanical behaviour of masonry structural elements - Walls

Effect of wind pressure on the line of thrust

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 10

Consider a wall strip of unit length (l = 1 M ov − M res = 0

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 11

Mechanical behaviour of masonry structural elements - Walls

P = γ ⋅ t ⋅ h self weight of wall (l = 1)

Q = q ⋅ h resultant horizontal force (l = 1)

h/2 the presence of a vertical load increases

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 12

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 13

Mechanical behaviour of masonry structural elements – Spanning

Lions Gate in Mycenae (1250 B.C.) equilibrium relies on

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 14

Position of the thrust line at

By considering other sections, it can be

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 15

Mechanical behaviour of masonry structural elements – Spanning

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 16

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 17

Mechanical behaviour of masonry structural elements – Spanning

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 18

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 19

Masonry buildings: from single-storey to multistorey

Contemporary single-story masonry buildings are very similar to simple

Multistorey masonry buildings were constructed by Romans as early as the

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 20

When multistorey commercial

This solution, however has lower

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 21

Modern masonry buildings: what solution for stability against

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 22

• engineered construction vs. non-engineered construction

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 23

Main typologies of modern structural masonry

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 24

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 25

Masonry elements - Walls

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 26

f) Reinforcement in vertical holes and in

Masonry Structures, lesson 1 slide 27

Masonry elements - Walls

The two wythes share the structural