Chapter I

Fundamental Nature and Family of Materials

Engineering Materials is a term often used loosely to define most materials that go into products
and systems. It also refers to materials whose structure has been designed to develop specific
properties for a given application.
Material Science and Engineering (MSE) involves the generation and application of knowiedge
relating the composition, structure and processing of materials to their properties and uses.
 The "science" focuses on discovering the nature of materials, which in turn leads to
theories or descriptions that explain how structure relates to composition, properties, and
behavior.
 The engineering" on the other hand, deals with synthesis and use of the science in order
to develop, prepare, modify, and apply materials to meet specific needs.
Materials Science forms the foundation for engineers in product development because the
structures, components, and devices that engineers design are limited by the properties of the
materials that are available and the techniques that can be used for fabrication.
RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER SCIENCES
Material science heavily relies on physics, chemistry, other engineering fields such as mechanical
and electrical engineering. Physical properties of materials are usually the deciding factor in
choosing which materials should be used for a particular application. This involves looking at
many factors such as: material composition and structure (chemistry), fracture and stress analysis
(mechanical engineering), conductivity (electrical engineering), and optical and thermal properties
(physics) to name a few.
Due to the diversity of material science, there have been emerging areas in this field such as;
Electronic materials, nanotechnology and biomaterials. In fact, many leading commercial
products and military systems could not exist without these advanced materials.
WHY STUDY MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING?
1. To be able to select a material for a given use based on considerations of cost and
performance.
2. To understand the limits of materials and the change of their properties with use.
3. To be able to create a new material that will have some desirable properties.
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
A. Materials may be classified as metallic or nonmetallic (old classification)
1. Metallic Materials (Metals)
Properties of Metals
a) High thermal conductivity - they transmit heat readily
b) High electrical conductivity - they transmit electricity readily
c) Ductility - they can be drawn into wires
d) Malleability - they can be hammered into thin sheets
 e) Metallic luster - metals are easily recognized by their shiny appearance
or metallic luster. All metals are opaque and are reflectors of light.
Metallic Materials may be classified as:
a) Ferrous Materials - these are iron base metallic materials, which
include steel, cast iron, wrought iron, malleable cast iron.
b) Non Ferrous Materials - include all other metals and their combinations.
Examples: copper, tin, zinc, aluminum, magnesium, and titanium
2. Non Metallic Materials - include wood, stone, brick, cement, concrete, resins (plastics),
rubber, leather, ceramics, etc.
B. Another way of classifying materials (New Classification)
Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications materials,
ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is based primarily on chemical make-up and atomic
structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another. In addition, there are three
other groups of important engineering materials - composites, semiconductors, and biomaterials.
1. Metals
Metallic materials are normally combinations of metallic elements. They have large
numbers of non-localized electrons. That is, these electrons are not bound to particular
atoms. Their valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in an “electron sea”
that glues the ions together. Many properties of metals are directly attributable to these
electrons. Metals are extremely good conductors of electricity and heat are not transparent
to visible light, a metal polished surface has a lustrous appearance. Furthermore, metals
are quite strong, yet deformable, which accounts for their extensive use in structure
applications.
2. Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and non-metallic elements. They are usually
combinations of metals or semiconductors with oxygen, nitrogen or carbon (oxides,
nitrides, and carbides). Their atoms behave mostly like either positive or negative ions,
and are bound by Coulomb forces between them. The wide range of materials that falls
within this classification includes ceramics that are composed of clay materials or
clay minerals, cement, and glass. These materials are typically insulative to the passage
of electricity and heat, and are more resistance to high temperatures and harsh
environments than metals and polymers. With regards to mechanical behavior, ceramics
are hard but brittle.
3. Polymers
Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. They are bound by covalent
forces and also by weak Van Der Waals forces. Many of them are organic compounds
that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other non-metallic elements,
furthermore, they have very large molecular structures. They decompose at moderate
 temperatures (100-400°C) and are lightweight. These materials typically have low
densities and maybe extremely flexible.
4. Composites
A number of composite materials have been engineered that consist of more than one
material type. Fiberglass is a familiar example, in which glass fibers are embedded within
a polymeric material. A composite is designed to display a combination of the best
characteristics of each of the component materials. Fiberglass acquires strength from the
glass and flexibility form the polymer. Many of the recent material developments have
involved composite materials.
5. Semiconductors
Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between electrical
conductors and insulators. The bonding is covalent in (electrons are shared between
atoms). Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of these materials are extremely
sensitive to the presence of minute concentrations of impurity atoms, which concentrations
may be controlled over very small spatial regions. Their electrical properties depend
extremely strongly on minute proportions of contaminants. They are opaque to visible light
but transparent to the infrared. The semiconductors have made possible the advent
of integrated circuitry that has totally revolutionized the electronics and computer
industries over the past few decades.
6. Biomaterials
Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body for the
replacement of diseased or damaged parts. These materials must not produce toxic
substances and must be compatible with body tissues (i.e. must not cause adverse
biological reactions). All of the above materials- metals, ceramics polymers,
composites, and semiconductors- may be used as biomaterials.
7. Advanced Materials
These are materials that are utilized in high-technology applications, usually designed for
maximum performance and normally expensive. By high technology we mean a device or
product. That operates or functions using relatively intricate and sophisticated principle.
Examples include electronic equipment, aircraft, spacecrafts, etc.
Modern Material's Needs
1. Engine efficiency increases at high temperatures: requires high temperature structural
materials
2. Use of nuclear energy requires solving problem with residues, or advances in nuclear
waste processing.
3. Hypersonic flight requires materials that are light, strong ad resist high temperatures.
4. Optical communications require optical fibers that absorb light negligibly.
5. Civil construction -materials for unbreakable windows
6. Structures: materials that are strong like metals and resist corrosion like plastics
 Table 1.1 Family of Materials

Group Subgroup Examples

Metallics Ferrous Iron
(Metals & Alloys) Steel
Cast Iron
Non-ferrous Aluminum
Tin
Zinc
Magnesium
Copper
Gold
Powdered metal Sintered metal
Sintered brass
Polymeric Human made Plastics
Elastomers
Adhesives
Paper
Natural Wood
Rubber
Animal Bone
Skin
Ceramics Crystalline compounds Porcelain
Structured clay
Abrasives
Glasswares
Annealed glass
Composites Polymer-based Plywood
Laminated timber
Impregnated wood
Fiberglass
Graphite epoxy
Plastic Laminate
Metallic-based Boron Aluminum
Alumina whiskers
Ceramic-based Reinforced concrete
Asphalt concrete
Cermets Tungsten Carbide
Chromium alumina
Other Reinforced glass
Others Electronic Materials Semiconductors
Superconductors
Lubricants Graphite
Fuels Coal, Oil
Protective Coatings Anodized
Biomaterials Carbon implants
Inert Materials Stone
Bricks
I. Metallic includes metal alloys. Examples are iron, gold, aluminum, and lead. Metals are
elements that can be defined by their properties such as hardness, toughness, malleability,
electrical conductivity and thermal expansion. They possess relatively high strength and
toughness, luster, high electrical and heat conductors and most metals resist high temperatures
and prolonged stress.
Metals are also large aggregates (collection of millions of crystals composed of different types of
atoms held together by metallic bonds. Metals have fewer than four valence electrons. The
nonmetals have four to seven. Metal atoms are generally larger than nonmetal atoms.
Alloys consist of metal elements combined with other elements. Steel is an iron alloy made by
combining iron, carbon and other elements. Aluminum lithium alloy is lighter over aluminum alloy.

Types of Metallics
1. Ferrous - word meaning, "iron” Ferrous metals include iron and alloy at least 50% iron,
such as cast iron, wrought iron, steel and stainless steel.
Steel is the widely used alloy. Sheet steel forms car bodies, and cabinets for refrigerators,
stove, washing machine, doors, and tin cans. Heavier steel products such as plates, I
beams, angle iron, pipe and bars forms the structural frames of buildings, bridges,
ships, automobiles, roadways.
2. Non-ferrous metals are metal elements other than iron. It includes common light weight
metals such as titanium and beryllium and common heavier metals such as Cu, Pb, Sn,
and Zn. Among heavier metals is a group of white metals Sn, Pb & Cd with lower melting
points. Among the high temperature non-ferrous metals are Cr, Ni, Ti& W. Tungsten has
the highest melting point (3,400 C). Metal alloys other than iron are called non-ferrous
alloys.

3. Powdered metals - alloying of metals involves melting the main ingredients together so
that upon cooling the metal alloy is generally a non-porous solid. Powder metal is often
used instead because it is undesirable or impractical to join the elements through alloying
by casing or other forming process. Powdered metal is sometimes called sintered metal.
Sintering-applying heat below the melting point of the main component
Compacting-applying pressure with squeezing
Polymer
Materials containing many parts (poly means many, mer means monomer or unit). Polymer is a
chainlike molecule made up of smaller molecule units (monomer). The monomer is made up of
atoms bond together covalently to form a polymer that usually has a carbon backbone.
1. Plastics are human made polymer resins containing carbon atoms covalently bonded with
other elements along with organic and inorganic substances. The word plastic means
moldable or workable such as dough or clay. Themosetting plastic or themosets are types
 of plastics cannot be returned to the plastic or moldable state. Themo means heat and set
means permanent. Themoplastics can be repeatedly heated to return to the plastic state.
At present more plastics are produced from oil, agricultural crops, wood and soybean.

2. Wood is the most familiar and most used material in industries. Wood is a natural polymer.

3. Elastomers are consists of natural rubbers. An elastomer is any polymeric materials that
can be stretched at room temperature to at least twice it original length and return to its
original length after the stretching force has been removed. Elastomers are able to restore
energy, 80 they can return to their original length or shape repeatedly.

4. Other Material Polymers - a most amazing polymer is human sin which has no equal
substitute. Animal skin or fur and leather can be substituted now with synthetic materials,
which have greater advantage than those of the natural polymer. Medical science
continues to study such natural polymers as bones, nails and tissue of human beings and
animals in order to synthesize these materials for replacement when they are damaged
due to injury and illness.

Ceramics are crystalline compound combining metallic and non-metallic elements. Glass
is grouped with ceramics because it has similar properties. Included in ceramics are
porcelain such as pottery, abrasives, such as emery used on sand papers, refractories
(materials with good resistance to heat) such as tantalum-3, 870°C and natural clay such
as bricks. Silica is the basic unit in many ceramics.

Composites are material containing two or more integrated materials with each material
keeping its own identity. Another common composite material is fiberglass. Familiar
composites includes plywood, laminated dines and quarters and show soles.

With an even increasing use of composites, they are truly the material of today and the
near future, because composites can be designated to be stronger, lighter, stiffer and
more heat resistant than natural materials or to possess properties required by technology
that are not available in single material. Composites allow designer to select
the right combination of Recycling/
materials to perform safely
Servicing
at the lowest cost. products disposing of
used products
and systems and systems

Fabricating
Extracting Raw
products and The Material Cycle Materials
systems

Creating bulk
Manufacturing
materials,
Engineered
components
Materials
and devices
Extracting Raw Material
The basic building blocks of these materials are the chemical elements founding the periodic
table. Raw materials are obtained form ore, which are mined. Aluminum is the most abundant
metal in the earth's crust. Aluminum ore is called bauxite (AI2O3).

Synthesis involves transforming gases, liquids, and solid elements by chemical and physical
means, where atoms and molecules are combined to form solid materials. An example of
synthesis is production of a bulk material such as nylon. The synthesis of polymer from raw
material including coal, petroleum, water and air yields substances for producing bulk materials
such as bulk nylon. Synthesis requires constant research by scientist to improve synthesis
techniques.

Creating bulk materials

Bulk materials are the product of synthesis materials extraction, refinement and processing There
are many bulk materials with which you are familiar such as plywood, sheet steel, acrylic tubing,
window glass, copper wire and concrete. Bulk materials are usually made in large quantities
through continuous processing and then supplied to manufacturers of components and devices.

Components include gears, electrical wires screws, nuts, jet engines, turbine blades, brackets
and levers; Devices, which includes microprocessors, resistors, switches and heating elements.

Products are individual units, such as roller blade, skate sets, chairs and telephones. Systems
are an aggregate of products, components and devices.

Manufacturing of Engineered Materials

The new generation of engineering materials are often designated for their needs and then they
rely on material engineers and technicians to create materials to suit the needs. Advanced
composites are examples of engineered materials because engineers and technicians determine
how in properties. Instead of designers selecting from a list of available materials, they may
specify the desired properties reinforcing fibers should be aligned to withstand the stress that a
product will encounter under services condition. These composites may be made of plastic resins
that can withstand higher temperature than the general purpose plastics

Fabricating Products and System

Once engineering materials have been manufactured they are assembled into many useful
products and systems. New fabricating techniques are evolving through improvements in
manufacturing engineering. Manufacturing engineering is the study of techniques to turn bulk
materials into finished products and systems.

Automation is the common element today in manufacturing with less manual labor involved.
Computers, sensors, robotics, machine vision, adaptive control and artificial intelligence are being
applied by manufacturing engineering to perform the manufacturing process. Improved quality,
smaller lot sizes, more product options and reduction in price have been benefits of the improved
technology. Fabrication of products and system is done in a safer wok environment, where much
of the handling of parts is now done by machines. Just in time techniques that rely on computer
assistance keep raw materials and parts moving with a minimum warehousing People who wish
to work in manufacturing are expected to be well educated because of their newer role as problem
solvers rather than laborers.

Service of Products and Systems

Shifts in manufacturing have resulted in a larger servioe work force and a smaller manufacturing
work force. The complexity of products makes it harder for the average person to make repairs
on his own products. Special diagnostic equipment is used to analyzed everything from
automobiles to robots to appliances. The demand for better quality in products and systems has
resulted in improved long-term warranties. Manufacturers are very interested in analyzing
materials engineering and product design

Recycling/ Disposal
The last stage of the material cycle can become the first stage through the resurrection of material
when recycling is employed. Most materials can be recycled. Industries with successful recycling
programs are steel and aluminum. It has taken legislation to force recycling even of aluminum as
well as glass and paper. This recycling has been accomplished by requiring deposits on beverage
containers to provide financial incentives for people to return cans and bottles.

Clean air and water regulation have restricted the amount and type of waste than can be
incinerated or dumped into the ocean. Recycling of materials will lessen the amount of municipal
solid waste that can be placed in landfills.

MATERIAL SELECTION
Characteristics of an ideal material
1. Endless and readily available source of supply
2. Cheap to refine and produce
3. Energy efficient
4. Strong, stiff and dimensionally stable at all temperatures
5. Lightweight
6. Corrosion resistant
7. No harmful effects on the environment or people
8. Biodegradable
9. Numerous secondary uses

4 Factors to be considered in the selection of materials for a given application.

1. The material must satisfy the strength requirements
2. The material must be capable of being fabricated into the desired fom
3 The cost of material must be low
4. The material must be available for use at the required time

The existing specifications or standards have a lot of influence on the choice of material. Since
selecting materials is a hard decision to make for those designers, there are additional selection
criteria to be able to come up with the good products. So it involves the following:

1. The availability of materials which is concerned mostly for the production demands
and to meet the expectation of the people.
2. Processibility is the ease with which raw materials can be transformed into a finished
product
3. Near net shape production involves incorporating numerous separate parts into a
single, integrated assembly and saving production costs.
4. Quality and performance are the two aspects that achieve consumer satisfaction.
5. Consumer acceptance which includes many factors beyond excellent quality and high
performance, and also societal aspect.
6. Design for disassembly means the product can be broken into components for easy
sorting prior to recycling. But of course beside that criteria, the primary selection
criterion that wil determine the final choice of material is the cost. t means that if several
materials have the specified physical, mechanical, and chemical properties, suitable
for processing technique selected, the lower cost materials would be the logical choice.
In other words, cost will affect the decision-making, selection and production of the
materials.