BADILLO, RENZ ANDREI A.

ME – 3115
LABORATORY REPORT – ME 413 SEPTEMBER 3, 2021

A. TYPES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

1. Introduction
Engineers are builders and designers in their own respective fields of specialization.
Mechanical engineers, for example, deal with loads of machinery, mechanical parts, project
designs, and various processes. Before all of these things mentioned come to fruition, they need to
be built and engineered from one, collective thing – materials. Raw materials have been pivotal to
mankind’s advancement as it became both a trade and a currency in the past. Materials are the
gateway toward new inventions and innovations. Without it, the world will not be able to make
any kind of progress technology-wise.

2. Definition
Engineering materials pertain to the group of certain materials utilized in the construction
and fabrication of different components, machines, structures, etc. that are to be used in the
engineering field. These materials are carefully researched, tested, and selected on the basis of
several considerations: properties, cost, availability, durability, and appearance to name a few.

3. Importance
There are plenty of materials in the world which we can use for numerous reasons but it is
imperative that one should know how to properly use it. If a material is improperly used and
utilized, one may face drastic consequences depending on the purpose the material is intended for.
To avoid this, we classify materials based on a number of factors, the identification of properties
being the most important. Therefore, engineering materials have been extensively researched and
tested for their individual properties and classified into major groups. From these groupings, one
can identify the gross property of any group of material. These properties are closely related to its
immediate structure, even at atomic levels. Engineers need to study materials and its properties to
be able to follow certain parameters and requirements such as considering the processing-structure
relationship of materials and how they are related to the materials’ properties. We, as engineering
students, always need to keep in mind the trade-offs and possible consequences of using a certain
material over another. That is why it is very critical to learn and understand materials science and
engineering.
 4. Content
The major classifications of engineering materials include metals, ceramics, polymers, and
composites that are primarily based on their chemical composition and atomic structure.

METALS
Metal is the most commonly used engineering material because of its abundant supply and
accessibility. Through metallic bonds, a metal generates an electron cloud that is essential for
thermal and electric conduction, a property that is important for metals to have. These metals
consist of more than one metallic element such as iron and copper. On the other hand, nonmetallic
elements also exist such carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen which are present in our atmosphere. These
metals are very much used as principal materials in engineering designs because they are stiff and
sturdy, ductile and flexible, can withstand pressure without deforming, and can deal with fracture.
Compared to the other types of engineering materials, metals are relatively dense. This is due to
the fact that the atoms in metals are arranged in a very orderly and compact manner. Metallic
materials have large numbers of nonlocalized electrons which means that these electrons aren’t
bound to certain atoms. Because of this, many metallic properties can be attributed to these
electrons. For example, metals are extremely good conductors of electricity and heat. Metals are
also not transparent to visible light, as a buffed and polished metallic sheet gives off a lustrous
appearance. Also, certain metals and alloys possess magnetic properties that are alien to other types
of metals. To shed you some light on alloys, these are metals that are combined with one or more
metal or nonmetal to improve a certain important property and yield an overall better product than
the previous pure metal. To give you an example, pure gold is in truth a soft metal. If used in a
necklace, the pure gold will result into an undesirable piece of brittle metal. Thus, jewelers often
add copper to gold to enhance its strength and durability so that the gold necklace will not succumb
to external damages.

CERAMICS
Ceramics are amorphous, complex crystalline structures with strong ionic bonds. They are
inorganic nonmetallic materials that do not have an electron community which results to weakened
electric and thermal conductivity. Due to the strong ionic bonds, a big amount of energy is needed
to get the atoms running from bonds. This is why ceramics are extremely heat, corrosion, and wear
resistant. They must be heated in very high temperatures before it can melt. Its strength and
hardness are very much comparable to metals. Hence it is used in paints, tires, bricks, and
household fixtures. Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements. Most
frequently, they are oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, common ceramic materials include
aluminum oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, and traditional ceramics
composed of clay minerals such as porcelain as well as cement and glass. Nowadays, ceramics are
engineered to boost its resistance to fracture and brittleness. It can now be used for many things
like household wares and until recently, car manufacturers tried their hand on ceramics as part of
their automobile designs. The primary classifications of ceramics include glasses, cements, clay
products, refractories, and abrasives.

POLYMERS
Polymers are typically organic materials that are produced through a chemical process
called polymerization. Usually a long chain organic macro-molecule with covalent bonds, each
polymer molecule is formed from a large number of unitary molecules called monomer. Many of
them are organic compounds that are chemically based on hydrogen, carbon, and other nonmetallic
elements. Due to this, polymers are very flexible and can be manipulated easily. Similar to alloy
principles, it is possible for polymer molecules to cross-link with each other and enhance its
strength properties. For example, plastic additives boost the attributes of polymers. Polymeric
materials include rubber and common plastic such as polyethylene, nylon, PVC, polycarbonate,
polystyrene, and silicone rubber as well as many types of adhesives. They are weak compared to
metals and ceramics and are not suitable for use at very high temperatures but the trade-off is that
polymers have good strength-to-weight ratios, offers good resistance to corrosive chemicals, and
are usually good electrical and thermal insulators. Polymers are classified as thermoplastic
polymers, thermosetting polymers or thermosets, and elastomers.

COMPOSITES
Composites are engineering materials in which one or more mutually insoluble materials
are mixed or bonded together to generate desirable qualities or properties not found in a single
material. When selecting materials for mixing composites, one must have an extensive knowledge
of material properties to determine the compatibility of materials and quality of the yield. A large
number of composite types are represented by mixing a variety of metals, ceramics, and polymers.
Furthermore, some naturally occurring materials are composites such as wood and bone. Concrete,
plywood, and fiberglass are examples of composite materials. Fiberglass is made by diffusing glass
fibers in a polymer matrix. The glass fibers made the polymer stiffer but did not affect the density
in a drastic scale, making it a perfect engineering material hybrid. Since engineers are often
confronted with deciding materials for different kinds of products and projects, composites offer
a wide array of possibilities while minimizing possible negative trade-offs among requirements.
The primary classes of composites are particulate composites, laminated composites, and fibrous
composites.
B. ENGINEERING MATERIALS COMPOSITION

1. Introduction
Materials science and engineering is a multidisciplinary field that deals with the discovery and
design of new materials to come up with something innovative and beneficial. This includes the
study of relations between the synthesis, formation, structure, properties, and performance of
materials that enable an engineering function.

2. Definition
Engineering materials refers to the group of both raw and fabricated materials that are being
used in the construction of manmade structures, machines, and components. The primary function
of an engineering material is to withstand load and be able to carry out its intended purpose. The
major classifications of engineering materials include metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites.

3. Importance
There are plenty of materials in the world which we can use for numerous reasons but it is
imperative that one should know how to properly use it. If a material is improperly used and
utilized, one may face drastic consequences depending on the purpose the material is intended for.
To avoid this, we classify materials based on a number of factors, the identification of properties
being the most important. Identifying a material’s composition enables one to gain knowledge and
apply the correct process to be able to acquire the best possible results whenever he or she decides
to mix and match one material and another.

4. Content
Carbon steels are mixtures of iron and carbon. Small traces of other elements can be found
in carbon steels but carbon is the primary ingredient. Adding carbon boosts the strength and
hardness of the material. Most carbon steels are plain carbon steels and there are several types.
Low-carbon steel has less than 0.30% carbon, making it low in strength but high in ductility. Low-
carbon steel is a good material because of its weldability and cheapness. Common uses for low-
carbon steel include wire, structural shapes, machine parts, and sheet metal. Up next is medium-
carbon steel which contains 0.30% to 0.70% carbon. It can be heat treated to increase its strength.
It is frequently used for axles, gears, shafts, and machine parts. On the other hand, high-carbon
steel contains 0.70% to 1.40% carbon. Contrary to carbon steel, high-carbon steel has high strength
but low ductility. Common uses include drills, cutting tools, knives, and springs. Low-alloy steels
contain less than 8% total alloy ingredients. Low-alloy steels are typically stronger and often have
better corrosion resistance than carbon steels. Tool steels are used to make various tools that are
used in manufacturing and machining. Meanwhile, stainless steels have good corrosion resistance
due to the chromium additive. Stainless steels have a chromium composition of about 11%.
Austenitic stainless steel is the most common form of stainless steel and has the highest general
corrosion resistance and weldability among all types of stainless steels. They are generally more
pricey than other stainless steels due to the nickel content present in the steel composition.
Common applications include pressure vessels, fasteners, and piping. Ferritic stainless steel has
high chromium content and medium carbon content and has good corrosion resistance. Martensitic
stainless steel has high carbon content that can go up to 2% while being low in chromium content.
This higher carbon content is the primary difference between ferritic and martensitic stainless
steels. Due to the high carbon content, it is difficult to weld. Common applications include cutlery
and surgical instruments. Duplex stainless steel contains both austenitic and ferritic phases. It has
a high toughness and corrosion and wear resistance. They are generally as weldable as austenitic
but has a temperature limit.
Cast iron is a ferrous alloy that has high levels of carbon. The carbon present in the cast
iron can either be graphite or carbide. Cast irons have a low melting temperature which makes
them well suited to casting. Gray cast iron is the most common type. The carbon is in the form of
graphite flakes. Gray cast iron is a brittle material but its compressive strength is much higher than
its tensile strength. Nodular cast iron has good strength, ductility, and machinability. Common
uses include crankshafts, gears, pump bodies, valves, and machine parts. White cast iron has
carbon in the form of carbide, which makes the material hard, brittle, and difficult to machine.
White cast iron is primarily used for wear-resisting components. Malleable cast iron is produced
by heat treating white cast iron. The heat treatment improves the ductility of the material while
maintaining its high strength.
Pure aluminum is soft and weak but it can be alloyed to increase strength. Pure aluminum
has good corrosion resistance due to an oxide coating that forms over the material and prevents
oxidation. Alloying the aluminum tends to reduce its corrosion resistance. Aluminum is a widely
used material due to its corrosion resistance. Nickel alloys on the other hand have high temperature
and corrosion resistance. Common alloying ingredients include copper, chromium, and iron.
Copper alloys are generally characterized as being electrically conductive, having good corrosion
resistance, and being relatively easy to cast. Copper alloys primarily consist of brasses and bronzes.
Zinc is the major alloying ingredient in brass. Tin is a major alloying element in most bronzes.
Bronzes may also contain aluminum, nickel, zinc, silicon, and other elements. The bronze in the
steel is typically stronger than the brass and maintains good corrosion resistance. Lastly, titanium
alloys are light, strong, and have high corrosion resistance. Their density is much lower than steel
and their strength-to-weight ratio is top of the line. That being said, titanium alloys are expensive.
C. CHEMICAL BONDING

1. Introduction
An atom contains a nucleus composed of a certain number of protons and neutrons along
with electrons that are electrically charged. Given that each element has a distinct electron cloud
or the space where electrons can freely move, we can determine an element’s chemical properties
amongst other things. In chemical bonding, only the electrons located in the outermost part of the
atom are involved in the process.

2. Definition
Chemical bond is referred to as the connection between atoms inside of a molecule. These
chemical bonds include strong intramolecular interactions such as ionic bonds and covalent bonds.
They are related to weaker intermolecular forces like the dipole-dipole interactions, the London
dispersion forces, and hydrogen bonding. Simply put, chemical bonds are forces of attraction that
make atoms stick together as a whole.

3. Importance
The chemical bonding theory is very important in science and engineering because it
explains how the atoms of an object behave and how they stick together under different structures
and circumstances. By studying chemical bonding, scientists and engineers are able to come up
with innovative ideas regarding materials and its properties and manipulate it into new materials
with desirable properties that cannot be found in a single raw material. Through this, we are able
to know how and when a material should be used under a specific parameter. Chemical bonding
opens up the possibility of numerous combinations of the present elements and the creation of new
and innovative compounds that can be used in future endeavors.

4. Content
A chemical bond, in simple terms, is the attraction between atoms. This force is the result
of the random behavior of the valence electrons.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS

• IONIC BONDING
An atom needs to be stable by having a full outer shell of 8 electrons. In order to do
this, an atom may either lose or gain electrons. When two atoms become stable, they become
ions. These ions have opposite charges; therefore, they will be attracted to each other by
electromagnetic forces and form an ionic compound. This force is referred to as ionic bond.
The transfer of electrons is called electrovalence. When such an electron transfer takes place,
one of the atoms develops a negative charge and is called the anion. The other atom develops
a positive charge and, in turn, is called the cation. The ionic bond gains strength from the
charge difference between the two atoms. The greater the charge disparity between the cation
and the anion, the stronger the ionic bond.

• COVALENT BONDING
Covalent bonding refers to the joint process of sharing valence electrons across other
atoms. The atoms involved in this type of bonding sort themselves in a way that the element will
be able to acquire the greatest energy stability. In this process, the valence electrons can either be
equally or unequally shared amongst adjacent atoms. The most common type of covalent bond is
a single bond wherein two atoms simply share two electrons. Other types include double and triple
bonds. A single bond is composed of 2 bonded electrons while a double bond has 4 electrons. This
makes a triple bond with 6 bonded electrons. A triple bond naturally will have more strength in
terms of electron affinity than a single bond because of the fact that the attraction to the positively
charged nucleus is amplified and the distance from the nucleus to the electrons is considerably
less. In other words, the greater the bond strength, the shorter the bond length will be.

• POLAR COVALENT BONDING

Polar covalent bonding is the process of unequal sharing of electrons. This means that the
two shared electrons are closer to one of the atoms than the other, creating an imbalance of charge.
It lies between ionic bonding and covalent bonding. Polar covalent bonding happens due to the
contradicting electronegativity values of two atoms. Due to this, electronegative atoms will attract
which will result to a stronger pulling force, making the electrons travel and roam the valence shell
for a bit longer.

• HYDROGEN BONDING
Compared to the previous types of bonding, hydrogen bonding is a weaker form of
chemical bonding. Hydrogen bonding is a type of polar covalent bonding that occurs between
oxygen and hydrogen. The hydrogen develops a partial positive charge that makes the electrons
pull closer to each other and towards the more electronegative oxygen atom. Due to this, the
hydrogen is attracted to the negative charges of neighboring atoms.

• LONDON DISPERSION FORCES

Another form of chemical bonding is called the London dispersion forces. These chemical
bonding is comparably weak to the other types of bonding. These forces occur due to a temporary
charge imbalance that comes from an atom. This certain charge imbalance induces dipoles on the
neighboring atoms, causing a positively charged atom to attract the adjacent negatively charged
atom.
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