Disaster and Risk Assessment

Earthquakes

Introduction

Earthquakes are the sudden violent shaking of the ground. This happens because the Earth's
plates are constantly moving. Sometimes, because of friction, plates try to move and become
stuck. Pressure builds up because the plates are still trying to move. When the pressure is
released, it sends out huge amounts of energy causing the Earth's surface to shake violently.
The point inside the Earth's crust where the earthquake originates from is known as the focus.
The earthquake's energy is released in seismic waves and they spread out from the focus. The
seismic waves are most powerful at the epicentre. The epicentre is the point on the Earth's
surface directly above the focus.

Shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves, especially surface waves near
the epicentre of the earthquake are responsible for the most damage during an earthquake. The
intensity of ground shaking depends on:

 local geology
 duration and intensity
 distance

Measuring earthquakes
Earthquakes, until recently, have been measured on the Richter scale. The Richter scale
measures the magnitude of an earthquake (how powerful it is). It is measured using a machine
called a seismometer which produces a seismograph. A Richter scale is normally numbered 1-
9, though there is no upper limit. It is logarithmic which means, for example, that an earthquake
measuring magnitude 5 is ten times more powerful than an earthquake measuring 4.
Earthquakes measuring 1-2 on the scale happen regularly, and they are so small that people
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cannot feel them. Earthquakes measuring upwards of 7 are less frequent but very powerful, and
can cause a lot of destruction.
Description Magnitude
Great >8
Major 7 - 7.9
Strong 6 - 6.9
Moderate 5 - 5.9
Light 4 - 4.9
Minor 3 – 3.9
Very minor <3

Causes of Earthquake

The Earth’s outer shell, the lithosphere, consisting of the crust and uppermost mantle, is divided
into a patchwork of large tectonic plates that move slowly relatively to each other. There are 9
major plates and many minor plates. Varying between 0 to 100 mm per year, the movement of
a plate is driven by convection in the underlying hot and viscous mantle.

Plate boundaries are the edges where two plates meet. Most geologic activities, including
volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain building, take place at plate boundaries.

 Divergent plate boundaries: the two plates move away from each other.

 Convergent plate boundaries: the two plates move towards each other.

 Transform plate boundaries: the two plates slip past each other.
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Effects - Primary Earthquake Hazards

Ground Motion- Shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves, especially
surface waves, near the epicenter of the earthquake are responsible for the most damage during
an earthquake and is thus a primary effect of an earthquake. The intensity of ground shaking
depends on:
 Local geologic conditions in the area. In general, loose unconsolidated sediment is
subject to more intense shaking than solid bedrock.
 Size of the Earthquake. In general, the larger the earthquake, the more intense is the
shaking and the duration of the shaking.
 Distance from the Epicenter. Shaking is most severe near the epicenter and drops off
away from the epicenter. The distance factor depends on the type of material
underlying the area.
Ground motion produces several types of seismic waves;
Body waves: travels through the earth and divided into 2 parts
a) P - Wave: A Primary wave, or compressional wave, is a seismic body wave that shakes
the ground back and forth in the same direction and the opposite direction as the
direction the wave is moving. These P waves are able to travel through both solid rock,
such as granite mountains, and liquid material, such as volcanic magma or the water of
the oceans.

b) S - Wave: A secondary wave can move at half the speed of primary waves and cause
vibration at right angles to the direction of travel. S-wave cannot propagate in liquid
parts of the earth but they can reach the surface and their vertical ground motion can be
damaging.
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The actual speed of P and S seismic waves depends on the density and elastic properties of the
rocks and soil through which they pass. Some seconds later, the S waves arrive with their up-
and-down and side-to-side motion, shaking the ground surface vertically and horizontally. This
is the wave motion that is so damaging to structures.

Surface waves: They can travel along or just below the surface. Its motion is restricted to near the
ground surface. Such waves correspond to ripples of water that travel across a lake. Surface waves in
earthquakes can be divided into two types.

a) L - Wave: Often called as Love wave. Its motion is essentially that of S waves that have no
vertical displacement; it moves the ground from side to side in a horizontal plane but at right
angles to the direction of propagation. The horizontal shaking of Love waves is particularly
damaging to the foundations of structures.

b) R - Waves: The second type of surface wave is known as a Rayleigh wave. Like rolling ocean
waves, Rayleigh waves wave move both vertically and horizontally in a vertical plane pointed
in the direction in which the waves are travelling.

The severity of an earthquake depends largely on the amplitude and frequency of these wave
motions.
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Effects - Secondary Earthquake Hazards

Soil Liquefaction: If fine or medium grained, unconsolidated sediments are saturated with
groundwater, the shaking that occurs during an earthquake may cause the sediment grains to
lose contact with each other and become suspended in the water, which causes solid ground to
behave temporarily as a viscous liquid.
Liquefaction most often occurs when three conditions are met:
1. loose, granular sediment or fill
2. saturation by groundwater
3. strong shaking
The phenomenon occurs in water-saturated unconsolidated soils affected by seismic S waves
(secondary waves), which cause ground vibrations during earthquakes. Poorly drained fine-
grained soils such as sandy, silty, and gravelly soils are the most susceptible to liquefaction.
Building and other structures may sink, tilt, or slide a short distant in liquefied ground, causing
serious damage.
Granular soils are made up of a mix of soil and pore spaces. When earthquake shock occurs in
waterlogged soils, the water-filled pore spaces collapse, which decreases the overall volume of
the soil. This process increases the water pressure between individual soil grains, and the grains
can then move freely in the watery matrix. This substantially lowers the soil’s resistance to
shear stress and causes the mass of soil to take on the characteristics of a liquid. In its liquefied
state, soil deforms easily, and heavy objects such as structures can be damaged from the sudden
loss of support from below.
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Types of liquefaction

i. Lateral spreading - the ground can slide down very gentle slopes or toward stream
banks riding on a buried liquefied layer.
ii. Sand boils - sand-laden water can be ejected from a buried liquefied layer and erupt at
the surface to form sand volcanoes; the surrounding ground often fractures and settles.
iii. Flow failures — earth moves down steep slope with large displacement and much
internal disruption of material.
iv. Ground oscillation — the surface layer, riding on a buried liquefied layer, is thrown
back and forth by the shaking and can be severely deformed.
v. Flotation — light structures that are buried in the ground (like pipelines, sewers and
nearly empty fuel tanks) can float to the surface when they are surrounded by liquefied
soil.
vi. Settlement — when liquefied ground re-consolidates following an earthquake, the
ground surface may settle or subside as shaking decreases and the underlying liquefied
soil becomes more dense.

Landslides: In mountainous regions subjected to earthquakes ground shaking may trigger

landslides, rock and debris falls, rock and debris slides, slumps, and debris avalanches. They can
easily destroy buildings in their path, or block roads and railroad lines, or take hilltop homes
with them as they tumble.

Earth Rupture: During most earthquakes, some rupturing of the earth’s surface takes place
along the fault trace. This produces a fault scarp, which may have up to several m (up to 10 ft
or more) of vertical displacement. This can disrupt roads and utilities, and any buildings on a
fault that ruptures may undergo extensive damage.

Tsunami: Tsunami a secondary effect that are giant ocean waves that can rapidly travel across
oceans. It is a set of waves in the ocean (or a large lake) with an extremely long wavelength,
typically over 100 km long. Earthquakes that occur beneath sea level and along coastal areas can
generate tsunami, which can cause damage thousands of kilometers away on the other side of the
ocean.

Flooding: Flooding is a secondary effect that may occur due to rupture of human made dams and
levees, due to tsunami, and as a result of ground subsidence after an earthquake. The water from
the river or the reservoir would then flood the area, damaging buildings and maybe sweeping
away or drowning people.
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Fires: Fires are a major source of damage after earthquakes. Ground rupture and liquefaction
can easily rupture natural gas mains and water mains, both contributing to the ignition of fires
and hindering the efforts to control them.

Snow avalanche: Snow avalanches are moving sources of infrasonic and seismic energy. They
can be triggered by many different mechanisms that include the shaking produced by
earthquakes. The forces induced by an earthquake can cause an increase in the load down the
slope and can also decrease the shear strength and both effects can cause the release of an
avalanche.

Management and Mitigation of Earthquakes:

Earthquakes cause tremendous harm to human life, environment, and surroundings.
Human life requires immediate medical aid and reconstruction services. But we can be better
prepared to meet earthquakes by:

Prediction
Earthquake are not easy to predict. However prediction involves using seismometers to
monitor earth tremors. Experts know where earthquakes are likely to happen. It is very difficult
to predict when they will happen. Even looking at the timescale between earthquakes doesn't
seem to work. Information used to determine the seismicity of an area includes:
 frequency of earthquakes in the past, as deduced from:
 historic records

 geologic studies that examine evidence of the prehistoric earthquake record

 location of known active faults

Protection

Building Construction: Protection involves constructing buildings so that they are safe to
live in and will not collapse. Some examples of building improvements are:

 Stiffness and Strength

When designing earthquake-resistant buildings, safety professionals recommend adequate

vertical and lateral stiffness and strength – specifically lateral. Buildings move left and right
during the event, and, if not built properly, will quickly destabilize. Structures tend to
handle the vertical movement caused by quakes better than the lateral, or horizontal,
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movement. Without considering earthquakes, professionals still focus on a building’s
vertical stiffness and strength as it has to support itself.

 Structures that sway but do not fall

Strong steel frames are used during constructing a building that can sway during Earth
movements. They connect the horizontal beams with the vertical post. When exposed to
wind or tremors, the connectors must be rigid enough to keep deformation to a minimum –
but also elastic enough to withstand strong earthquakes. If deformation does occur, it does
not lead to critical stress – in other words, the building sways, but does not collapse.

 Regularity

This characteristic refers to the movement of the building when pushed in lateral directions.
Safety professionals and building designers want the building to move equally so as to
dissipate the energy without placing too much force on one side or another. If a building is
irregular, then weaknesses will become apparent when the building sways. The weakness
will compromise and the structure will see concentrated damage – which compromises the
structure as a whole.

 Redundancy

Possibly one of the most important safety characteristics when designing for safety,
redundancy ensures there are multiple strategies in place in case one fails. These can
potentially add to the building cost, but redundancies prove their worth if/when a natural
disaster such as an earthquake occurs. Safety professionals advise equally distributing mass
and strength throughout the structure so strength isn’t solely reliant on one factor.

 Foundations

A stable foundation is a major characteristic of building a large structure regardless of

natural disaster risks. Different areas have unique foundational characteristics that define
how a structure’s base needs to be reinforced. Professionals have to closely observe how
the ground reacts and moves before building. Buildings designed to withstand violent
earthquakes have deep foundations and driven piles. Rubber shock absorbers in the
foundations of the buildings are used to absorb the Earth tremors.
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 Empty open areas

Open areas outside of the buildings where people can assemble during an evacuation is must
for high rise buildings.

When the shaking starts

Protect yourself as quickly as possible. In many situations that means remembering six
actions: drop, cover, hold, stay calm, listening to radio and getting attention.

 Drop: Get down on your hands and knees to protect yourself from being knocked over.
That also puts you in an ideal position to crawl for shelter.
 Cover: Place an arm and hand over your head and neck to shield them from debris.
Head for any nearby tables to shelter under until the shaking stops. If a table isn’t in
sight, sidle up to one of your home’s interior walls away from tall objects and furniture
or move under the door panels and stair case.
 Hold: Stay put until the shaking stops. If you’re under a shelter like a table, keep hold
of it with one hand. If you’re out in the open, continue to shield your head and neck
with your arms.
 Stay calm: If you’re trapped, stay calm. Protect your mouth, nose, and eyes from the
dust and call or text for help.
 Get responders’ attention: Make noise by whistling or shouting to get responders’
attention. But if you are outside, keep an eye out for hazards like fallen electrical lines,
ruptured gas pipes.
 Listen to Radio: Turn on the radio and listen for updates.

Preparation

i. Expect aftershocks to follow the main shock of an earthquake.

ii. By avoiding construction on saturated soil. Soil study must be conducted before
construction to check whether the soil is durable for construction.
iii. Architects should follow the building codes that have been laid down by the
International Standards. The authorities should ensure that only appropriate plans
are passed for a new construction.
iv. Rescue and relief operations should be kept in place to meet all eventualities.
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v. Adequate medical facilities should be provided to cause least harm to human life.
vi. People should be made aware of the importance of constructing earthquake-
resistant buildings.
vii. Infrastructure—roads, bridges, utilities—can be built with margins of safety for the
event of an earthquake. This includes gas pipelines designed to slide back and forth
on their supports and having built-in shutoff valves that may be activated by
automatic sensors, electric lines and grids with similar flexibility and shut-off
capabilities, and roads, overpasses, and bridges built to withstand shaking during
an earthquake.

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