Module 6 Syllabus – Hazards

Geological Natural Disasters

Inquiry question: How and why do geological disasters occur?

Using data, predict the zones along which earthquakes and both effusive and explosive volcanic
eruptions are likely to occur and relate these to plate boundaries.

Divergent Boundaries:

Divergent boundaries occur where two tectonic plates are moving away from each other. In these
areas, magma rises from the mantle, creating new crust as it cools and solidifies. Earthquakes at
divergent boundaries tend to be relatively shallow and moderate in magnitude.

Earthquakes: These occur along the spreading centres of divergent boundaries, often in mid-ocean
ridges. As the plates move apart, stress builds up along the faults, leading to seismic activity.

Volcanic Activity: Effusive volcanic eruptions are common at divergent boundaries. Magma rises and
fills the gap between the separating plates, resulting in gentle eruptions that release lava and form
new crust.

Convergent Boundaries:

Convergent boundaries occur where two tectonic plates are colliding or moving towards each other.
When one plate is forced beneath another in a process called subduction, it creates a subduction
zone. These zones are known for powerful earthquakes and explosive volcanic eruptions.

Earthquakes: Convergent boundaries experience intense earthquakes due to the significant pressure
and friction as one plate subducts beneath another.

Volcanic Activity: Explosive volcanic eruptions are common at convergent boundaries. As the
subducting plate sinks into the mantle, it releases water and other volatile materials, which rise to
the surface, leading to explosive eruptions.

Transform Boundaries:

Transform boundaries occur where two tectonic plates slide past each other horizontally. In these
areas, earthquakes are frequent, but volcanic activity is relatively rare.

Earthquakes: Transform boundaries have a lot of lateral stress, and the friction between the sliding
plates causes frequent earthquakes.

Volcanic Activity: Volcanic eruptions are less likely at transform boundaries because there is
generally no direct magma supply from the mantle.
Using secondary sources, investigate and model the changing depth of the focus of earthquakes
at convergent and divergent boundaries

Convergent Boundaries:

At convergent boundaries, one tectonic plate is forced beneath another in a process known as
subduction. The descending plate (subducting plate) sinks into the Earth's mantle, and the depth of
the earthquake focus is determined by the depth of the subducting slab. The depth of earthquake
foci in subduction zones can vary, but they are generally much deeper compared to other types of
earthquakes.

Shallow Earthquakes: Some shallow earthquakes may occur in the overriding plate above the
subducting slab as it bends and deforms in response to the subduction process.

Deep Earthquakes: Some subduction zones can experience exceptionally deep earthquakes, reaching
depths of over 600 kilometres (about 372 miles).

Divergent Boundaries:

At divergent boundaries, tectonic plates are moving away from each other, and new crust is formed
as magma rises from the mantle and cools. The depth of the earthquake focus at divergent
boundaries is generally shallow compared to convergent boundaries.

Shallow Earthquakes: Most earthquakes at divergent boundaries occur at shallow depths, typically
within the upper few kilometres of the crust.
using secondary sources, investigate and explain the hazards associated with earthquakes,
including ground motion and tsunamis

Ground Motion:

Ground motion refers to the shaking and displacement of the Earth's surface caused by seismic
waves during an earthquake. It is one of the most immediate and widespread hazards associated
with earthquakes. Ground shaking can vary in intensity depending on several factors, such as
earthquake magnitude, depth, distance from the epicenter, and local geological conditions.

Hazards and impacts of ground motion include:

Structural Damage: Buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure can be severely damaged or collapse
during strong shaking, leading to injuries and fatalities.

Landslides: Intense ground shaking can trigger landslides on steep slopes, endangering people and
causing property damage.

Soil Liquefaction: In areas with loose, water-saturated soils, ground shaking can cause the soil to
behave like a liquid, leading to the sinking and tilting of buildings and infrastructure.

Ground Rupture: In some cases, earthquakes can cause the ground to rupture along fault lines,
resulting in displacement and deformation of the surface.

Tsunamis:

Tsunamis are large ocean waves generated by underwater seismic activity, such as earthquakes
occurring beneath the sea floor. They can travel across entire ocean basins and, when they reach
shallower coastal areas, they can grow significantly in height and cause devastating impacts.

Hazards and impacts of tsunamis include:

Coastal Flooding: Tsunamis can inundate coastal areas, flooding low-lying regions and causing
destruction to infrastructure and communities.

Strong Currents: The powerful currents of a tsunami can pull people into the ocean and carry debris,
leading to drowning and injuries.

Inundation of Farmland: Agricultural areas near coastlines may become contaminated with
saltwater, rendering them unsuitable for farming.

Destruction of Coastal Ecosystems: Tsunamis can have severe and long-lasting impacts on coastal
ecosystems, disrupting habitats and affecting marine life.

Other hazards associated with earthquakes may include aftershocks, which are smaller
earthquakes that follow the main event and can cause additional damage, as well as secondary
hazards like fires, which may be triggered by ruptured gas lines or electrical sparks.
using data, predict the zones along which effusive and explosive volcanic eruptions are likely to occur
and relate these to plate boundaries

Effusive Volcanic Eruptions:

Effusive eruptions are characterized by the relatively gentle flow of lava onto the Earth's surface. This
type of volcanic activity occurs when low-viscosity magma (usually basaltic) reaches the surface and
can flow easily due to its fluid-like nature.

a. Divergent Boundaries:

Effusive volcanic eruptions are common along divergent boundaries, where tectonic plates are
moving away from each other. As the plates separate, magma from the mantle rises to fill the gap,
leading to the formation of mid-ocean ridges and volcanic features like fissures and lava flows.

b. Hotspots:

Hotspots are areas where plumes of hot mantle material rise from deep within the Earth, creating
volcanically active regions on the surface. Effusive eruptions are common at hotspots, especially
when the magma composition is basaltic. A classic example is the Hawaiian Islands, where the Pacific
Plate moves over a hotspot, resulting in a chain of volcanoes that become progressively older and
more eroded away from the hotspot.

Explosive Volcanic Eruptions:

Explosive eruptions involve the violent ejection of fragmented material, such as ash, rocks, and
gases, into the atmosphere. This type of volcanic activity is associated with more viscous magma
(andesitic to rhyolitic) that traps gas bubbles, leading to increased pressure and explosive release.

a. Convergent Boundaries:

Explosive volcanic eruptions are prevalent along convergent boundaries, where tectonic plates are
colliding or subducting beneath another plate. The subducting plate carries water and other volatiles
into the mantle, causing the mantle wedge to melt and generate more viscous magma. This magma
tends to accumulate and can lead to explosive eruptions when pressure builds up.

b. Subduction Zones:

The most famous examples of explosive volcanic activity occur in subduction zones. As the oceanic
plate subducts beneath the continental plate, the melting of the descending plate and overlying
mantle generates explosive eruptions.
account for the types of magma in each of the above types of volcanoes, and analyse how this affects
the explosivity of their eruptions

The type of magma present in a volcano significantly influences the eruptive style and explosivity of
volcanic eruptions. The main types of magma are basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic, each with different
characteristics that impact the eruptive behavior. Let's explore how the types of magma in effusive
and explosive volcanoes affect the explosivity of their eruptions:

Effusive Volcanoes (Basaltic Magma):

Effusive volcanoes are characterized by relatively gentle eruptions with the flow of lava onto the
Earth's surface. Basaltic magma, with its low viscosity and fluid-like nature, is commonly associated
with effusive volcanoes.

Composition: Basaltic magma is rich in iron and magnesium, low in silica content, and has a low gas
content. This low silica content gives it a low viscosity, allowing it to flow easily.

Eruptive Behaviour: The low viscosity of basaltic magma allows gas bubbles to escape easily,
reducing the build-up of pressure within the magma chamber. As a result, effusive eruptions are
typically non-explosive and relatively calm. Lava flows can extend over large distances and often
create shield volcanoes with gentle slopes.

Explosive Volcanoes (Andesitic and Rhyolitic Magmas):

Explosive volcanoes are characterized by violent eruptions that eject fragmented material, such as
ash, rocks, and gases, into the atmosphere. Andesitic and rhyolitic magmas are more commonly
associated with explosive volcanoes due to their higher silica content and greater gas retention.

Composition: Andesitic magma has a medium silica content, while rhyolitic magma has the highest
silica content among the three types. The higher silica content leads to increased magma viscosity,
making it thicker and more resistant to flow. These magmas also contain higher gas concentrations,
including water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide.

Eruptive Behaviour: The high silica content and increased gas retention in andesitic and rhyolitic
magmas lead to the formation of gas bubbles that struggle to escape, causing higher pressure
buildup within the magma chamber. When the pressure exceeds the confining strength of the
surrounding rock, an explosive eruption occurs. The rapid expansion of gas and the fragmentation of
the viscous magma create powerful eruptions with pyroclastic flows, ash plumes, and volcanic
projectiles.
using secondary sources, investigate and explain the hazards associated with volcanoes, for example:

- ash eruptions and lava flows

Ash Eruptions:

Ash eruptions occur when volcanoes release fine, fragmented particles of volcanic rock and glass into
the atmosphere. These particles can be carried by winds over long distances and have various
hazardous effects:

Health Risks: Volcanic ash contains toxic gases and fine particles that can be harmful when inhaled.
Breathing in ash can cause respiratory problems, especially for people with pre-existing lung
conditions. Can irritate eyes.

Aviation Disruption: Volcanic ash can pose a severe threat to aircraft engines, leading to engine
failure and reduced visibility, which may result in the closure of airspace and disruptions to air travel.

Damage to Infrastructure: Ash can accumulate on buildings, roads, and power lines, causing
structural damage and disrupting utilities and transportation. Ash build up can be heavy, causing
collapse of buildings.

Crop Damage: Ashfall can cover agricultural fields, affecting crops and soil fertility.

Water Contamination: Ash can contaminate water sources, making them unsafe for consumption
and damaging aquatic ecosystems.

Lava Flows:

Lava flows are streams of molten rock that move downhill from a volcano's vent. The hazards
associated with lava flows include:

Property Damage: Lava flows can engulf and destroy homes, buildings, and infrastructure in their
path, causing significant property damage.

Threat to Lives: Although lava flows are generally slow-moving, they can be unpredictable and
threaten human lives if people are caught in their path.

Blocking Access Routes: Lava flows can block roads and escape routes, isolating communities and
hindering evacuation efforts.
 - lahars and poisonous gas emissions

Lahars:

Lahars are powerful and fast-moving mudflows or debris flows that occur during or after volcanic
eruptions. They are formed when volcanic material, such as ash, pyroclastic flows, and loose
sediment, mixes with water from rainfall, melting snow, or melted glacier ice. Lahars can travel at
high speeds and far distances, making them particularly dangerous.

Hazards and impacts of lahars include:

Destruction of Infrastructure: Lahars can sweep away buildings, bridges, roads, and other
infrastructure, causing extensive damage.

Loss of Life: Lahars can be deadly, posing a severe threat to human life and communities in their
path.

Blocked Waterways: Lahars can block rivers and streams, leading to the formation of temporary
dams that can burst, causing additional flooding downstream.

Contaminated Water Sources: Lahars can contaminate water sources, making them unsafe for
drinking and agricultural use.

Long-term Damage: Even after a volcanic eruption, lahars can continue to occur during heavy rainfall
events, posing risks for years following the initial eruption.

Poisonous Gas Emissions:

Volcanic eruptions release a variety of gases, including sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon dioxide (CO2),
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and hydrogen chloride (HCl), among others. Some of these gases can be
poisonous and have hazardous effects on human health and the environment.

Hazards and impacts of poisonous gas emissions include:

Respiratory Problems: Inhaling poisonous gases, such as sulfur dioxide, can cause respiratory issues,
especially for people with pre-existing lung conditions.

Acid Rain: Sulfur dioxide emissions can lead to the formation of acid rain when the gas reacts with
atmospheric moisture, damaging crops, forests, and aquatic ecosystems.

Global Climate Effects: Large volcanic eruptions can inject significant amounts of gases and aerosols
into the atmosphere, leading to short-term cooling of the Earth's climate due to their ability to
reflect sunlight back into space.

Soil and Water Contamination: Poisonous gases can also lead to the acidification of soil and water
bodies, affecting plant growth and aquatic life.
investigate the point at which a geological hazard becomes a disaster

A geological hazard becomes a disaster when it causes

significant harm to human communities and extensive
damage to lives, property, and the environment.
Impact of Natural Disasters on the Biosphere
Inquiry question: How do natural disasters such as explosive volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and
extreme weather events influence the biosphere and atmosphere?

using data from secondary sources, compare the eruptions that occur at explosive and effusive
volcanoes in terms of the impact on the biosphere and atmosphere
analyse the effects of a major volcanic eruption on the atmosphere in terms of changing the
climate (both warming and cooling)

Cooling:

Aerosols: Volcanic eruptions release large amounts of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and other gases into the
atmosphere. Once in the upper atmosphere, these gases react with water vapor to form tiny droplets
of sulfuric acid, creating sulphate aerosols. These aerosols act as a reflective shield, scattering
incoming solar radiation back into space, which leads to a temporary cooling effect on the Earth's
surface.

Diminished Sunlight: The presence of volcanic aerosols can result in a noticeable reduction of
sunlight reaching the Earth's surface, causing a cooling effect.

Warming:

Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Although volcanic eruptions are known to cool the Earth in the short
term, they can also release significant amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases.
While the cooling effect of aerosols is more pronounced immediately after an eruption, the
greenhouse gases, particularly CO2, have a more prolonged impact on global temperatures and
contribute to longer-term warming.
in a case study, investigate one eruption that has had a significant effect on the biosphere and
atmosphere and assess its impact, including but not limited to:

- Mount Pinatubo

General Information:

What – explosive eruption

When – Happened 19th of June 1991

Where – In the Philippines, Mount Pinatubo is an active volcano found in the Zambales Mountains
on the northern island of Luzon.

Effect on atmosphere:

- maximum global cooling of about 1.5°C

- The aerosols from the eruption had a chemical effect that reduced the density of the ozone
layer.
- Cooled the climate for around 3 years

Effect on Biosphere:

- More than 350 people died during the eruption, most of them from collapsing roofs
- Disease that broke out in evacuation camps and the continuing mud flows in the area caused
additional deaths, bringing the total death toll to 722 people
- The event left more than 200,000 people homeless.
- The disaster impacted approximately two million people directly
- Several lowland towns were flooded or partially buried in mud

Effect on natural environment:

- Pinatubo injected about 15 million tons of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere, where it
reacted with water to form a hazy layer of aerosol particles composed primarily of sulfuric
acid droplets. Over the course of the next two years strong stratospheric winds spread these
aerosol particles around the globe.
- blanketed the landscape with a thick layer of unconsolidated silica-rich tephra.
 - The radiative influence of the injected particles put an end to several years of globally warm
surface temperatures.
- birds that inhabited the areas cannot fly due to the pressure of the ash and the dangers of
inhaling the ash
- Fish died because ash settled on water reservoirs and suffocated them.
- Plants died by being covered by ash, which stopped the process of photosynthesis from
sunlight.
- likely resulted in the natural local extinction of several species
- buried about 18,000 hectares of forest land in ash falls of about 25 centimetres
- The series of heavy rains following the eruption had induced lahars to flow down to some
8,968 hectares of low-lying areas.

Warning signs of eruption:

- Ash explosions at the summit

- Increases in the number of vents spewing hot gases
- Changes in the volcano’s shape
- Increases in both the frequency and size of earthquakes.

Details of eruption:

- Ejected more than 10 km3 of magma

- The ash plume height reaching more than 40 km
- VEI 6 in eruption size
- Covered large areas with pyroclastic flows
- Ejected more than 5 km³ of material
- 18 million tons of sulfur dioxide was injected into the atmosphere
- The cloud circling the globe several times
- The quantity released at Pinatubo reduced global temperature
- The eruption lasted for nine hours
- Caused numerous large earthquakes due to the collapse of the summit
- Created a caldera
- Caused powerful steam explosions that blasted three craters on the north flank of the
volcano.
- Magma raised from 32km below Mount Pinatubo
 Evaluate the causes and physical impact of climatic phenomena on a local ecosystem, including:

- Hailstorms

Formation: forms when rising air currents in a cloud carrying rain into colder regions where it
freezes. It accumulates in size and ice, eventually becoming too heavy and eventually falling to the
ground.

Physical impact: can ruin crop and vegetation, damage livestock and infrastructure due to impact
force.

- East coast lows

Formation: Form due to specific atmospheric conditions and conditions in the ocean.

Physical impact: Cause soil erosion and washes away beaches, have been responsible for beaching
and destroying ships, causes extreme winds, surf and rain  flooding.

- (Droughts) or floods

Formation: Occurs in dry places, low rain, El Nino causes dry conditions,

Physical impact: Lack of water sources for people / animals, ponds/lakes/streams dry up.

- Bushfires

Formation: High levels of fuel (vegetation), below average rainfall, dry conditions, high wind speeds,
caused by natural or human causes,

Physical impact: Burnt ecosystems can take years to recover, erosion due to brunt vegetation (no
plant roots), death of organism.
Investigate how human activities can contribute to the frequency and magnitude of some natural
disasters, including:

- Droughts or floods

Floods:

Humans contribute through deforestation and land clearing  less water absorption from trees /
plants roots.

Construction of infrastructure (roads and pathways) blocks natural water drainage and infiltration 
build up off water on hard surfaces.

Greenhouse emission  altering of el nino and la nina  wetter seasons

Droughts:

Introduction of dam systems restricts natural water flow  drying of land and water sources

Removal off trees leads to more runoff  less water absorption to keep ground moist

Water that doesn’t get into soil will evaporate  less water to keep land moist

Agricultural practices compacts land  less water infiltration  no moist land

- Bushfires

Negligence of fire sources  uncontrollable fire

Arson, machinery

Controlled burned that have gotten out of hand

- Landslides

Deforestation – destruction of vegetation roots that hold soil together  landslides as loose ground
comes free on slopes

Climate change  increased rain that loosens sediment causing it to landslide

Prediction and Prevention of Natural Disasters
Inquiry question: What technologies enable prediction of natural disasters and minimisation of their
effects on the biosphere?

using secondary sources, evaluate the effectiveness of technologies in predicting natural

disasters, for example:

- volcanoes: three-dimensional imaging, seismic data, early-warning systems, ground-

movement data, analysis of historical data
Seismic Monitoring: Seismometers are used to detect ground vibrations and seismic waves generated by
magma movement and volcanic tremors. The analysis of seismic data can provide insights into the movement
and ascent of magma within the volcano, helping scientists monitor volcanic unrest. Very effective / accurate

Ground Deformation Monitoring: GPS (Global Positioning System) and InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic
Aperture Radar) are used to measure ground deformation caused by the swelling or subsidence of a volcano.
These techniques help track changes in the volcano's shape and assess potential magma movement. Very
effective / accurate

Volcano Geology and History: Understanding the geological history of a volcano, including past eruptions and
eruption patterns, is crucial in predicting future activity. Intermediate – dependant on amount of information
available and accuracy of past info.

InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar) – 3D imaging: InSAR is a remote sensing technique that uses
radar to measure ground deformation with high precision. By comparing radar images acquired at different
times, scientists can create 3D models of ground surface changes caused by volcanic activity. Vey effective /
accurate – uses precise equipment

Early warning systems: for volcanic eruptions are vital for protecting communities near active volcanoes. These
systems rely on monitoring networks with instruments like seismometers and gas analyzers to track volcanic
activity. Volcano observatories analyze the data, issue alert levels, and communicate hazards to the public,
emphasizing public education and evacuation plans for an organized response. International cooperation and
continuous advancements in technology contribute to the effectiveness of these early warning efforts in
reducing the impact of volcanic disasters on human lives and property. Very effective – depends on timing of
warning, but if done correctly saves lives and prevents further damage.

- earthquakes: ground movement detectors, anomalous animal behaviour, strain meters

Seismometers: Seismometers are the primary ground movement detectors used to measure the ground
motion caused by seismic waves during earthquakes. They are highly sensitive instruments that can detect
both rapid and slow movements of the Earth's surface.

Seismographs: are instruments used to record the motion of the ground during an earthquake.

Anomalous animal behaviour: Before earthquakes strike, animals can be seen experiencing weird behavioural
actions, such as coming out of burrows and moving into open space. It has been thought that animals can feel
P waves that radiate from the quakes epicentre, making them move in the opposite direction.
Strain metres: Buried in deep holes near faults to measure crustal strain. Is capable of detecting imminent
quake.
Earthquakes cannot be effectively predicted, only being able to detect them when they are close to occurring rather than in advance.

- east coast lows: temperatures, pressure systems

East coast lows get detected through means of tech that measure temperature changes and pressure changes
in certain locations. These can identify an east coast low. Intermediate – can detect but could be other events

investigate and evaluate the technologies used to minimise the effect of natural disasters
associated with volcanoes and earthquakes, including building codes, disaster warning systems
and education
using secondary sources, assess the accuracy of technologies used in meteorology to predict and
prevent damage to life and infrastructure as a result of natural weather events
 Module 7 Syllabus – Climate Science
Natural Processes of Variations in Climate
Inquiry question: How long does it take for the climate to change naturally and what causes these
changes?

use modelling to explain the causes of the natural greenhouse effect and examine the timescales in
which changes occur

Natural Greenhouse effect model:

What is the natural greenhouse effect?

The natural greenhouse effect refers to the natural atmospheric gases that effect the behaviour of
the energy radiated from the Sun that reaches Earth, effectively warming the Earth. When the Sun's
energy reaches the Earth's atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and some is absorbed
and re-radiated by greenhouse gases. This absorption of the Sun’s energy by the gases traps the heat,
resulting in the gradual warming of the atmosphere.

What is radiative forcing?

Radiative forcing refers to the process in which the Earth receives and emits the Sun’s energy. (the
difference between the incoming and outgoing radiation)

- Incoming energy > outgoing energy = planet warmth ( +RF )

- Outgoing energy > incoming energy = planet cooling ( -RF )

Causes of natural greenhouse effect:

- Solar energy from the Sun reaches Earth, penetrating the atmosphere and warming the
planet, with some energy then being reflected back into space. Natural gases in the
 atmosphere disrupt this process and absorb some of the energy and trap the heat, warming
the atmosphere. (Natural gases like; ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide)
- Volcanic eruptions emit natural gases/particles into the atmosphere, increasing the amount
of heat that gets trapped or reflected due to reflective/absorptive particles/gases.

Basic law of thermodynamics: Amount of energy absorbed by Earth must eventually equal the
amount of energy being emitted by Earth. This is known as reaching an equilibrium. When this is
interrupted, the Earth will heat or cool depending on the type of radiative forcing taking place.

using secondary sources, assess the different causes of natural climate variation and the timescales
in which changes occur, including:

- The plate tectonic Supercycle

Natural climate variation: The shifts in weather patterns and temperatures by natural means.

The supercontinent cycle influences climate through:

- changing rates of volcanic emissions and weathering

- changing positions of continents (creating icehouse and greenhouse climates)
- Timescale = hundreds of millions of years (varies but approx. 440 million years long)

Icehouse climate: low CO2 levels, cold climate, continental glaciations and cold inland deserts

Greenhouse climate: high CO2 levels, warm climate, small or non-existent ice sheets

Breakage of supercontinent Convergence of supercontinent

- Supercontinent break-up generates
greenhouse conditions because
increased volcanic activity adds CO2 to
the atmosphere (enhancing natural
greenhouse effect)
- Plate convergence builds mountains,
the weathering of newly exposed
silicate minerals in rock removes CO2
from atmosphere which leads to colder
climate and presence of ice sheets.

- Hot climates are unlikely to have ice - Icehouse conditions due to falling CO2
caps → high sea levels. levels.

- Wetter as storm systems bring moisture - Drier as storm systems would have to
across smaller land masses. bring moisture across a large chunk of
land  interior = dry

- Massive volcanic eruptions, in the Deccan and Siberian Traps

Short-term cooling → clouds of dust and ash block out sunlight.

Long-term warming → volcanic eruptions produce major quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2), a gas
known to contribute to the greenhouse effect.

Deccan Traps:

Overview:

- Occurred over 65mya and continued for millions of years.

- Located in India.
Effect on climate:

- Material emitted from volcano blocked out sunlight  global chill.

- Release of volcanic gases during the formation of the traps may have added to climate
change.

Siberian Traps:

Overview:

- The Siberian Traps are large regions of volcanic rock that formed due to extreme volcanic
activity.
- The volcanic eruptions lasted for roughly 2 million years.
- Eruptions occurred roughly 250mya in northern Pangaea.

Effect on climate:

- The extreme eruptions produced large amounts of sulphur dioxide and CO2 which warmed
the Earth.
- Theorised that volcanism triggered growth of methane emitting microbes  increase in
temperature.

- Changes in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun

Eccentricity:

Eccentricity: The shape of Earth's orbit, referring to how circular it is. A circular orbit = 0 ellipticity.

Timescale: Cycle of eccentricity spans roughly 100,000 years.

Overview:

- The pull of gravity from Jupiter and Saturn causes Earth’s orbit around the Sun to vary from
nearly circular to elliptical.
- Variations in orbit affects the distance between the Earth and the Sun.
- When Earth is closest to the sun = perihelion.
 - When Earth is furthest from the Sun = aphelion.

Effect on climate variation:

- Eccentricity determines how close the Earth is to the Sun in its orbit, the closer it is, the more
solar radiation Earth receives from the Sun (more energy = higher temperatures.

Obliquity:

Obliquity: Refers to the tilting of Earth’s

axis.

Timescale: The cycle of obliquity spans

over 41,000 years.

Overview:

- The tilting of the Earth relative to its axis is why Earth experiences seasons.
- Increase in obliquity  the more extreme seasons are.
- Decrease in obliquity  the less extreme seasons are.
- The obliquity of Earth’s axis varies between 22.1o and 24.5o.

Effect on climate:

- Changes in tilt alters the amount of solar radiation that reaches certain places on Earth.
- Larger tilt angles create periods of deglaciation (the melting and retreat of glaciers and ice
sheets).

Precession:
Precession: Refers to the wobbling Earth experiences as it rotates.

Timescale: The cycle of precession spans over 23,000 years.

- The completion of Earth’s wobble (360o) = precession cycle.

Overview:

- The wobbling of Earth occurs due to the gravity of the Sun and Moon pulling on Earth’s
equatorial bulges. The bulges of the Earth at the equator affects the rotation, causing it to
wobble.
- The Earth wobbles relative to certain stars
- Apsidal precession: Earth’s entire orbital eclipse also wobbles irregularly due to interactions
with Jupiter and Saturn.
- Combined effects of axial and apsidal precession results in overall precession cycle.

Effect on climate:

- The more the Earth wobbles, the more different seasons will be.
- Due to the wobble, certain areas of the Earth experiences different amounts of solar
radiation.

- changes in ocean currents and ocean circulation

Timescale: Global conveyor belt that includes both surface and deep oceans currents circulate the
globe in 1,000-year cycles.

Overview:

- Currents are a product of solar radiation, wind, temperature and salinity differences along
with continental and seafloor topography.
- Formation and breakage of supercontinents changes the ocean current circulation patterns.

Effect on climate:

- Without currents redistributing heat around Earth, climate in different areas would be more
extreme.
- Places near equator = hotter
- Higher and lower latitudes = colder
- Distribution of hot/cold water affects temperature in certain places, mostly coastal areas.

Evidence for Climate Variation

Inquiry question: What scientific evidence is there of climate variations in the past?

describe and discuss ancient evidence of variations in global temperature, including but not limited
to:

- pollen grains in sedimentary rocks

Overview:

- Pollen: microscopic grains containing male reproductive cells of a plant.

- Pollen grains are widely distributed due to being very small and light  reflects the plants of
the time period.
- Pollen is highly resistant to decay and persists in sediment for long periods.
- Different plants have different pollen structure  plants being distinguishable.

How they act as evidence:

- Due to resistance to decay, along with pollen having different structures dependant on the
plant, it can determine which plant the pollen belonged to, representing the climate at the
time depending on the plants requirements to grow.

Pollen does not reflect global temperature, only LOCAL.

- change in rock types

Overview:

- Geological layers: serve as a reflection of the conditions at the time of rock formation.
- The composition and structure of rocks provide a long record of climate change as they are
subject to the environmental conditions around them.

How they act as evidence:

- Some rock type formation is dependent on temperatures at the time, reflecting the
conditions at the time.
- Rock appearance can reflect the conditions that it existed in such as erosion that indicates
that the environment experienced cold enough temperatures to avoid evaporation.
- Example: In high temperatures, sea water evaporates, leaving a layer of salt that becomes
preserves. This distinctive layer of salt indicates hot temperatures.

- fossils and microfossils

Overview:

- Microfossils: very small organisms that have been preserved.

- Knowledge of the fossil’s adaptations can link to the environment the organism lived in.

How they act as evidence:

- Microfossils contain oxygen isotopes which help infer past temperatures during the time it
was fossilised.
- Particular species exist in specific conditions such as temperature, and occurrence of such
fossils indicates probable temperature when they were added to the sediment.

- changing isotope ratios in rocks and deep sea sediments

Variations in the proportions of oxygen-16 (16O) to oxygen-18 (¹⁸O) isotopes in fossils and sediments.

Overview:

- There are three forms of oxygen isotopes, include oxygen-16, oxygen-17 and oxygen-18.
- The isotopes are identified as:
o Oxygen-16 = 8 protons, 8 neutrons → 16 atomic units (Lightest)
o Oxygen-17 = 8 protons, 9 neutrons  17 atomic units
o Oxygen-18 = 8 protons, 10 neutrons → 18 atomic units (Heaviest)
- Different isotopes are affected differently by evaporation; (18O) requires more heat to
evaporation while (16O) requires less.

How they act as evidence:

- Different isotopes are affected differently by evaporation; (18O) requires more heat to
evaporation while (16O) requires less.
o This reflects the temperatures at the time.
- More (18O) in sediment = cooler temperatures.
- Scientists are able to determine glacial (presence of glaciers) and interglacial (no glaciers)
periods as (16O) will remain in glaciers and (18O) will remain in the ocean.

identify and explain more recent evidence of climate variation, including but not limited to:
 - ice cores containing gas bubbles and oxygen isotopes

Overview:

- Ice in glaciers retains a record of the climate when it forms. (oldest ice collected = 800,000
years old)
- While ice forms, it traps:
o Bubbles of gas
o Dust
o Ash from fires and volcanoes
o Pollen
o Salts from ocean
o Isotopes created in the atmosphere by cosmic rays

Evidence of climate variation:

- Ice cores analysed for content of heavy oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- Abundant of ¹⁸O ice caps = was enough energy (hot climate) to evaporate it (get it to polar
regions)
- Less ¹⁸O in ice core = climate was cooler
- Gases trapped in ice layers indicate possible conditions such as abundance of greenhouse
gases indicate possible periods of global warmth.
- Ash could indicate hot climates where heat caused lots of fire or volcanic activity that could
have led to cold or warm conditions.

- Dendrochronology

Overview:

- Study of tree rings = dendrochronology.

- Woody plants produce annual growth rings.
- The width of a growth ring varies from year to year, depending on:
o Temperature
o Rainfall
o Light availability
o Length of growing season
o Available water in soil
-

Evidence of climate variation:

- Given the conditions needed for trees to produce growth rings, the conditions can be
predicted depending on how regular the rings are.
o Healthy and regular rings indicate ideal conditions listed in overview.

Note: Due to trees possibly growing more than one ring a year, evidence of climate cannot be
determined from one tree. Tree rings must be compared to another trees rings for matching.

- Aboriginal art sites showing now-extinct species and environments

Overview:

- Aboriginal art can reach up to up to 65,000 years old (found by dating rocks).
- The art depicted can indicate the ecology of the local area / time.

Evidence of climate variation:

- Species and/or environments depicted in Aboriginal art provide evidence about the climate
when the art was created.
o The species and/or environment indicate the climate at the time depending on what
conditions species live in.

- human instrumental records

Overview:

- Instrumental records: scientific tools that measure conditions of environments.

- Information from such instruments only stretch back roughly 200 years.
- Instruments such as:
o Weather stations and telegraph networks – transmit data about climate.
o Weather balloons gather temperature information high in the atmosphere – this has
been ongoing since 1963.
o Satellites take climate measurements and can take note of environmental changes
that reflect temperatures conditions – this has been ongoing since the 1980s.
o Barometer – used to record pressure.

Evidence of climate variation:

- By comparing readings/measurements from older periods to new times, difference in

conditions can be recorded and understood.
 - isotope ratios shown in stalagmites, stalactites and corals

Stalagmites and Stalactites:

Overview:

- Icicle-like rocky structures that preserve environmental information about changing rainfall,
temperature, soils, plants and the microbes living on their surface.
- Produce annual growth rings that can be dated like tree rings.
- Speleothems = stalagmites and stalactites.
- Speleothems form through water that contains dissolved CO2, which releases calcium
carbonate as it drops onto the floor from the roof  accumulation and stacking of material
that  speleothems.
- Can provide information from ½ million years ago.

Evidence of climate variation:

- Speleothems provide climate proxies that detail changes in rain and temperature.
- Oxygen and carbon isotopes in speleothems give info about temperature – similar to ice
cores.
- Oxygen is one of the key elements scientists look at to track past climates → heavier ¹⁸O =
more energy to evaporate → lighter 16O = less energy to evaporate

Corals:

Overview:

- Corals produce growth rings from new skeleton material made of calcium carbonate.
- Corals produce hundreds of growth rings per year.
- Can provide information that spans 1000’s of years.

Evidence of climate variation:

- As corals grow, they form skeletons by making calcium carbonate from the ocean waters.
o Density of these calcium carbonate skeletons changes as the water temperature,
light, and nutrient conditions change, giving coral skeletons formed in the summer a
different density than those formed in the winter.
- Optimal coral growing temp is 23°-29° C ( thicker layers when optimal)
- Comparing structure of skeletal layers from past corals and present day corals can indicate
change in conditions.
- Oxygen isotopes in coral layers help infer temperature and type of water in local area at the
time (160 and 18O)
Influence of Human Activities on Changes to Climate
Inquiry question: Is there scientific evidence to show that human activity has led to a variation in the
Earth’s climate since the Industrial Revolution?

distinguish between the natural greenhouse effect and any anthropogenic greenhouse effects

Natural greenhouse effect Anthropogenic greenhouse effect

Natural greenhouse effect: the natural process
that warms the Earth's surface.
- Sun's energy reaches the Earth's
atmosphere, some is reflected back to
space and the rest is absorbed and re-
radiated by greenhouse gasses.
Anthropogenic greenhouse effect: variation in
the climate that is caused by human activity.
e.g. (fossil fuels, deforestation)
- Causes unusual warming of the
atmosphere (ENHANCED greenhouse
effect)

investigate any influence that human activities may have had on the environment since the Industrial
Revolution, for example:

- increases in greenhouse gases

Overview:

- Scientists believe that CO2 and temperature has increased rapidly over the past 200 years
due to human activity.
- Modelling shows that past influences relied mostly on volcanism and weathering of rocks but
could not model rapid increase in CO2 and temperature in past 200 years, indicating human
activity due to industrial revolution.

Influences:

- During Industrial Revolution, there was a widespread use of fossil fuels  large amount of
CO2 that was emitted into the atmosphere at constant rates.
- Deforestation and land clearing eliminates flora that recycles CO2, without it; CO2 increases
along with heat as CO2 traps heat in the atmosphere. (greenhouse effect)
- Agriculture produces and/or makes use of greenhouse gases, adding them to the
atmosphere  enhanced greenhouse effect.
- Synthetic chemicals/gases have increased residence time and higher absorbing potential.

Note: the time gases stay in the atmosphere for = residence time

Note: greenhouse gases include: CO2, CH4, N2O and synthetic chemicals/gases.
 - ocean acidification

Overview:

- Refers to the increasing acidity of the ocean caused by the ocean’s uptake of CO2 from the
atmosphere.
- Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of the surface ocean has
increased by 30% (result of humans emitting more carbon dioxide).

Influences:

- Due to Industrial Revolution, CO2 levels have increased  increase in CO2 in oceans.
- CO2 combines with water to form carbonic acid  decrease in ocean pH (acidic side of scale).
- Effects sea life:
1. CO2 dissolves in seawater, forming carbonic acid.
2. Lowers pH, releases hydrogen ion.
3. Hydrogen ion reacts with carbonate ions in water to form hydrogen carbonate.
4. Reduced amount of calcium carbonate in water.
5. Less calcareous organisms (+ deformed shells) as many ocean organisms use calcium
carbonate to build their shells and skeletons.

investigate flow-on effects of changes to climate, including but not limited to:
 - changing weather patterns

Weather patterns:

- More heat in the atmosphere  increased evaporation and convection.

o This leads to changes in the way air masses and climate systems operate  affects
land and ocean temperatures and rainfall patterns.

Temperature:

- Change in temperature alters seasonal days, things like increasing days of extreme heat or
decreasing frosty days.
- Australia’s weather is directly affected by El Nino and La Nina, if conditions in the
atmosphere change, these processes can also change  unnatural weather.

Rainfall and snowfall:

- Due to heat, rain occurs less  increase in droughts.

o Natural processes that bring hot winds are increased due to a hotter atmosphere,
making the affect more severe  extreme levels of less rain and more droughts.
- Weather events such as storms, cyclones and rainfall are all increased in intensity due to
change in climate.
- Warming atmosphere  decrease in snowfall and snowfall coverage as it disappears quicker
due to increased evaporation.

Changes fire conditions:

- Fires depend on dry fuel and hot, dry, windy conditions to sustain it once it starts.
o Hotter climates increase the amount of dry fuel for fire as evaporation dries moist
vegetation  increased chance of fires to start.

- changes in glaciers, sea ice and ice sheets

Cryosphere = Snowfall, lakes, sea ice, glaciers, ice sheets and frozen ground.

Changes in glaciers:

- Decrease in glacial ice is a consequence of a warming atmosphere.

- Glacial mass balance = increase or decrease of ice from glaciers.
- Loss of ice is caused by changes to rates in melting of snowfall which is due to hotter
conditions.

Changes in sea ice:

- As the temperature of the atmosphere increases, the amount of ice forming or persisting
decreases.
- Sea ice coverage in winter increases, while sea ice cover in summer decreases.
- Changing surface temperatures affect both ice coverage and life influenced by the
cryosphere.
- Decrease in sea ice  impact and decrease in marine life.
- Loss of sea ice  sea level rise and global warming.
- A decrease in ice  a decrease in Earth’s albedo  more energy is absorbed rather than
being reradiated back into space (less radiation reflection)  global warming.

Changes in ice sheets:

- Global warming  melting of ice sheets  rise in sea level.

- If ice sheets melt, wildlife and marine life will be affected  death of species.

- changing range of species due to rising sea level

Sea level rise and species distribution:

- Sea level  land loss and increased erosion inland.

- Species living in low-lying areas are at risk of extinction and destruction of habitat due to sea
level rise, leading water inland that floods low-lying lands.
- As high-water mark of tides is pushed further inland, ecosystems are limited, being altered or
lost.
- Alteration/loss of habitats can remove species which decreases food supply  more species
dying and harsh impact on food chain.
- With alteration/loss of habitats, the distribution of overall affected species will decrease.

Climate change and ocean species distribution:

- Most oceanic organisms rely on ocean temperature to conduct necessary processes to live.
o Cellular respiration, reproduction, nutrient uptake and photosynthesis are all
sensitive to temperature change.
- Warming and acidification due to added CO2 reduces productivity of phytoplankton.
o Productivity: measure of how much life is produce in an area.
o Loss of phytoplankton directly disturbs food chains.
- Organisms that have adapted to cooler temperatures are more at risk and face possible
extinction due to water temperatures increasing.

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies

Inquiry question: Is there scientific evidence that demonstrates how humans could minimise and
respond to the effects of increased global temperatures?

investigate possible human-induced causes for the enhanced greenhouse effect, including:

- the burning of fossil fuels for energy

The burning of fossil fuels:

- The two main causes of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are the burning of fossil
fuels and changes to land.
- As fossil fuels are burnt for energy, stored CO2 is emitted into the atmosphere  increase of
greenhouse emissions.
- Largest source of emissions = the generation of electricity.
o Coal, natural gas and oil generate electricity.
- Stationary energy emissions = gases generated in production of heat, steam or pressure.
- As populations grow, the demand for more goods also grows  increased use of fossil fuels
in processes  enhanced greenhouse effect.

The problem of efficiency:

- Efficiency = quantity of useful work a systems does with the energy supplied to it.
- Loss of energy occurs as when processes occur, it produces heat, losing that energy.
- All energy transformations involve a loss of energy in the form of heat  greenhouse gas
emissions.
o Increasing the efficiency of machinery will decrease greenhouse gas emissions.

- land use and land cover change

Land use: Agriculture

- The two main causes of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are the burning of fossil
fuels and changes to land.
- Agriculture and other land uses, including land clearing are responsible for ¼ of
anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions.
- More than 10% of Australian emissions are from agriculture.
o Emissions include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O).
- Use of fertilisers, manure management and gases made by animal digestion  production of
greenhouse gases.
- Ruminant animals contain microbiological fermentation in their stomachs  production of
CH4 as fermentation breaks down carbohydrate molecules to be easier absorbed in the
stomach (produces = CH4)
o Ruminant animals include sheep, cows, goats and buffalo.
- When manure decomposes without oxygen, CH4, N2O and NH3 are produced.
o NH3 is not a greenhouse gas, but when reacted with oxygen, it forms N2O.

Land Clearing:

- Land clearing: refers to removal of native vegetation and regrowth.

- Removal of living native vegetation decreases the amount of CO2 being removed by
photosynthesis  increase in greenhouse gases.
- Stored carbon in dead trees and cleared vegetation is often burnt, releasing CO2 into the
atmosphere.
- CO2 is released from soil when carbon in the soil becomes oxidised

investigate scientific evidence suggesting ways in which humans may assist to minimise any human
contribution to the greenhouse effect in their daily lives

Overview:

- Households are directly and indirectly responsible for greenhouse gas emissions.
- Household electricity uses make up 61% of greenhouse gas emissions in Australia.
- Transport = biggest contributor to greenhouse gas emissions.
- Anything that uses electricity = contributor to greenhouse gas emissions.

Minimising greenhouse gas emissions:

- Transport emissions can be reduced by using cars less, walking, cycling or making use of
public transport.
- Use of electric vehicles or fuel-efficient vehicles reduces emissions.
- Ways houses are built, such as good insulation  less use of heating appliances which
reduced greenhouse gas emissions.
- Use of solar power or solar hot water heating appliances  less use of appliances that use
fossil fuels to be powered  less greenhouse gas emissions.
- Use of power efficient appliances  less greenhouse gas emissions.

evaluate scientific evidence for the usefulness of a range of mitigation and adaptation strategies,
including but not limited to:
 - urban design

Mitigation strategies: strategies intended to prevent or reduce greenhouse gas emissions (proactive)

Adaptation strategies: strategies intended to reduce the impact of climate change due to greenhouse
gas emissions (reactive)

Urban design: involves the arrangement, function and design of buildings, public spaces, transport
systems, services and other amenities in towns, suburbs and cities.

Urban heat island effect: replacing natural, green environments which stay cooler with darker
artificial surfaces which absorb and then reflect, increasing air temperatures.

Urban design mitigation strategies:

- Use of high-efficiency LED lights for street lighting.

- Planning of suburbs so car use is reduced.
- Convenient and effective public transport to encourage its usage over cars.
- Use of renewable energy like solar.
- Buildings that face north (maximum exposure to sun during winter, shading during summer).

Urban design adaptation strategies:

- Planning so that emergency services can access areas and residents can leave efficiently.
- Planting trees to provide moisture and shade during heat waves.
- Attention to drainage  reduces impact of increasing flash floods, etc.
- Collection and storage of stormwater  preparation for droughts.
- Planting of vegetation  water absorption and reduced absorption of heat from Sun.

- geo-engineering strategies
Geo-engineering: form of climate engineering or human climate intervention that seeks to alter long-
term trends in Earth’s climate.

- Aims to reverse global warming with atmospheric CO2 removal.

Two primary types of geoengineering

Solar engineering:

- Seeks to block incoming solar radiation and send it bac into space.
o Will reduce global temperatures.
- Examples include:
o Marine cloud brightening (clouds sprayed with seawater).
o stratospheric aerosol injections (added sulphate molecules in stratosphere).
o Painting surfaces such as roofs.
 All examples will reflect solar incoming radiation back into space (serves as
added albedo).
- Injection of aerosols = ineffective: can lead to ozone depletion and increased flood and
drought occurrence.
- Marine cloud brightening and painting = effective: both reduce heat absorption and increase
amount of solar radiation being reflected back into space by natural means.

Carbon capture:

- Aims to remove carbon bases greenhouse gases from the atmosphere and stratosphere.
- Examples include:
o Reforestation (replanting of trees in land cleared areas)  increased production of
photosynthesis  removal of CO2 from the atmosphere and stratosphere.
o Afforestation (introducing trees to regions that usually do not have them) 
increased production of photosynthesis  removal of CO2 from the atmosphere and
stratosphere.
- Effective: Both effective as it removes CO2 from the atmosphere and increases production of
oxygen.

- alternate energy sources

Solar energy:

Solar panels can be used to harness solar energy and turn it into electrical energy.
Pros
- Produces no greenhouse gases.
- Can be used to power all appliances,
reduces use of fossil fuel powered
electricity.
- Lower electricity costs.
- Excess power will be stored  less
energy loss.
Cons
- Energy production depends on things
like light intensity.
- Energy production is susceptible to
weather / climate  less production on
overcast days or shorter days.
- Different types of solar technology
produce different amounts of
electricity.
- Expensive costs to install.
- Become less efficient over time due to
deterioration of panels and batteries.
- Construction requires rare Earth
materials that are non-renewable.

Judgement:
solar panels provide a sustainable source of electricity, paired with lower electricity costs and has
low carbon footprint. Although they are expensive to install, the lower electricity costs in the long
run will return the money spent and will decrease the amount of greenhouse gas emissions that
would have been emitted if not used. Though, due to it being dependent on weather / climate, it
will have to be used in addition to other energy sources as it will not meet the demand of fossil
fuel powered appliances.

Overall, it serves as a cleaner way of electricity production and is worth installing due to the long-
term improvements in all areas.
Wind power:

Wind turbines transform kinetic energy of moving air into electricity.

Pros
- Can be used to power homes or and
wide scale use for cities.
- Renewable & clean source of energy:
- Doesn’t require burning fossil fuels to
operate.
- Completely renewable & will never run
out.
- More energy efficient than most power
stations that burn fossil fuels.
- Low operating costs (turbines don’t
require much maintenance)
Cons
- Energy production depends on wind
consistency and strength.
- reliant on weather and cannot generate
electricity 24/7.
- Wind energy isn’t always available in
times of peak electricity demand.
- In order to use wind energy exclusively,
wind turbines need to be paired with
some sort of energy storage technology
(requires mining of unsustainable
minerals).
- Expensive to install.
- Wind turbine blades can harm and kill
species, such as birds and bats, that fly
into them.
- Construction of wind farms can disrupt
natural habitats of local species if not
conducted correctly.

Judgement:
Wind turbines are effective as they do not emit greenhouse gases and are more energy efficient
than burning fossil fuels. Once built, wind turbines can harness the renewable energy from wind
(not compensating future generations' access to natural resources). Although the batteries to
store the energy may require non-renewable minerals, they can be used for a long period of time.
It may be paired with other renewable energy sources to ensure electricity demands are met.

Overall, it serves as a better source of electricity and does not emit greenhouse gases. Although
high costs are needed to install them, in the long run it costs less than using traditional fossil fuels
and can provide widescale power.
Hydro power:

Hydroelectric dams generate electricity as water, usually from a reservoir or dam, passes through a
generator known as a turbine. (water motion → electrical energy)
Pros Cons
- Renewable + sustainable energy source - May obstruct fish migration, natural
- Low emissions (generating electricity water temperatures, river flow
with hydropower energy does not emit characteristics, and silt loads → may
carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that have negative effects on native plants
drives global climate change) and on animals in and around the river.
- After a hydropower plant is built, it - Lack of available reservoirs
does not emit pollution into the - Expensive upfront
atmosphere. - Manufacturing the concrete and steel
- High efficiency - Hydroelectric plants in hydropower dams requires
can achieve over 90% efficiency, equipment that may produce
whereas coal power stations can only emissions.
extract 25% of the energy contained in - Susceptibility to drought
their fuel source. - Ability to create electricity can be
- Very reliable → can meet peak severely reduced if there is a drought
electricity demand. and not enough water is flowing
- Built on an actively flowing river or with through the plant.
a dam to manage water flow.
- Output of electricity can be adjusted (If
energy demand is low, water can be
averted from the turbines and less
energy will be produced. If energy
demand is high, more water can be
directed into the plant for electricity
production).
- Safe - No sickness-causing pollution
emitted (e.g., zero chance of oil spills or
gas pipes breaking) - Low maintenance
cost
Judgment:
Hydroelectric dams are a very effective energy source as they can generate sufficient amounts of
energy, whilst not compensating future generations access to resources (renewable). Given the
long operating lifetime of a hydroelectric plant (50 years to 100 years), initial expenses and
greenhouse emissions are offset in the long run. It may be paired with other renewable energy
sources to ensure electricity demands are met.

Overall, this is a very efficient and useful source of electricity as it is completely renewable and
generates no greenhouse gases.
 - using or changing agricultural practices of a range of cultural groups, including those of
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

Mosaic burning:

- Involves lighting low fires in small areas on foot to maintain and protect the health of the
surrounding country.
o Fires are closely monitored, ensuring that only the underbrush is burnt.
o Provides right temperature for native seeds to open (conventional hazard reduction
burning is too hot → destroys seeds and nutrients in the soil)
o Burning small areas allows animals to move to different sections and come back to
new growth.

Insect diet

- Eating insects over other sources of meat → sustainable dietary practice as it reduces carbon
footprint.
- Higher in protein: larvae (54% protein) VS beef (27% protein).
- Bogong moth = pest of crops in Australia + highly nutritious food source eaten by Aboriginal
people.

Fish traps/ channels

- E.g., Lake Condah, Vic is evidence of one of the world’s largest and oldest aquaculture
system.
- Located on the Budj Bim lava flow, which was the result of a volcanic eruption approximately
30,000 y/a.
- Channels, constructed as least 6600 year ago, made by removing loose stones and portions
of the more solid rocks between the ridges.
- Extensive collection of wetland swamps and sinkholes provide an ideal habitat for eels and
other fish.
- Gunditjmara people were able to farm large quantities of the short-finned eel while
maintaining a sustainable eel population - Much of the area surrounding has not been
cleared of vegetation → little disturbance to surrounding ecosystem.

Conversing with Aboriginal cultural groups:

- Can give new mitigation and adaptation strategies.

- Indigenous Australians have adapted to climates over
tens of thousands of years.
o Aboriginal peoples can give advice and
understanding of their practices that can be
used by other people.
 Module 8 – Resource Management
Using Australia’s Natural Resources
Inquiry question: How are Australia’s natural resources extracted, used and managed?

identify Australian renewable resources and where they are located, including but not limited to:

- agricultural resources: terrestrial and aquatic

Terrestrial:

Grazing native vegetation:

vegetation that has undergone
grazing by domestic animals.

Cropping: the cultivation of crops

through land use.

Horticulture: the cultivation of

plants in gardens or greenhouses.

Type Location
Grazing native vegetation Everywhere except most of left Australia and
the East coast.
Cropping East, bottom of West and South coast of
Australia and half of Tasmania.
Horticulture East, bottom of West and South-East coast.

Aquatic:

Type Location
Pearls Northern peaks of Australia and the west coast.
Sydney rock oysters Middle of East coast (Sydney).
Southern Bluefin Tuna Middle of South coast.
 - water

- energy sources

Type Location
Tidal energy Top of Australia – North coast.
Wave energy Bottom of Australia – South coast.
Wind energy Bottom of Australia – Land, NT and QLD.
Investigate how mining sites affect the environment, including Aboriginal cultural sites, and examine
methods of reclamation of the environment and those sites after mining operations cease, including:

- Open-pit mining

Overview:

- Open pit (or open cut) mining is where materials near the surface is excavated from an open
pit.
- Most common method to mine for coal and minerals.
- Gangue – waste rock / not valuable rock by product that can be toxic and is used to fill the
mining site at the end of its use.
- Tailings – waste products from mining processes. All unrecoverable and uneconomic
remnants are waste. Includes gangue, finely ground rock particles, chemicals, minerals and
water. Tailings can be liquid, solid or a slurry of fine particles. Many substances found in
tailings are toxic, even radioactive (not uncommon to find large amounts of cyanide, mercury
and arsenic).
- Overburden - the rock or soil layer that needs to be removed in order to access the material
being mined.

Effects on environment:

- Air pollution: the presence of dust due to movements of machines, haulage trucks, blasting
of benches and exposes gangue heaps.
o Spraying water which settles dust.
- Water pollution: the mixing of mine drainage water with river water or ground water.
o Walls constructed; impermeable layers of clay/plastic sheeting can prevent water
from entering groundwater.
- Loss of forest or ecology: deforestation that occurs before opening the mine  loss of forest
cover and loss of wildlife habitat.
o Replanting vegetation.
- Rehabilitation: when mining is finished, it leaves huge holes in the ground  fill up with
water that becomes contaminated.
o Use natural alternatives and repurpose water use for more sustainable means.
- Loss of soil fertility occurs due to acidic water from mining drainage, mixing of soil and
overburden during reclamation.
o Treat soil and replant.

Rehabilitation plans:

- Mining companies are required by law to provide a rehabilitation plan before approval can
be given for exploration and mining operations to start.
- Refilling mined holes with materials that do not pose a risk to the environment may be used
in rehabilitation. This includes refilling the holes with overburden then covering the top with
the soil from previous mining. The soil is then revegetated with native plants.
 - Underground mining methods

Overview:

- Underground mining is used to extract ore from below the surface of the earth safely,
economically and with as little waste as possible. The entry from the surface to an
underground mine may be through a horizontal or vertical tunnel, known as an adit, shaft or
decline.

Rehabilitation plans:

- Waste rock that has come to the surface can be returned to the underground mining area or
can be covered in clay and soil and revegetated.

- Offshore and onshore drilling

Offshore:
Overview:
- Exploration: Seismic surveys locate oil traps within rock layers. Exploration drilling platform is
brought in, and test drills are conducted to determine quantities of oil or gas. Most wells are
not successful and are plugged with cement plugs and abandoned.

If test drilling is successful:

- Drilling platform is removed and replaced by a production platform.

o Drilling platform may be relocated nearby to test extent of oil trap.
- Risk: influx of pressurised oil or gas during drilling
- Control: rig blowout prevention system
o A set of hydraulically operated valves and other closure devices which seal the well.

During drilling:

- Care needs to be taken to not contaminate ground water.

- Bore holes can vary from 300m-1000m deep and have to be drilled in stages.
- After each stage is drilled, a metal pipe is installed and the spaces between the pipe and
rocks is filled with cement.
- As the well goes deeper, more narrows pipes are used.
- During production, rehabilitation of the land occurs o Seeds planted to reduce erosion and
other erosion measures taken.

After drilling is complete:

- The site needs to be decommissioned.

- The production platform needs to be removed.
- Abandoned wells need to be plugged.
- Debris needs to be removed from site.
- Monitoring continues.
- Onshore facilities need to be dismantled and removed.
Onshore Drilling:
Before the drill:

- Permission from landholders

o Detailed negotiations – minimal disruption during and restoration of land after
o Seismic surveys analyse local geology and determine if cost of exploration is
warranted.

3 types of drilling:

- Exploration drilling
o Occurs during the initial phase of exploration to check whether the reservoir rock
contains any oil/gas.
- Appraisal drilling
o Only occurs if exploration is successful.
o Tests whether region is economical to develop to production stage.
- Production drilling
o Allows the gas or oil to be moved from the reservoir to the surface and then through
the production facility.

During drilling:

- Care needs to be taken to not contaminate ground water.

- Bore holes can vary from 300m-1000m deep and have to be drilled in stages.
- After each stage is drilled, a metal pipe is installed and the spaces between the pipe and
rocks is filled with cement.
- As the well goes deeper, more narrows pipes are used.
- During production, rehabilitation of the land occurs
o Seeds planted to reduce erosion and other erosion measures taken.

After drilling is complete:

- Surface infrastructure is removed.

- Well secured with cement plugs (piped into the well to isolate hydrocarbons and
contaminated water).
prepare a case study of an important Australian renewable or non-renewable resource, including but
not limited to:

- How the resource is found, extracted and/or managed

Overview:

- Gold is deposited from hydrothermal fluids (hot groundwaters that circulate within the Earth's crust)
as they rise through Earth’s crust.
o Hydrothermal fluids also deposit quartz.
- Most of Australia’s gold extraction occurs in open cut mines.
- Australian gold cannot be seen in rock as it is very find ( <5grams in each tonne of rock ).

How the resource is found:

- Gold is often found within cracks and faults of rock in the ground along with quartz.
- Due to quartz being deposited with gold, it is often found within quartz deposits.
- Miners follow alluvial gold (small pieces of gold flakes in riverbeds) upstream until a quartz reef is
found  discovery of gold deposits.
- Land geology that matches other gold deposits is investigated to see if it contains gold.
- Geochemistry is used to find low levels of gold in soil which indicates possible sources of gold.
- Airborne geophysics surveys can be conducted to find areas that may contain gold deposits.
- Drills can be used to determine gold levels within rock  opening of mine.

How the resource is extracted:

- Mining companies mine in old gold fields with modern equipment and techniques due to the new
equipment being able to dig deeper to find new gold deposits.
o Allows new deposits to be mined that could not at the original time due to limitations of
technology.
- Fine grains are recovered, then ore is crushed.
o Chemical leaching (absorption of gold by substance) is used to separate the fine grains that
are embedded in rock. The process follows:
1. Piles of finely crushed ore is soaked in cyanide solution.
2. Gold gets dissolved and carried to bottom of the pile.
3. Zinc is added to solution  settles gold.
4. Gold is collected; melted and cast into unrefined ingots.
5. Gold is the refined to remove impurities such as silver or copper.
6. Molden pure gold is then cast into gold bars.

- How the resource is used

Economic use:

- Gold can be used as a medium of exchange and investment, a form of payment.

- Governments use gold bars as part of monetary reserves.

Everyday use:

- Used in products for jewellery, dentistry and artistic pieces.

- Gold has very high electrical conductivity.
o It can be used in electronics and computer components, radar equipment and satellites.
 - Whether the resource can be extracted and/or used sustainably

This resource is non-renewable, deeming it unsustainable. Though, the mining / extraction process
can be sustainable if a proper rehabilitation of the mines can be met with a net positive outcome.

- The past, present and future use and importance of the resource

- As long as gold remains valuable, it will continue to be mined and used as a means of wealth
and as reserve.
- The use of gold will remain the same as no new uses have been identified.
Waste Management
Inquiry question: How is waste management?

- conduct a practical investigation of the composition of household or organisational waste

Graph Type 1 (using raw data):

This graph is impractical and inefficient as it takes too long to complete in exam conditions.

Graph Type 2 (using averaged data):

This graph is more practical and efficient as it takes less time to complete, only having to average the
raw data then formatting it into a column graph.
 outline the management options for different types of solid waste
Cessnock Council
Waste  Provides 3 bins to the
Collection public; general waste,
recycling and green
waste.
 Waste can be bought
to the Cessnock Waste
Management Centre
to dispose of all types
of waste. This includes
a fee for most waste.
Bin Collection General waste:
Schedule weekly
Recycling:
fortnightly
Organic waste:
fortnightly
Management of Recycling waste is baled and
recycling waste transferred to a materials
recovery facility, where it is
sorted and sent to
manufacturers who use it to
make new products.
Note: return and earn may be
used to dispose of recycling
waste to gain money.
Management of Organic waste is processed at
organic waste Tea Gardens and made into
high quality compost for home
gardeners and farmers.
Management of General waste is collected and
general waste transported to landfill sites.
Newcastle Council
 Provides 3 bins to the
public; general waste,
recycling and green
waste.
 Waste can be bought to
the Summerhill Waste
Management Centre to
dispose of all types of
waste. This includes a
fee for most waste.
General waste:
weekly
Recycling:
fortnightly
Organic waste:
fortnightly
Recycling waste is baled and
transferred to a materials
recovery facility, where it is
sorted and sent to
manufacturers who use it to
make new products.
Note: return and earn may be
used to dispose of recycling
waste to gain money.
Organic waste is shredded and
then turned into compost off-
site. This compost is used for
landscaping and mine site
rehabilitation in the Hunter
Valley.
General waste is collected and
transported to landfill sites.
Lake Macquarie Council
 Provides 3 bins to the
public; general waste,
recycling and green
waste.
 Waste can be bought to
the Awaba Waste
Management Facility to
dispose of all types of
waste. This includes a
fee for most waste.
General waste:
fortnightly
Recycling:
fortnightly
Organic waste:
weekly
Recycling waste is taken to a
Materials Recovery Facility at
Gateshead, where it is
separated and bundled into
different types of materials.
These bundles are then taken to
another processing facility to be
made into new goods.
Note: return and earn may be
used to dispose of recycling
waste to gain money.
Organic waste is shredded and
then turned into compost off-
site. This compost is used for
landscaping and agricultural
use.
General waste is collected and
transported to landfill sites.
 Items That Fall Into Waste Category

Recycling waste: General waste: Organic waste:

 Hard plastics  Soft plastics  Grass clippings

 Paper  Plastic wrapping  All weeds
 Glass  Wire  Leaves
 Metal – can / container like  String  Flowers
items  Rope  Plants
 Tire  Hoses  Bark
 Plastic bag  All foam packaging  Sticks and small branches (max.
 Cardboard  Food diameter 10cm)
 Aluminium  Pet waste  Roots (max. diameter 10cm)
 Laminated paper
 Nappies
 Wipes
 Hygiene items
 evaluate the sustainability of a named waste management option, for example:

- environmental impact of waste disposal

The waste hierarchy:

Avoidance including action to reduce the amount of

waste generated by households, industry and all levels of
government.

Resource recovery including re-use, recycling,

reprocessing and energy recovery, consistent with the
most efficient use of the recovered resources.

Disposal including management of all disposal options in

the most environmentally responsible manner.

Environmental impact of landfill:

Societal Economic Environmental

Pros - Separates waste from - Can be cost effective once - Separates hazardous
society. established. materials from
- Safe (when done right). environment.
- Can be converted to usable
space after, which can also
boost economy.
- Can be used to generate
electricity.
- Produces jobs

Cons - Takes up space  less - Transport. - Leachates (water than has

housing. run through waste) can
potentially contaminate
environment.
- Stays in ground indefinitely.
- Land clearing – isolation,
fragmentation.
- Resources cannot be
reused.
Investigate different definitions of sustainability and the rationales that underpin those definitions.

Different definitions of sustainability:

- Based on a three-tier system - Social, environmental and economic.

o Environmental: Natural resource use, pollution prevention and biodiversity.
o Social: Standard of living, education, jobs and equal opportunity.
o Economic: Growth, profit, cost saving, R&D (research and development).
Investigate human activities that affect sustainability, including but not limited to:

- Overharvesting
o Leads to depletion of resources, extinction and loss of biodiversity.
o Can damage environment – abiotic and biotic factors.

- Water pollution
o Sediment, nutrients and contaminants in run-off are all a threat to marine ecosystems.
 Leads to overgrowth of algae.
o Cloudy water reduced the amount of sunlight availability for organisms.
o Run-off pollutes rivers and streams with pesticides and fertilizers  death of marine
organisms.
o Stormwater contains topsoil, rubbish, nutrients, chemicals, oil and grease.
 When added to water sources, it can harm aquatic life or cause algal blooms that
lead to the death of fish.
o High water flow leads to erosion and habitat loss.

- Habitat removal or destruction

o Leads to land clearing and extinction of species.
o Removes habitats for all animals.
o Leads to land degradation of the environment.
o Removes trees which limits sustainable options.
o Introduction of invasive species can lead to damage of abiotic factors which limits
sustainability and biotic factors.
o Leads to a decrease in agricultural productivity.
investigate the processes used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples as sustainable
resource managers, for example:

- Cultural traditions that preserve Country and Place and the resources located in those spaces

Cultural traditions:

Aboriginals managed lands through cultural traditions that ensured that the land was managed
sustainably.

 Aboriginals built dams, wells, planted crops, irrigated them and harvested seeds.
o Aboriginals stored surplus and did not overharvest.
 Aboriginals burnt vegetation and let it regrow. Using fire, they predicted growth which
attracted animals for hunting.
o The burning of the land encouraged regrowth of more resilient and healthy plants.
 Converted land into different environments for the ‘maintenance’ of animals, plants and
fresh drinking water.
o Aboriginal people took account of all other animals when converting land.

resources located in those spaces:

 Aboriginal people grew crops of tubers such as yams, grain such as native mullet, macadamia
nuts, fruits and berries.
 Aboriginal people managed animals such as possums, wombats, birds, insects, reptiles and
plants when altering the land.

- Ongoing engagement with groups such as land councils, national parks and municipal
councils to improve resource management

The New South Wales Aboriginal Land Council (NSWALC) is committed to ensuring a better future for
Aboriginal people by working for the return of culturally significant and economically viable land,
pursuing cultural, social and economic independence for its people and being politically proactive
and voicing the position of Aboriginal people on issues that affect them. The Land Rights Act offers a
range of further protection for Aboriginal land:

 Roads cannot be built on Aboriginal land without the consent of traditional owners.
 Damaging sacred sites is an offence.
 Entering Aboriginal land without permit is an offence.
research and present information about a sustainability initiative in their community

Return and earn is a scheme that allows Australians to participate in the recycling of eligible recycling
waste in the return of 10 cents per container. The aim is to encourage the reduction of plastic
pollution while offering a reward for participation.

How does return and earn work?

 ‘Return stations’ are built in areas around Australia where people bring their recycling waste
in return for 10 cents per plastic/glass/aluminium item.
 Containers are placed on a conveyor belt where the machine detects manufacturing labels to
determine if the item placed inside is recyclable. If so, 10 cents is rewarded and at the end of
the session a docket is given to the individual with a sum of how much money they can
redeem at a place that is in partnership with the scheme.
 The process follows as:
1. Checking eligibility for items (Look for the 10c label on the item to see if it is eligible
for a refund).
2. Taking containers to a return station.
3. Pushing containers through and earning money.
4. Redeeming the docket for the earnt money.

Eligible containers: Good

 Cans (e.g. soft drinks).

 Bottles ( e.g. beer bottles).
 Cartons.
 Juice boxes or poppers.
 Most containers between 150ml and 3 litres are accepted and can get you a refund.
However, they must:
o Be in good condition (not be crushed or broken).
o Be empty.
o Have the label attached.

Eligible containers: Bad

 Plain milk bottles or cartons

 Flavoured milk containers of 1L or more
 Glass wine bottles
 Glass spirit bottles
 Cordial bottles
 Pure juice containers 1 litre and over
(comprising of at least 90% pure juice)

These items are still able to be recycled at home.