Ultrasonic Testing

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 Introduction
• Ultrasonic testing uses high frequency sound -
energy to conduct examinations and make
measurements.
• Sound : -mechanical vibration
• Sound is produced- by a vibrating body and
travels in the form of a wave.

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 Basic Principles of Sound
• Sound waves travel through materials by vibrating
the particles that make up the material.

---

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 Acoustic Spectrum-

Sonic / Audible-
Ultrasonic
Human
> 20kHz = 20,000Hz
20Hz - 20kHz

0 10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M 10M 100m

Ultrasound is sound with a pitch too high to be detected

by the human ear.

Ultrasonic Testing 0.5MHz - 50MHz

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• Ultrasonic examinations can be conducted
on a variety of material forms including
castings, forgings, welds and composites.

• A considerable amount of information

about the part being examined can be
collected, such as the presence of
discontinuities, thickness measurement,
coating thickness measurement; and
acoustical properties can be correlated to
certain properties of the material.-

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 Velocity of Sound

• The velocity of sound in a particular material is

CONSTANT-

• It will NOT change if frequency changes

wavelength will change.

• Examples:
V Compression in steel : 5960 m/s
V Compression in water : 1470 m/s
V Compression in air : 330 m/s -

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 Velocity
If the frequency remain constant, in what material does sound
has the highest velocity, steel, water, or air?

Steel
If the frequency remain constant, in what material does sound
has the shortest wavelength, steel, water, or air?
AIR -
5 M Hz

STEEL WATER AIR

Remember the formula

=v/f 7
 Frequency
• Frequency : Number of cycles per
second

--

1 second 1 second 1 second

1 cycle per 1 3 cycle per 1 18 cycle per 1

second = 1 Hertz second = 3 Hertz second = 18 Hertz
THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY THE SMALLER THE
WAVELENGTH 8
Wavelength
Wavelength is the distance required
to complete a cycle. 
wavelength
One cycle
Frequency & Wavelength

1 M Hz 5 M Hz 10 M Hz 25 M Hz

LONGEST
=v/f SMALLEST

Which probe has the smallest wavelength?

Which probe has the longest wavelength? 9
 Wavelength and frequency
• Sensitivity :
Sensitivity is the ability to locate small
discontinuity. - -
In UT the smallest detectable flaw is
½  (half the wavelength)-
Which of the following compressional probe has the
highest sensitivity?
(i) 1 MHz (ii) 2 MHz (iii) 5 MHz (iv) 10 MHz
10 MHz
What is minimum discontinuity that can be measured
using 5MHz compression wave probe in steel
5,900,000
  1.18mm
5,000,000 10
 Modes of vibration
• Several wave modes of vibration are used in
ultrasonic inspection. The most common are
longitudinal, shear, and Rayleigh (surface) waves.

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 Sound propagation
Longitudinal wave -
Direction of sound propagation
Direction of
partical oscillation

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 Sound propagation
Transverse wave - Direction of propagation
Direction of oscillation

Weak, generated in material by taking some

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energy from long. wave
 Basic Principles of Sound
• Ultrasonic waves are very similar to light waves
in that they can be reflected, refracted.-

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 Ultrasound Generation
Basis of Ultrasonic - Testing
Piezoelectric Effect-

+
Battery

Piezoelectrical
Crystal (Quartz) When Voltage
applied
 Piezoelectric Effect

The crystal gets thicker, due to a distortion of

the crystal lattice
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 Piezoelectric Effect

The effect inverses with polarity change

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 Piezoelectric Effect
Sound wave
with
frequency f

U(f)

An alternating voltage- generates crystal oscillations

at the frequency f
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 Reception of ultrasonic waves -
A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal, induces
crystal vibration, which then generate electrical
voltages at the crystal surfaces. Fig.
Electrical Piezoelectrical
crystal Ultrasonic wave
energy

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 Ultrasound Generation

- Ultrasound is generated with a transducer.

A piezoelectric element in the transducer

converts electrical energy into mechanical
vibrations (sound), and vice versa.

The transducer is
capable of both
transmitting and
receiving sound
energy. Fig. - -

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 Principles of Ultrasonic Inspection
• Ultrasonic waves are introduced into a material where they travel
in a straight line- and at a constant speed until they encounter a
surface.
• At surface interfaces some of the wave energy is reflected and
some is transmitted.

• The amount of reflected energy can be detected and provides

information about the size of the reflector or discontinuity.
• The travel time- of the sound can be measured and this provides
information on the distance that the sound has traveled.
• At surface interfaces some of the wave energy is reflected and some is
transmitted.- -
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 Test Techniques
• Ultrasonic testing is a very versatile inspection
method, and inspections can be accomplished in a
number of different ways.
• Ultrasonic inspection techniques are commonly
divided into three primary classifications.

1.Pulse-echo and Through Transmission

(Relates to - whether reflected or transmitted energy is used - -)

2.Normal Beam and Angle Beam

(Based on the angle, the sound energy enters the test article)

3.Contact and Immersion

(Based on the method of coupling of transducer to test article) -

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 Pulse Echo Technique
• It consists of pulser/receiver transducer, and display device.
• In this technique, a transducer sends the pulse of energy, in the
material, And reflected energy (echo) is received by the same
transducer.
• Reflection occurs from back surface and the discontinuity.
• The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed on the
screen on Y-axis and time on X-axis, which provides the
inspector information about the size and the location- - of
features that reflect the sound. fig -

initial
pulse
back surface
echo

crack
echo
crack
plate
0 2 4 6 8 10
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UT Instrument Screen
 Test Techniques – Pulse-Echo (cont.) -

Digital display
showing signal
generated from
sound reflecting
off back surface.

Digital display
showing the presence
of a reflector midway
through material, with
lower amplitude back
surface reflector.
The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only one
side of the material is possible, and it determines the location of
reflectors precisely.
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 Test Techniques
Through-Transmission Technique
• Two transducers-- located on
opposing sides of the test 11
specimen are used. One
transducer acts as a transmitter, T R

the other as a receiver.

• Discontinuities in the sound path
will result in a partial or total loss T R

of sound being transmitted and 2

be indicated by a decrease in the
received signal amplitude.
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Advantage
Through transmission is useful in
detecting discontinuities that are not
good reflectors. - 2

Limitation
• It does not provide depth information. 0 2 4 6 8
25
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Test Techniques: Through Transmission -

Digital display
showing received
sound through
material
thickness.

Digital display
showing loss of
received signal
due to presence
of a discontinuity
in the sound field.

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Test Techniques – Normal and Angle Beam
• In normal beam technique, the
sound beam is introduced into the
test article at 90 degree to the
surface. -
• In angle beam testing, the sound
beam is introduced into the test
article at some angle other than
90 deg.-
• The choice between normal and
angle beam inspection usually
depends on two considerations:
 The orientation of the feature of
interest: the sound should be
directed to produce the largest
reflection from the feature.
 Obstructions on the surface of the
part that must be worked around.
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- - - -
 Test Techniques
Contact & Immersion Technique
• To get useful levels of sound energy into a material, the air
between the transducer and the test article must be removed.
This is referred to as coupling.
• In contact testing (shown on the previous slides) a couplant is
used - such as water, oil or a gel is applied between the
transducer and the part.
• In immersion testing, the part and the transducer are place in a
water bath. - This arrangement allows better movement of the
transducer while maintaining consistent coupling.
• With immersion testing, - an echo from the front surface of the
part is seen in the signal but otherwise signal interpretation is
same (fig. -) for the two techniques.
• Adv. Useful for rough surfaces.
1 2
IP 1 IP 2 IP = Initial Pulse
FWE FWE FWE = Front Wall
Echo
BWE BWE DE = Defect Echo
DE BWE = Back Wall
Echo

Defect 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
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 Inspection Applications
Some of the applications for which ultrasonic testing
may be employed include:
• Flaw detection (cracks, inclusions, porosity, etc.)
• Thickness gauging
• Assessment of bond integrity in brazed components
• Estimation of void content in composites and
plastics

On the following slides are examples of some

common applications of ultrasonic inspection.

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 Some photographs
Thickness Gauging
• Ultrasonic thickness • Applications are
gauging is done periodically piping systems,
in the petrochemical and storage and
utility industries to containment
determine loss of thickness facilities, pressure
due to corrosion/erosion. - vessels.

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 Flaw Detection in Welds -
• One of the most widely
used methods of
inspecting weldments is
ultrasonic inspection.
• Full penetration groove
welds lend themselves
readily to angle beam
shear wave examination.

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 Advantage of Ultrasonic Testing
• Sensitive to small discontinuities both surface and
subsurface.
• Only one-sided access is needed when pulse-echo
technique is used.
• High accuracy in determines discontinuity location as
well as size.
• Minimum part preparation required.
• Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
• Detailed images can be produced with automated
systems.

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 Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing
• Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
• Skill and training required is more than with some other
methods.
• Normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer
of sound energy into test specimen.
• Materials that are rough, irregular in shape & very thin
are difficult to inspect. - - -
• Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult
to inspect due to low sound transmission and high signal
noise. -
• Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may
go undetected.
• Reference standards are required
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 Practice Test
1. Longitudinal waves are also called:
(a) Surface waves
(b) Pressure waves
(c) Compressional waves
(d) Both B and C are correct
Ans: (d) Both B and C are correct

2. Sound can propagate as:

(a) Longitudinal waves
(b) Shear waves
(c) Surface waves
(d) All of the above

Ans: (d) All of the above

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3. Surface or Rayleigh waves travelling along the
surface of relative thick solid material, penetrate
to a depth of approximately:
(a) One wavelength
(b) Two wavelengths
(c) Three wavelengths
(d) Infinite wavelengths
(a) One wavelength

4. Shear waves do not propagate in:

(a) Solids
(b) Gases
(c) Liquids
(d) Both B and C are correct
(d) Both B and C are correct
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5. Which of the following waves is able to follow a
surface around a curve?
(a) A longitudinal wave
(b) A shear wave
(c) A surface wave
(d) A Lamb wave
A surface wave
6. In order to have a reasonable chance at detecting a
discontinuity, the reflective surface of the
discontinuity must have a dimension that is at
least as long as ________ wavelength.
(a) One-half
(b) One
(c) Two
(d) One-quarter
One-half 36
7. The terms used to describe a technique’s ability
to locate flaws are:
(a) Sensitivity
(b) Space and time
(c) resolution
(d) Frequency and size

Sensitivity
8. The sound that emanates from a piezoelectric
transducer originates:
(a) From a point on the active surface
(b) From most of the active surface
(c) From a small area in the center of the active
surface
(d) From the edges of the active surface
From most of the active surface
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9. The area in front of a transducer where there are
extensive fluctuations in the sound field is called
the:
(a) Far field zone
(b) Surface field zone
(c) Near field zone
(d) Phase shift zone
Near field zone

10. Resolution generally increases

(a) With increased depth of a defect
(b) With a decrease in the transducer frequency
(c) When the transducer diameter is reduced
(d) With an increase in transducer frequency
With an increase in transducer frequency
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11. The ability to locate a small discontinuity is
called:
(a) Resolution
(b) Sensitivity
(c) Wavelength
Sensitivity

12. The ability to locate discontinuities that

are close together within the material is
called:
(a) Resolution
(b) Sensitivity
(c) Effectiveness
(d) Phase delay
Resolution
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13. As frequency increases, sound tends to:
(a) Become more compressed
(b) Scatter more from large or course grain structure
(c) Convert to a different wave mode
(d) Become more penetrating
Scatter more from large or course grain structure

14 . The sound energy or ultrasonic beam is more uniform

in the:
(a) Far field zone
(b) Near field zone
(c) Interface between the transducer and plastic
wedge
(d) Band along the central axis
Far field zone

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15. When sound travels through a medium:
(a) Its intensity diminishes with distance
(b) It spreads perpendicular to the primary
direction of wave travel
(c) Its speed remains constant
(d) All of the above

All of the above

16. When a wave encounters an interface at an oblique

angle, what takes place at the interface due to the
different sound velocities of the two materials?
(a) Attenuation
(b) Refraction
(c) Beam spread
(d) Beam impedance
Refraction 41
19. The active element of most acoustic
transducers used today is:
(a) Lithium
(b) Piezoelectric ceramic
(c) Sulfide
(d) Quartz

Piezoelectric ceramic

20. Contact transducers often incorporate a:

(a) Composite frequency adjustment
(b) Vibration suppressor
(c) Wear plate
(d) Phase adjustment sensor

Wear plate
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21. Angle beam transducers and wedges are typically
used to introduce a:
(a) Reflected shear wave into the part
(b) Longitudinal wave into the part
(c) Shear wave into the part
(d) Compression wave into the part

Shear wave into the part

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