SYSTEMATICS│LABORATORY
Exercise 2: m. Frustule - the hard siliceous cell wall of a
Domain Eukarya
Kingdom Protista
PROTISTS
 Most diverse among six kingdoms.
 Ancestors of fungi, plants, and animals.
 Both unicellular and multicellular.
 Protists that have pigment and carry out
photosynthesis belong to the different
groups of algae whereas those that are
heterotrophic are collectively called the
protozoans.
Divions of Algae under Kingdom Protista
 Division Chlorophyta (green algae)
 Division Phaeophyta (brown algae)
 Division Rhodophyta (red algae)
 Division Chrysophyta (golden-brown
algae together with diatoms)
Definition of Terms
a. Pyrenoid - elliptical small structure found in
chloroplast
b. Gonidia - asexual reproductive cells in some
colonial algae
c. Rhizoids - small branching hyphae that grow
downward from the stolon
d. Holdfast - a root-like structure that fasten
organisms to a hard substrate
e. Reticulate - something that is netted or
covered with a network
f. Oogonium - female reproductive structure
in thallophytes
g. Homothallic - having male and female
reproductive structures in same organism
h. Heterothallic - having male and female
reproductive structures in different
organism
i. Rhizome - a horizontal underground stem
j. Septate - used to describe the condition of
hyphae that lacks a septum to divide
k. Conjugation - a sexual process in lower
organisms such as bacteria and some algae
l. Zygospore - a thick-walled spore that is
formed by union of two similar sexual cells
diatom
n. Epitheca - a continuous, usually structure
less layer, that covers exterior of some
corals
o. Hypotheca - the inner and younger layer of
the cell wall of a diatom
p. Valve View - the view when a cell is viewed
from the top
q. Girdle View - the view when a cell is viewed
from the side
r. Conceptacle - a specialized hollow
chambers containing reproductive
structures
s. Multiseriate - arranged in rows or composes
of more than one cell layer
t. Carpogonium - a female sex organ in red
algae
u. Cystocarp - fruiting structure produced in
the red algae after fertilization
v. Pericarp - a layer of tissue around the
reproductive bodies of some algae and
fungi
w. Trichogyne - long, hair-like part of a procarp
in red algae acting as a receptor for male
fertilizing bodies
x. Pinnate - resembles to a feather, especially
in having similar parts arranged on opposite
sides of an axis
y. Carposporangium - one of the sporongia
forming the cystocarp in the red algae and
containing carpospores
Division Chlorophyta
CLASS CHLOROPHYCEAE
Order 1: CHLOROCOCCALES
Family: Oocystaceae
Genus: Chlorella
 Chlorella - small, non-motile, unicellular
green algae; has a cup-like plastid; cell
wall is usually quite thin
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Chlorella sp.
 Chlorella is a group of eukaryotic green
microalgae with small globular cells (about
2- 10 μm diameter) living in both aquatic
and terrestrial habitats.
 The genus Chlorella consists of small,
spherical to ovoid, nonmotile, unicellular or
colonial microalgae with a single chloroplast
with a pyrenoid.
 The Chlorella cells are autospores which
reproduce asexually by mitosis.
 Chlorella is the most cultivated eukaryotic
alga since it is widely used as a health food
and feed supplement, as well as in the
pharmaceutical and cosmetics industry.
 It is the first alga to be isolated in culture
and was used for the study of
photosynthesis and carbon dioxide
assimilation in plants. Chlorella is mass
produced as a protein-rich source of food
but had also been proposed as a source of
biofuel.
Order 2: VOLVOCALES
Family: Volvocaceae
Genera: Volvox
 Volvox - motile, colonial green algae. Volvox
colonies are spherical and hollow
Volvox sp.
 Volvox is a free-floating freshwater green
algae that ranges from 350-500 um in size.
 Volvox grows as planktons on surface of
water bodies like temporary and permanent
ponds, lakes and water tanks.
 During rainy season due to its fast growth
the surface of water bodies become green.
 The Volvox colonies appear as green rolling
balls on surface of water.
 Volvox are one-celled algae that live
together in a colony. The colony is a hollow
ball with 500 to 20,000 individual cells.
 Each Volvox cell has two flagella. The
flagella beat together to roll the ball
through the water.
 They have chlorophyll and make their own
food by photosynthesis, they also
contribute to the production of oxygen and
serve as food for numerous aquatic
organisms like the rotifers.
 Upon reproduction, daughter colonies are
small, dark green balls inside the Volvox
colony.
 When the daughter colonies mature, the
parent ball bursts open and releases the
daughter colonies.
Order 2: VOLVOCALES
Family: Volvocaceae
Genera: Pandorina
 Pandorina - motile, colonial green algae.
Pandorina colonies are ellipsoidal with the
cells adjacent to one another.
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Pandorina sp.
 Pandorina is a very common fresh water
alga which is green in color. It is motile,
multicellular algae.
 Colonies of Pandorina are spherical in shape
with 8-32 densely-packed cells.
 The number of cells held together at their
bases to form colony is surrounded by
mucilage.
 The shape of the cells is ovoid or slightly
narrowed, it has two flagella with two
contractile vacuoles at their base.
 Chloroplast so present has at least one
pyrenoid.
 Pandorina undergoes sexual and asexual
reproduction.
 Pandorina is considered a bioindicator. It is
used as an indicatorof organically polluted
waters. It also helps in improving soil
fertility.
Order 3: OEDOGONIALES
Family: Oedogoniaceae
Genus: Oedogonium
 Oedogonium - unbranched filamentous
green algae; Some cells in the filaments
have a different shape and are sub-
spherical. These sub-spherical structures
may be the “oogonium” or the oospore.”
Oedogonium sp.
 Oedogonium, genus of unbranched,
filamentous green algae, commonly found
in quiet bodies of fresh water and is easily
identified by the distinctive rings at the
apical ends of certain cells.
 Each cellular division creates a new ring on
the cap cell. The cells are cylindrical,
sometimes broader at one end, and contain
a parietal, netlike chloroplast with several
pyrenoids.
 The cell walls are very hard, which makes
them an ideal substrate for epiphytes.
Oedogonium filaments are typically unbranched
and only one cell thick.
 Each cylindrical cell of the filament, with the
exception of the basal cell that serves as a
rootlike holdfast, contains a netlike
chloroplast and a large central vacuole.
Reproduction is through:
A. Vegetative reproduction, or
fragmentation, results in a ringlike scar
at the top of the cylindrical cell (apical
cap).
B. Asexual reproduction is by motile and
nonmotile spores, formed only in cells
with an apical cap.
C. Sexual reproduction is oogamous; the
male filament, producing sperm cells
that resemble small spores with long
flagella and it becomes attached to the
oogonia of a female filament. After
fertilization, the resting zygote
eventually divides into four motile
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spores (zoospores) that germinate to

form new filaments.

Order 4: ULOTRICHALES
Family: Ulotricaceae
Genus: Ulothrix
 Ulothrix - filamentous, unbranched green
algae; It can be distinguished from other
filamentous forms by the type of plastid,
which is characteristically band-like
containing several pyrenoids
 It is generally found in fresh and marine
water. Its reproduction is normally Ulva sp.
vegetative. The common vegetative
methods of reproduction are fragmentation Order 2: CAULERPALES
and akinete formation. Family 1: Caulerpaceae
Genus: Caulerpa
 Caulerpa - Caulerpa lentillifera is the
common “lato” which is a very good source
of minerals and fiber.
 Microalgae that are common in sandy-rocky
coastlines. Siphonous algae that have
coenocytic tubular filaments consolidated
and intertwined to form a plant-like habit
consisting of a rhizoid, rhizome (stolon) and
leaf-like blade.

Ulothrix sp.

CLASS ULVOPHYCEAE
Order 1: ULVALES
Family: Ulvaceae
Genus: Ulva
 Ulva - macroscopic marine green alga;
thallus is grass green in color and is
expanded into thin, glossy broad sheets
with lobed or undulating margins
 Under the microscope, Ulva cells appear Caulerpa lentillifera
polyhedral and arranged in somewhat Order 2: CAULERPALES
longitudinal rows. Its cross section reveal Family 2: Udoteaceae
two layers of cells. Commonly known as Genus: Halimeda
Sea Lettuce  Halimeda - composed of cells that
have characteristic heavily calcified cell
walls; forms an important component of
our coral reefs.
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Halimeda sp.
Order 3: CLADOPHORALES
Family: Cladophoraceae
Genus: Cladophora
 Cladophora sp. - Each cell of the filament
has a net- like or reticulate chloroplast that
completely encircles the protoplast or is
peripheral in position
 Several nuclei are found in the cytoplasm.
The thallus (body) is septate
 Serves as source of food for fishes and
other aquatic animals, as a buffer for the
sequestration of nutrients in the water
body and for protection of some aquatic
organisms from solar ultraviolet radiation.
Cladophora sp.
CLASS CHAROPHYCEAE
Order: ZYGNEMATALES
Family: Zygnemataceae
Genus: Spirogyra
 Spirogyra - widely distributed green algae
that forms silky masses; The cells in the
filament have green, ribbon-like spiral
bands, which are the chloroplasts
Vegetative, Spirogyra sp.
Spirogyra
 It has a vegetative thallus consists of
unbranched filaments.
 The cells in the filament have green
ribbon-like spiral bonds (chloroplasts)
that contains pyrenoids - specialized
bodies that stores starch
 it also serves as an important source of
natural bioactive compounds for
antibiotic, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, and cytotoxic purposes.
 Conjugating spirogyra is caused by
sexual reproduction. The conjugation
tubes between the two algal filaments
allow the contents of one cell to fuse
with those of the other through
conjugating tubes, forming a zygote.
Conjuga
ting, Spirogyra sp.
Types of Conjugation:
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 Composed of diatoms - unicellular

eukaryotic microalgae that play important
ecological roles on a global scale.
 Diatoms are commonly divided into two
orders on the basis of symmetry and shape:
the round nonmotile Centrales have radial
markings; the elongated Pennales, which
move with a gliding motion, have pinnate
(featherlike) markings.
 Diatoms often have specific salinity,
temperature and other environmental
tolerances.

DIVISION PHAEOPHYTA
Order: FUCALES
Family 1: Fucaceae
Genus: Fucus
 Fucus - brown algae common in colder
DIVISION CHRYSOPHYTA waters attached to rocks in the intertidal
CLASS: BACILLARIOPHYCEAE zone. They are about 30-50 cm long and are
Order 1: Pennales composed of straplike, dichotomously
branched portions with an apparent midrib

Order 2: Centrales

 The male and female reproductive organs

may occur on the same organism or on
separate ones. Fucus species are important
source of alginates-colloidal extracts with
many industrial uses similar to those of
agar. Also, fucus serve as food and habitat
for other organisms.
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Fucus (male conceptacle)
Fucus (female conceptacle)
Family 2: Sargassaceae
Genus: Sargassum
 Sargassum - a very conspicuous brown alga
in tropical and subtropical waters and
includes some of the most specialized of
the algae. Some species grow attached to
the bottom of the oceans while some are
floating.
Sargassum sp.
DIVISION RHODOPHYTA
Order: GIGARTINALES
Family: Soleriaceae
Genus: Eucheuma
 Eucheuma - The texture of the thallus can
be classified as rubbery due to the
presence of abundant polysaccharide
material in their cell walls. The thallus may
be tall and loosely or densely branched.
Serves as raw material for the agar and
carrageenan
Eucheuma sp.
Order: CERAMIALES
Family: Rhodomelaceae
Genus: Polysiphonia
 Polysiphonia - A highly evolved red algae
found in marine waters. It is an erect plant
growing attached to other algae as well
as shell s, stones and woodwork. It is
usually found in the littoral and sub-littoral
zones. Its gametophytic thallus is
multiseriate and is branching.
Polysiphonia sp. Growth Habit
 The male gametophyte bears spermatangia
on special branches. The female thallus
bears special short lateral in which sterile
filament forms an urn-shaped or spherical
envelope, the pericarp, over the
carpogonial branch. The carpogonium
extends to an elongated structure called
trichogyne. When fertilization occurs, the
pericarp wall, also known as cystocarp,
enlarges enclosing a number of
carposporangia.
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which helps in exchange of nutrients.

With this, diatoms tend to have
significantly higher maximum uptake
rates of nutrients than any other group
 Sexual reproduction is oogamous in
centric diatoms. Male gametangial cell
forms microspores then flagellated
sperm. The resulting female protoplast
facilitates sperm entry and favors
fertilization and later on forms a zygote
Male Gametophyte Sexual reproduction is isogamous in
pennate diatoms. Gametangial cells pair
up and undergo meiosis. Only one or
two nuclei of the meiotic tetrad is
sexually functional. The gametes
conjugate to produce one or two
auxospores per pair of parents

Female Gametophyte 3. Differentiate the five groups of algae

A. Cyanophyta
Guide Question  Thallus type:
1. What are some benefits derived from the o filamentous forms
red algae?  Pigmentation:
 source of food o Phycocyanin, Chlorophyll a & b,
 contain minerals, magnesium, Phycoerythrin
antioxidants  Wall Components:
 promote healthy circulation o Peptidoglycan, acetyl muramic acid
 lower bad cholesterol with small peptide chains and acetyl
 regulate blood sugar levels glucosamine
 help in nourishing our skin  Storage Products:
 red algae have the ability to block UV o Store polyphosphate as
rays to protect our skin against sun phosphorous storage compound,
damage and dark spots cyanophycean or phycobilin protein
 red algae can reduce wrinkles, increase as nitrogen storage products, and
our immunity, and can protect our eyes glycogen as storage product of both
 red algae inhibit cancer cell growth since carbon and energy
the red algae’s antioxidants activate
anti-cancer immune systems within the B. Chlorophyta
body and inhibit tumor formation.  Thallus type
o Multicellular: heterotrichous form,
2. What is the most striking and unique Unicellular, Aggregates, Colonial,
feature of the diatoms? Briefly describe Filamentous Parenchymatous
how these organisms undergo  Pigmentation
reproduction. o Chlorophylls a and b, accessory
 A unique feature of diatom anatomy is pigments are carotenoids and
that they are surrounded by a cell wall xanthophyll
made of silica, which is called a frustule  Wall Components
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o Cellulose, with some hemicellulose,
and calcium carbonate in some
species
 Storage Products
o Store starch in the form of amylose
or amylopectin
C. Chrysophyta (Bacillariophyta)
 Thallus type
o Unicellular Non-motile Form,
Aggregates, Colonial, Filamentous
 Pigmentation
o Chlorophylls a and c, accessory
pigments are carotenoids and
xanthophyl , including a specialized
pigment known as fucoxanthin
 Wall Components
o Cellulose and pectic materials;
heavily impregnated with silica
 Storage Products
o Store energy as a carbohydrate
called leucosin, and also in oil
droplets
D. Phaeophyta
 Thallus type
o Multicellular: heterotrichous Form,
Filamentous, Parenchymatous
 Pigmentation
o Chlorophylls a and c, accessory
pigments are carotenoids and
xanthophyl
 Wall Components
o Cellulose and polysaccharides
known as alginic acids
 Storage Products
o Store soluble polysaccharide called
laminarin, mannitol, and oil
E. Rhodophyta
 Thallus type
o Unicellular Motile (Flagelloid) Form,
Filamentous, Parenchymatous
 Pigmentation
o Photosynthetic pigments are
chlorophylls a and d, accessory
pigments are carotenoids,
xanthophyl , and phycobilin
 Wal Components
o Cellulose and polysaccharides, such
as agar and carrageenin
 Storage Products
o Store energy as a specialized
polysaccharide known as floridean
starch
4.1. Ecological Importance of Protista
 Protists serve as the foundation of the
food chain.
 Protists are symbionts–having a close
relationship between two species in
which one is benefited.
 Some protists also produce oxygen. Since
there are so many of them, they produce
around 30% to 50% of all the oxygen on
Earth.
 Protists are the primary sources of food
for many animals. Ex. 1) Phytoplankton is
one of the sole food sources for whales.
Ex. 2) Zooplankton is fed on by various
sea creatures, including shrimp and larval
crabs.
4.2. Economic Importance of Protista
 In some cases, Protists are harvested by
humans for food and other industrial
applications.
 Many protists are also commonly used in
medical research. For example, medicines
made from protists are used to treat high
blood pressure, digestion problems, ulcers,
and arthritis.
 Other protists are used in scientific studies.
For example, slime molds (including D.
discoideum, a soil- living protist) are used to
analyze cells' chemical signals.
 At the back of a milk carton, one will most
likely see carrageenan, which is extracted
from red algae. This is used to make
puddings and ice cream solid.
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 Chemicals from other kinds of algae are

used to produce many kinds of plastics.