TERRAIN FLYING REVIEWER
The confined area approach begins
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
 A. Confined Area- any area where flight
of helicopter is limited in some
direction by terrain or presence of
obstructions, natural or man-made.
 B. Take Offs and Landings- generally
should be made into the wind to obtain
max airspeed with min. groundspeed.
C. Turbulence- smaller masses of air moving in
any direction contrary to that of the larger mass
RECONNAISSANCE
High Reconnaissance
-Determine suitability of landing area
-Locate barriers and estimate their wind
effect
-Select approach and departure axes
-Select point of touchdown
-Plan flight path for approach and take-
off
WETPASTE
Wind, Elevation, Temperature, Power
Available (Tab Data), Approach, Site (Size,
surface, slope suitability), Take-off, Escape
LOW RECONNAISSANCE
-Except when running landing is
necessary, low recon and approach can be often
conducted together. To accomplish this, study
approach path and immediate vicinity of
selected touchdown point.However, before loss
of ETL or prior to descent below the barrier, he
must decide whether the landing can be
completed successfully.
Low Reconnaissance
-Low reconnaissance should confirm
what was learned from high reconnaissance.
 When a running landing is
contemplated because of load
or high-density altitude
conditions, a fly-by type low
recon is made.
A low reconnaissance can be conducted
during an approach from terrain flight. The
landing area, however normally will be visible
for only a short time prior to touchdown. A
longer period of time for low reconnaissance is
available if a circling approach from terrain
flight can be made
CONFINED-AREA OPERATIONS
 Approach
1.
with high reconnaissance.
2. The point of touchdown should be as
far beyond the barrier as practicable to insure
against the approach becoming too steep.
3. The angle of descent should be just
steep enough to permit clearance of the barrier
4. Terminate the approach to the
ground when surface conditions permit.
Ground Operation
- Before the helicopter is operated
within the area, a ground
reconnaissance should be conducted to
determine suitability of the area. This
reconnaissance can be made from the
cockpit or by conducting a walk-around
reconnaissance of the area.
Take-Off
1. Position the helicopter for T/O,
taking advantage of wind,
barriers, and anticipated forced
landing areas on take-off.
2. Perform power and before-
takeoff checks.
3. Form an imaginary line from a
point on the leading edge of the
helicopter, such as the gear, to
the highest barrier that must be
cleared. This line of ascent will
be flown using only that power
which is required to clear the
obstacle by a safe distance.
4. As the barrier is cleared, the
attitude of the helicopter
should be adjusted to achieve a
normal climb airspeed and rate
of climb.
PINNACLE/RIDGE-LINE OPERATIONS
a. A pinnacle is an area from which the
ground drops away steeply on all sides.
A ridgeline is a long area from which
the ground drops away steeply on one
or two sides. Such as a bluff or
precipice.
b. Climb to a pinnacle or ridge line should
be executed on the upwind side to take
advantage of updrafts. Approach flight
path should be parallel to a ridge line
and nearly into the wind as possible.
Avoid downwind turbulence and keep
 the helicopter within reach of a forced
landing area as long as practicable.
Load, altitude, wind conditions, and
terrain features determine the angle to
use in the final part of the approach.
CAUTION: Remain clear of downdrafts
on the downwind side
c. Landing on a pinnacle should be made
to take advantage of the long axis of the
area when wind conditions permit.
Touchdown should be made in the
forward portion of the area. Also, a
stability check should be accomplished
to insure the gear is on the firm terrain
that will support the weight of the
helicopter safely
d. Since a pinnacle is higher than
immediate surrounding terrain, gaining
airspeed on take-off is more important
than gaining altitude. The airspeed
gained will cause a more rapid
departure from the slopes of the
pinnacle. In addition,to covering unsafe
ground quickly, a higher airspeed
affords a more favorable glide angle
and thus contributes to the chances of
reaching a safe area in the event of
forced landing. If no suitable area is
available, a higher airspeed will permit
the aviator to execute deceleration and
decrease forward speed prior to
autorotative landing.No attempt should
be made after clearing the pinnacle to
dive the helicopter down the slope. This
will result in a high rate of descent and
may prevent a successful autorotative
landing.
SLOPE OPERATIONS
 Limits
 Approach
 Landing Upslope or Cross-slope
 Landing Downhill
 Landing Uphill
 Take-Off from a slope
 Dynamic Rollover Characteristics
 General Precaution
LIMITS
-When a helicopter rests on a slope, the
mast is perpendicular to the inclined surface,
while the plane of of the main rotor must
parallel the true horizon or tilt slightly upslope.
Thus, the rotor tilts with respect to the mast
-Normally, the cyclic control available for
this rotor tilt is limited by cyclic control stops,
mast bumping, or other mechanical limits of
control travel. These control limits are reached
much sooner in down-slope condition
APPROACH
-Approach to a slope may not differ
materially from the approach to any other
landing area. However, the slope may obstruct
wind passage and cause turbulence and
downdrafts. Allowance must be made for wind,
barriers, and forced landing sites
LANDING UPSLOPE OR CROSS-SLOPE
-Landing is usually made heading upslope.
-Cross-slope landing requires careful and
positive control touch. The helicopter must be
lowered from the true vertical by placing the
uphill skid on the ground first.The downhill skid
is then lowered to the ground
LANDING DOWNHILL
 Landing downhill is not recommended
with single main rotor helicopters
because of the possibility of striking the
tail rotor to the ground.
 If an uphill landing is necessary, landing
to near the bottom of the slope will
cause the tail rotor to strike the ground.
 The aviator moves cyclic control toward
the slope and slowly adds collective
pitch. The downhill skid must first be
raised to place the helicopter in a level
attitude before lifting it vertical to hover
DYNAMIC ROLLOVER
 Can occur on level ground, but is more
critical during slope or crosswind
landing and take-off maneuvers. Each
helicopter has critical maneuver angle
beyond which recovery is impossible
 Starts when the helicopter has only one
skid on the ground and that gear
becomes a pivot point for lateral roll.
 Tail rotor may contribute to the rolling
tendency if the cyclic is not correctly
applied to counteract lateral tail rotor
thrust.
 A smooth moderate collective pitch
reduction maybe the most effective
way to stop a rolling motion
  Sudden increase of collective pitch in an
attempt to become airborne maybe
ineffective in stopping dynamic rollover
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
a. Know wind direction and approximate
velocity at all times.
b. Plan the flight path both for approach
and take-off to take advantage of
forced landing areas.
c. Operate the helicopter as near to its
normal capabilities and as the situation
allows.
d. Hover the helicopter at a lower altitude
than normal when in a confined area.
e. Make every landing to a specific point,
not merely into general area.
f. Consider increases in the terrain
elevation between the point of original
take-off and subsequent areas of
operation
TERRAIN FLYING
FACTS TO CONSIDER
 The mountain environment particularly
its severe and rapidly changing
weather, impacts on aircraft
performance capabilities.
 Accelerates crew fatigue, and requires
special flying techniques.
 Pilotage is the primary means of
navigation.
 Communications is often limited or
restricted by mountainous terrain. To
maintain communication within the
area of operations, aircraft may have to
restrict operations to the vicinity of the
unit or be assisted by additional aircraft
employed as radio relay stations
 Climate and Weather.
A. Weather is the most serious restriction to
mountain climb.
B. Varying degrees of cold can be encountered
depending on the heights of the mountains.
C. Precipitation in mountain regions increase
with height and low terrain are common to
these areas.
D. The effects of fog in the mountains are the
same in the lower regions, but occurs more
frequently.
E. The mountain wave is a phenomenon that
occurs when the airflow over mountainous
terrain meet at a certain area.
 TERRAIN that maybe encountered:
a. Ridgeline. When the flow of air is
perpendicular, and the ridgeline is characterize
by gentle slopes, smooth air and updrafts will
be experienced on the windward side of the
ridgeline and downdrafts on the leeside.
b. Crest. As the air flows the crest, a venturi
effect is created.
c. Multi-ridges.The closer the ridges are
together and the closer the wind is to 90
degrees to the slope, the updraft and
turbulence will be more severe.
d. Saddles are formed by erosions of soft rocks.
The severity of the turbulence in and around a
saddle is determined by the width of the saddle
and the angle of the slope.
e. Crown or Pinnacle is the higher point in a hill.
The airflow in the vicinity of the crown is
normally lateral around its outer edges and over
the top.
f. Shoulders are terrain features coming off
higher ground. The airflow is extremely
turbulent regardless of the wind direction.
g. Cliff is a vertical terrain feature. Extreme
turbulence can be anticipated in the area in
front, above, and below the cliff.
h. Canyons are deep valleys with steep sides
and normally inclosed on three side.
Other Considerations
• Lack of communicatrion causes a
significant change in
the procedures for control of a tactical
operation.
• Increased in maintenance
requirements
• Terrain flight over mountainous terrain
restricts the
use of close formation flt (use free-cruise or
staggered trail)
3 MODES OF TERRAIN FLYING
1.Nap of the Earth
-Varying airspeeds and altitudes
as close to the earth’s surface as
possible while following the contours of
the earth
A/S-VARIABLE
ALT-VARIABLE
HDG-VARIABLE
 2.Contour Flight
- Flown at low altitude
conforming generally to the contours of
the terrain with varying altitudes and
airspeeds
A/S-VARIABLE
ALT-VARIABLE
HDG-CONSTANT
3. Low-level Flight
- Flown at low altitude, with
constant heading, airspeed and altitude
to facilitate speed and ease of
movement while minimizing detection
A/S-CONSTANT
ALT-CONSTANT
HDG-CONSTANT
FACTORS INFLUENCING DECISION IN THE
EMPLOYMENT OF TERRAIN FLT MANEUVERS
a. Threat-dictates which flt technique is
used in a given situation.
b. Time- when masking is
available,contour and low-level is
usually preferable to NOE.
c. Safety- In an emergency reaction time
will be greater and avoiding obstacles
and hazards at higher altitude
d. Mission- often determine the altitude
to be flown. Contour and NOE maybe
used because of visibility and altitude
restrictions.
HAZARDOUS FACTORS TO TERRAIN FLYING
A. Physical factors-are natural
(birds,tress,etc) and man-made
(towers,wires,aircraft).
*As a rule, a single bird will
avoid the acft, but manuevering is necessary to
avoid flocks.
*The safest way to avoid wires
is by overflying them at a pole.
B. Weather Factors –includes
wind, turbulence and restrictions to visibility
(eg. haze, fog & precipitation).
C. Human Factors- includes
physiological and psychological
HUMAN FACTORS
Mountain flying is a skill that only aviators who
fly in the mountains can acquire.
 Psychological
a. A positive mental state which is
achieved through a training program designed
to instill confidence and maintain interest in
mountain flying.
*To overcome a psychological effect, you
must condition yourself to correct it by using
the flight instruments to maintain the required
flight attitude
 Physiological.
Clothing Needs. When flying in
mountainous environment, the type of clothing
to be worn will vary according to geographic
location and to the particular season of the
year.
Food Reqmnts. Success of operations in
the mountains will be affected by proper
nutrition
Fatigue. Avoid self-imposed stress (D E
A T H)
Physiological conditioning should be
made to counteract fatigue and to avoid the
possibility of an aircraft mishap.
 Allow adequate time to sleep.
 Eat a nutritiously balanced diet.
 Participate in regular physical
training.
 Avoid self- medication.
Avoid the use of tobacco and alcohol
FLYING TECHNIQUES
 General. The key to successful
operations over mountainous terrain is
aircraft control. Precision flying
techniques should be used.
 Mountain Operational Procedures
 When flying on the mountains,
the aviator’s senses are
sometimes unreliable. To
overcome these problems and
ensure safe flights, reference
should be made to the flight
instruments, in addition to
normal outside viewing.
 During high altitude missions, it
is recommended that the co-
pilot continually update the
performance planning card to
compensate for gross weight
changes and center of gravity
Take-off, En route and Landing Considerations
a. Perform hover power check before
take-off.
b. Gaining airspeed is more critical than
gaining altitude.
 c. Before take-off, route of flight should
be identified on a map.
d. When flying in a valley the aircraft should be
flown in the smoother upflowing air on the
lifting side of the valley.
e. Terrain clearance should be increased
when strong winds exist.
f. If downdraft is encountered, full
power should be applied and best rate of climb
airspeed maintained.
g. Cross ridges diagonally.
h. In flying narrow valleys, aircraft
airspeed should not be reduced below ETL
airspeed.
i. Do not exceed maximum allowable
airspeed to avoid blade stall in every particular
flight
j. When turbulence is anticipated,
airspeed should be reduced to the
recommended to the recommended turbulence
penetration airspeed .
k. Avoid descending greater than 1000
fpm when descending to follow the terrain.
l. Constantly cross-check airspeed
indicator.
m. When conducting multi-ship
operations into a small landing zone, sufficient
time should be allowed between take-off and
landing for the turbulent air generated by the
aircraft on take-off to stabilize.
n. In a light wind or when the
demarcation line is shallow, low angle of
descent or flat approach should be used.
As wind velocity increases, the
approach angle must also be steeper.
WINDS ASSOCIATED WITH MOUNTAINS
A. PREVAILING –upper level winds.
B. LOCAL WINDS-also called valley
winds,are created by convection
heating and cooling.
C. SURFACE WINDS- layer of air which lies
close to the ground
DEMARCATION LINE – is that point which
separates the up flow from the down flow of
air.
2. TERRAIN:
-When flying in mountainous regions,
you will encounter a multitude of
terrain variations.Each type will affect
the flow of air in its own peculiar way
TYPES OF TERRAIN
A. RIDGE LINE
B. SNAKE RIDGE
C. SADDLE- formed by erosion of soft
rocks
D. CANYON-deep valleys with steep sides
and normally enclosed on three sides
E. E.CROWN OR PINNACLE-higher point on
a hill.
F. SHOULDERS-Terrain features coming off
higher ground.
G. CLIFF-vertical or near vertical terrain
feature.
HUMAN FACTORS
1.CLOTHING
2.FOOD-Balanced meals
3.PSYCHOLOGICAL-Positive mental
state
4. PHYSIOLOGICAL-
Physical(fatigue,stress etc

p. If there is insufficient torque to make

a normal or shallow approach, a running FLYING TECHNIQUES
landing may be performed. 1. PRE-FLIGHT PLANNING
q. Be aware that uneven terrain Elements of Pre Msn planning:
surrounding the LZ gives a poor visual cue as to a. Type of mission being flown
the actual aircraft altitude and rate of closure. b. Enemy Situation
r. If at anytime during the termination c. Weather conditions
of the approach, effective heading control is lost d. Logistical support
and the aircraft begins to spin, the collective e. Communications
should be lowered and the aircraft landed f. Route selections
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 2. TAXIING AND TAKE OFF:
1. CLIMATE AND WEATHER: -Prior to take off, a hover power check
-WX is the most restrictions to shd be performed.(compute PPC)
Mountain Flying. Winds density altitude & cloud 3. EN ROUTE:
base are critical factors to be considered
 - The actual flt shd be a confirmation of
what has been planned from the map
reconnaissance. Determine.the ff during recon;
a. Assess the LZ
b. Assess the wind
c.Assess the escape routes
d. assess the Take off routes
f. Determine the approach path
4. APPROACH AND LANDING;
-There is no standard type of mountain
approach.
-Ideally it is made in a direction to take
advantage of a wind that provides maximum
tail rotor control.
- In a light wind or when demarcation
line is shallow – perform shallow approach.
- In a high velocity wind and the
demarcation line is steeper –perform a steep
approach.
-Perform Hi Recon and Low Recon
TACTICAL APPROACHES AND PATTERNS
1. CIRCLING APPROACH:
-Entry is headwind
-Entry alt is 200 AHO, 80-90 kts
2. TEARDROP APPROACH:
-Tailwind entry
-200 AHO,80-90 kts
- Over the spot 45 degree turn(L/R)
3. RECTANGULAR(same as traffic pattern)
- 500 AGL
Tips in Mt Opns Flying
1. When crossing ridges or a series of
ridges - approach the ridge at a 45-
degree angle.
2. Airspeed should not be reduced below
ETL.
3. Avoid descend more than 1000 fpm.
4. Always conduct High and Low Recon.
5. Maneuvers should be limited to bank
angles of 30 degrees.
6. During landing,stop descend prior
reaching the LZ and reduce forward A/S
to brisk walk.
7. Trade airspeed for altitude during
takeoff.
8. During low level approach,select point
100 meters short of LZ for your Go-No-
Go.
Flight planning(know the weather and terrain)