GE Training For Fundamentals of Distance Protection

Fundamentals of Distance
Protection
GE Multilin
Outline
• Transmission line introduction
• What is distance protection?
• Non-pilot and pilot schemes
• Redundancy considerations
• Security for dual-breaker terminals
• Out-of-step relaying
• Single-pole tripping
• Series-compensated lines
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Jul y 14, 2020
Transmission Lines
A Vital Part of the Power System:
• Provide path to transfer power between generation and load
• Operate at voltage levels from 69kV to 765kV
• Deregulated markets, economic, environmental requirements have
pushed utilities to operate transmission lines close to their limits.
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Jul y 14, 2020
Transmission Lines
Classification of line length depends on:

▪ Source-to-line Impedance Ratio (SIR), and
▪ Nominal voltage
Length considerations:
▪ Short Lines: SIR > 4
▪ Medium Lines: 0.5 < SIR < 4
▪ Long Lines: SIR < 0.5
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Typical Protection Schemes
Short Lines
• Current differential
• Phase comparison
• Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
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Medium Lines
• Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Unblocking
• Step Distance
• Step or coordinated overcurrent
• Inverse time overcurrent
• Current Differential
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Long Lines
• Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Unblocking
• Step Distance
• Step or coordinated overcurrent
• Current Differential
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What is distance protection?
Intended
REACH point
F1
Z I*Z
V=I*ZF
I*Z - V
For internal faults:

RELAY (V,I) > IZ – V and V approximately in
phase (mho)
> IZ – V and IZ approximately
in phase (reactance) 8/
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Jul y 14, 2020
F2
Intended
REACH point
Z I*Z
V=I*ZF
I*Z - V
For external faults:

RELAY (V,I) > IZ – V and V approximately
out of phase (mho)
> IZ – V and IZ approximately
out of phase (reactance) 9/
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Jul y 14, 2020
Intended
REACH point
RELAY
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Jul y 14, 2020
Source Impedance Ratio, Accuracy &
Speed Relay
Line
System
f LOC [ PU ]
Voltage at the relay: VR  VN
f LOC [ PU ] + SIR
Consider SIR = 0.1

Fault location Voltage Voltage change (%)
(%)
75% 88.24 2.76
90% 90.00 0.91
100% 90.91 N/A
110% 91.67 0.76
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Jul y 14, 2020
Source Impedance Ratio, Accuracy &
Speed Relay
System
Line
f LOC [ PU ]
Voltage at the relay: VR  VN
f LOC [ PU ] + SIR
Consider SIR = 30
Fault location Voltage Voltage change (%)
(%)
75% 2.4390 0.7868
90% 2.9126 0.3132
100% 3.2258 N/A
110% 3.5370 0.3112
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Challenges in relay design
> Transients: 30
– High frequency
20
steady-state
– DC offset in currents output
10
– CVT transients in voltages
voltage, V
0
High Voltage Line
C1 6 -10
3 5 CVT output
1
-20
C2 Secondary Voltage
2 -30
0 1 2 3 4
power cycles
Output
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> Transients: 60
– High frequency
40
– DC offset in currents steady-state
output
20
– CVT transients in voltages
voltage, V
0
High Voltage Line
C1 6 -20
CVT
3 5 output
1
-40
C2 Secondary Voltage
2 -60
0 1 2 3 4
power cycles
Output
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100
vA vB vC 100
80
60
40
50
Reactance comparator [V]

20
Voltage [V]
-20 SPOL
-40
-60
0 Sorry… Future (unknown)
-80
-100
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
-50
5
iA
4
3
SOP
-100
2 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Current [A]
power cycles
1
-1
iB, iC > In-phase = internal fault
-2
-3
> Out-of-phase = external
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
fault 15 /
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Jul y 14, 2020
Transient Overreach
• Fault current generally contains dc offset in

addition to ac power frequency component
• Ratio of dc to ac component of current depends
on instant in the cycle at which fault occurred
• Rate of decay of dc offset depends on system X/R
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Zone 1 and CVT Transients
Capacitive Voltage Transformers (CVTs) create certain
problems for fast distance relays applied to systems with high
Source Impedance Ratios (SIRs):
> CVT-induced transient voltage components may assume
large magnitudes (up to 30-40%) and last for a
comparatively long time (up to about 2 cycles)
> 60Hz voltage for faults at the relay reach point may be as
low as 3% for a SIR of 30
> the signal may be buried under noise
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Zone 1 and CVT Transients
CVT transients can cause distance relays to overreach.
Generally, transient overreach may be caused by:
> overestimation of the current (the magnitude of the
current as measured is larger than its actual value, and
consequently, the fault appears closer than it is actually
located),
> underestimation of the voltage (the magnitude of the
voltage as measured is lower than its actual value)
> combination of the above
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Distance Element Fundamentals
Z1 End Zone
XL
XC
15
34
42
44 Actual Fault
Location
10
dynamic mho
zone extended
Reactance [ohm]
Line
30
for high SIRs Impedance
5
18
Trajectory
22 (msec)
0
26
-5
-10 -5 0
Resistance [ohm]
Impedance
5
locus
10
may pass
below the origin of the Z-plane -
this would call for a time delay
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to obtain stability GE /
Jul y 14, 2020
CVT Transient Overreach Solutions
> apply delay (fixed or adaptable)
> reduce the reach
> adaptive techniques and better filtering algorithms
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CVT Transients – Adaptive Solution
> Optimize signal filtering:
– currents - max 3% error due to the dc component
– voltages - max 0.6% error due to CVT transients
> Adaptive double-reach approach
– filtering alone ensures maximum transient overreach at
the level of 1% (for SIRs up to 5) and 20% (for SIRs up to
30)
– to reduce the transient overreach even further an
adaptive double-reach zone 1 has been implemented
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CVT Transients – Adaptive Solution
The outer zone 1:
> is fixed at the actual reach
> applies certain security delay to cope with CVT transients
X
The inner zone 1:
> has its reach dynamically Delayed
controlled by the voltage Trip
magnitude
> is instantaneous
Instantaneous
Trip
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Desirable Distance Relay Attributes
Filters:
> Prefiltering of currents to remove dc decaying transients
– Limit maximum transient overshoot (below 2%)
> Prefiltering of voltages to remove low frequency transients
caused by CVTs
– Limit transient overreach to less than 5% for an SIR of 30
> Accurate and fast frequency tracking algorithm
> Adaptive reach control for faults at reach points
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Distance Relay Operating Times
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35ms
25ms 30ms
20ms
15ms
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SLG faults LL faults
3P faults
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Actual maximum reach curves
100 Relay 4
90
80 Relay 3
70
Maximum Rach [%]
60
50
40
Relay 2
30
20
Relay 1
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
SIR
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Maximum Torque Angle
• Angle at which mho element has maximum reach

• Characteristics with smaller MTA will
accommodate larger amount of arc resistance
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Mho Characteristics
Traditional
Directional angle
“slammed”
Directional angle
lowered and
“slammed”
Both MHO and

directional angles
“slammed” (lens)
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Jul y 14, 2020
Load Swings
+XL
+ = LOOKING INTO LINE

normally considered forward
Load Trajectory
Operate No Operate area

area
Typical load characteristic
impedance
+R
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Load Swings
“Lenticular”
Characteristic
Load swing
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Load Encroachment Characteristic
The load encroachment element responds to positive

sequence voltage and current and can be used to block
phase distance and phase overcurrent elements.
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Blinders
• Blinders limit the operation of distance relays

(quad or mho) to a narrow region that parallels
and encompasses the protected line
• Applied to long transmission lines, where mho
settings are large enough to pick up on maximum
load or minor system swings
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Quadrilateral Characteristics
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Quadrilateral Characteristics
Ground Resistance
(Conductor falls on ground)
R Resultant impedance outside of

the mho operating region
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Distance Characteristics - Summary
Mho Lenticular Quadrilateral
JX
R
Standard for phase Used for phase elements with Better coverage for
elements long heavily loaded lines ground faults due to
heavily loaded resistance added to
return path
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Distance Element Polarization
The following polarization quantities are commonly used in

distance relays for determining directionality:
• Self-polarized
• Memory voltage
• Positive sequence voltage
• Quadrature voltage
• Leading phase voltage
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Memory Polarization
> Positive-sequence memorized voltage is used for polarizing:
– Mho comparator (dynamic, expanding Mho)
– Negative-sequence directional comparator (Ground
Distance Mho and Quad)
– Zero-sequence directional comparator (Ground Distance
MHO and QUAD)
– Directional comparator (Phase Distance MHO and QUAD)
> Memory duration is a common distance settings (all zones,
phase and ground, MHO and QUAD)
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Memory Polarization
jX Static MHO characteristic (memory not established or expired)
ZL
Dynamic MHO characteristic for a reverse fault
Dynamic MHO characteristic for a forward fault
Impedance During Close-up Faults
ZS
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Memory Polarization
jX Static MHO characteristic (memory not established or expired)
ZL
Dynamic MHO characteristic for a forward fault

RL
ZS
Memory Polarization…Improved Resistive Coverage 41 /

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Jul y 14, 2020
Choice of Polarization
• In order to provide flexibility modern distance

relays offer a choice with respect to polarization
of ground overcurrent direction functions:
– Voltage polarization
– Current polarization
– Dual polarization
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Ground Directional Elements
> Pilot-aided schemes using ground mho distance relays have
inherently limited fault resistance coverage
> Ground directional over current protection using either negative
or zero sequence can be a useful supplement to give more
coverage for high resistance faults
> Directional discrimination based on the ground quantities is fast:
– Accurate angular relations between the zero and negative
sequence quantities establish very quickly because:
✓ During faults zero and negative-sequence currents and
voltages build up from very low values (practically
from zero)
✓ The pre-fault values do not bias the developing fault
components in any direction
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Distance Schemes
Pilot Aided Schemes Non-Pilot Aided Schemes

(Step Distance)
Communication between No Communication between

Distance relays Distance Relays
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Step Distance Schemes
• Zone 1:
– Trips with no intentional time delay
– Underreaches to avoid unnecessary operation for faults
beyond remote terminal
– Typical reach setting range 80-90% of ZL
• Zone 2:
– Set to protect remainder of line
– Overreaches into adjacent line/equipment
– Minimum reach setting 120% of ZL
– Typically time delayed by 15-30 cycles
• Zone 3:
– Remote backup for relay/station failures at remote terminal
– Reaches beyond Z2, load encroachment a consideration
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Local
Z1
Z1
Remote
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Local
Z1 End Zone
End Zone Z1
Remote
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Local
Z1
Breaker
Tripped
Breaker
Closed Z1
Remote
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Local
Z2 (time delayed)
Z1
Z1
Z2 (time delayed)
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Remote GE /
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Z3 (remote backup) …
Z2 (time delayed)
Z1
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Step Distance Protection
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Distance Relay Coordination
Over Lap
Local Relay – Z2
Remote Relay – Z4
Local Relay Remote Relay

Zone 2 PKP Zone 4 PKP
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Need For Pilot Aided Schemes
Communication Channel
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Pilot Communications Channels
• Distance-based pilot schemes traditionally utilize simple
on/off communications between relays, but can also
utilize peer-to-peer communications and GOOSE
messaging over digital channels
• Typical communications media include:
– Pilot-wire (50Hz, 60Hz, AT)
– Power line carrier
– Microwave
– Radio
– Optic fiber (directly connected or multiplexed
channels)
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Distance-based Pilot Protection
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Pilot-Aided Distance-Based Schemes
✓ DUTT – Direct Under-reaching Transfer Trip

✓ PUTT – Permissive Under-reaching Transfer Trip
✓ POTT – Permissive Over-reaching Transfer Trip
✓ Hybrid POTT – Hybrid Permissive Over-reaching
Transfer Trip
✓ DCB – Directional Comparison Blocking Scheme
✓ DCUB – Directional Comparison Unblocking Scheme
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Direct Underreaching Transfer Trip
(DUTT)
• Requires only underreaching (RU) functions which overlap
in reach (Zone 1).
•Applied with FSK channel
– GUARD frequency transmitted during normal
conditions
– TRIP frequency when one RU function operates
• Scheme does not provide tripping for faults beyond RU
reach if remote breaker is open or channel is inoperative.
• Dual pilot channels improve security
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DUTT Scheme
Zone 1
Bus Bus
Line
Zone 1
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Permissive Underreaching Transfer Trip
(PUTT)
• Requires both under (RU) and overreaching (RO)
functions
• Identical to DUTT, with pilot tripping signal
supervised by RO (Zone 2)
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PUTT Scheme
Zone 2
Zone 1
To protect end of
line
Bus Bus
Line
Zone 1
Zone 2
Rx PKP
& Local Trip

Zone 2
OR
Zone 1
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Jul y 14, 2020
Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip
(POTT)
• Requires overreaching (RO) functions (Zone 2).
• Applied with FSK channel:
– GUARD frequency sent in stand-by
– TRIP frequency when one RO function operates
• No trip for external faults if pilot channel is
inoperative
• Time-delayed tripping can be provided
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POTT Scheme
Zone 2
Zone 1
Bus Bus
Line
Zone 1
Zone 2
(Z1) Tx
Zone 1
Trip
(Z1) Rx OR Line
AND Breakers
Zone 2 t
o
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POTT Scheme
POTT – Permissive Over-reaching Transfer Trip
End Zone
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Communication Channel GE /
Jul y 14, 2020
POTT Scheme
Local Relay
FWD IGND Remote Relay
FWD IGND
Local Relay – Z2
Remote Relay – Z2
Communication
TRIP Channel
POTT RX POTT TX
Local Relay ZONE 2 PKP Remote Relay

ZONE 2 PKP
OR
OR
Ground Dir OC Fwd Ground Dir OC Fwd 64 /
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Jul y 14, 2020
POTT Scheme
Communications
POTT RX 1 POTT TX 1 A to G
Channel(s)
POTT RX 2 POTT TX 2 B to G
POTT RX 3 POTT TX 3 C to G
POTT RX 4 POTT TX 4 Multi Phase
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POTT Scheme
Current reversal example
TRIP

Timer
Start Communication
Timer
Expire Channel
GND
GNDDIR
DIROC
OCFWD
REV POTT RX POTT TX ZONE
GND 2 OC
DIR ORREV
GND DIR OC FWD
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POTT Scheme
Echo example
Remote FWD
IGND
Open
Remote – Z2
OPEN Communication
Channel
TRIP
POTT RX POTT TX
Local Relay POTT TX POTT RX Remote Relay
Communication
Channel 67 /
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Hybrid POTT
• Intended for three-terminal lines and weak

infeed conditions
• Echo feature adds security during weak infeed
conditions
• Reverse-looking distance and oc elements used
to identify external faults
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Hybrid POTT
Zone 2
Zone 1
Remote Local
Weak
Bus Bus system
Line
Zone 1 Zone 4
Zone 2
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Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
• Requires overreaching (RO) tripping and blocking (B)

functions
• ON/OFF pilot channel typically used (i.e., PLC)
– Transmitter is keyed to ON state when blocking
function(s) operate
– Receipt of signal from remote end blocks tripping
relays
• Tripping function set with Zone 2 reach or greater
• Blocking functions include Zone 3 reverse and low-set
ground overcurrent elements
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DCB Scheme
Zone 2
Zone 1
Remote Local
Bus Bus
Line
Zone 1
Zone 2
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End Zone
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Internal Faults
Local Relay – Z2
FWD IGND
TRIP
TRIP Timer
Start
Expired
Zone 2 PKP
NO Dir Block RX
OR
Local Relay GND DIR OC Fwd Remote Relay
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External Faults
Local Relay – Z2
FWD IGND
Remote Relay – Z4
TRIP Timer REV IGND

Start No TRIP
Dir Block RX DIR BLOCK TX
Zone 2 PKP Communication Zone 4 PKP
Channel
OR OR
GND DIR OC Fwd GND DIR OC Rev 74 /

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Jul y 14, 2020
Directional Comparison Unblocking
(DCUB)
• Applied to Permissive Overreaching (POR) schemes to
overcome the possibility of carrier signal attenuation or
loss as a result of the fault
• Unblocking provided in the receiver when signal is lost:
– If signal is lost due to fault, at least one permissive
RO functions will be picked up
– Unblocking logic produces short-duration TRIP signal
(150-300 ms). If RO function not picked up, channel
lockout occurs until GUARD signal returns
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DCUB Scheme
Forward
Bus Bus
Line
Forward
Trip
(Un-Block) Tx1 Line
Breakers
(Block) Tx2
Forward
(Block) Rx2 AND

AND
AND t
o
AND
(Un-Block) Rx1
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Lockout GE /
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Directional Comparison Unblocking (DCUB)
End Zone
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Normal conditions
Load Current
FSK Carrier FSK Carrier
GUARD1 RX GUARD1 TX
NO Loss of Guard GUARD2 TX GUARD2 RX NO Loss of Guard
NO Permission NO Permission
Communication
Channel 78 /
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Jul y 14, 2020
Normal conditions, channel failure
Load Current
Loss of Channel
GUARD1
NO RX RX GUARD1 TX
Loss of Guard GUARD2 TX GUARD2
NO RX RX Loss of Guard
Block Timer Started
Expired Block Timer Expired
Started
Communication
Block DCUB Channel Block DCUB 79 /
until Guard OK until GuardJulOK GE /
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Internal fault, healthy channel
Local Relay – Z2
Remote Relay – Z2
TRIP TRIP Z1
GUARD1
TRIP1 RXRX GUARD1
TRIP1 TX
Zone 2 PKP ZONE 2 PKP
GUARD2
TRIP2 TXTX GUARD2
TRIP2 RXRX
Loss of Guard
Communication 80 /
Permission GE /
Channel Jul y 14, 2020
Internal fault, channel failure
Local Relay – Z2
Remote Relay – Z2
Loss of Channel
TRIP TRIP Z1
GUARD1
NO RX RX GUARD1
TRIP1 TX
Zone 2 PKP ZONE 2 PKP
GUARD2
TRIP2 TXTX GUARD2
NO RX RX
Loss of Guard Loss of Guard
Block Timer Started Communication 81 /
Duration Timer Started
Expired Channel GE /
Jul y 14, 2020
Redundancy Considerations
• Redundant protection systems increase dependability of the
system:
✓ Multiple sets of protection using same protection principle and
multiple pilot channels overcome individual element failure, or
✓ Multiple sets of protection using different protection principles
and multiple channels protects against failure of one of the
protection methods.
• Security can be improved using “voting” schemes (i.e., 2-out-of-3),
potentially at expense of dependability.
• Redundancy of instrument transformers, battery systems, trip coil
circuits, etc. also need to be considered.
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Redundant Communications
End Zone
AND Channels: OR Channels:

POTT Less Reliable POTT More Reliable
Communication Channel 1
DCB Less Secure DCB More Secure
Communication Channel 2
More Channel Security More Channel Dependability
Loss of Channel 2 83 /
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Jul y 14, 2020
Redundant Pilot Schemes
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Pilot Relay Desirable Attributes
• Integrated functions:
✓weak infeed
✓echo
✓line pick-up (SOTF)
• Basic protection elements used to key the
communication:
✓distance elements
✓fast and sensitive ground (zero and negative
sequence) directional IOCs with current, voltage,
and/or dual polarization
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Pilot Relay Desirable Attributes
Pre-programmed distance-based pilot schemes:
✓ Direct Under-reaching Transfer Trip (DUTT)
✓ Permissive Under-reaching Transfer Trip (PUTT)
✓ Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (POTT)
✓ Hybrid Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (HYB POTT)
✓ Blocking scheme (DCB)
✓ Unblocking scheme (DCUB)
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Security for dual-breaker terminals
• Breaker-and-a-half and ring bus terminals are common
designs for transmission lines.
• Standard practice has been to:
– sum currents from each circuit breaker externally by
paralleling the CTs
– use external sum as the line current for protective
relays
• For some close-in external fault events, poor CT
performance may lead to improper operation of line
relays.
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Accurate CTs preserve the

reverse current direction under
weak remote infeed
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Saturation of CT1 may invert

the line current as measured
from externally summated CTs
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• Direct measurement of currents
from both circuit breakers allows the
use of supervisory logic to prevent
distance and directional overcurrent
elements from operating incorrectly
due to CT errors during reverse faults.
• Additional benefits of direct
measurement of currents:
✓ independent BF protection for
each circuit breaker
✓ independent autoreclosing for
each breaker
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Supervisory logic should:
– not affect speed or sensitivity of protection elements
– correctly allow tripping during evolving external-to-internal
fault conditions
– determine direction of current flow through each breaker
independently:
• Both currents in FWD direction → internal fault
• One current FWD, one current REV → external fault
– allow tripping during all forward/internal faults
– block tripping during all reverse/external faults
– initially block tripping during evolving external-to-internal
faults until second fault appears in forward direction. Block
is then lifted to permit tripping.
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Single-pole Tripping
• Distance relay must correctly identify a SLG fault

and trip only the circuit breaker pole for the
faulted phase.
• Autoreclosing and breaker failure functions must
be initiated correctly on the fault event
• Security must be maintained on the healthy
phases during the open pole condition and any
reclosing attempt.
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Out-of-Step Condition
• For certain operating conditions, a severe system

disturbance can cause system instability and result
in loss of synchronism between different
generating units on an interconnected system.
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Out-of-Step Relaying
Out-of-step blocking relays
– Operate in conjunction with mho tripping relays to
prevent a terminal from tripping during severe
system swings & out-of-step conditions.
– Prevent system from separating in an indiscriminate
manner.
Out-of-step tripping relays
– Operate independently of other devices to detect
out-of-step condition during the first pole slip.
– Initiate tripping of breakers that separate system in
order to balance load with available generation on
any isolated part of the system.
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Out-of-Step Tripping The locus must stay
When the inner for some time
characteristic is between the outer
entered the element and middle
is ready to trip characteristics
Must move and stay

between the middle
and inner
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characteristics GE /
Jul y 14, 2020
Power Swing Blocking
Applications:
> Establish a blocking signal for stable power swings (Power Swing
Blocking)
> Establish a tripping signal for unstable power swings (Out-of-Step
Tripping)
Responds to:
> Positive-sequence voltage and current
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Jul y 14, 2020
Series-compensated lines
Benefits of series capacitors:
• Reduction of overall XL of long lines
• Improvement of stability margins
• Ability to adjust line load levels
• Loss reduction
• Reduction of voltage drop during severe disturbances
• Normally economical for line lengths > 200 miles
Xs SC XL Infinte
E
Bus
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SCs create unfavorable conditions for protective relays and fault
locators:
• Overreaching of distance elements
• Failure of distance element to pick up on low-current faults
• Phase selection problems in single-pole tripping applications
• Large fault location errors
Xs SC XL Infinte
E
Bus
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Series Capacitor with MOV
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Dynamic Reach Control
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Dynamic Reach Control for External Faults
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Dynamic Reach Control for External Faults
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Jul y 14, 2020
Dynamic Reach Control for Internal Faults
104 /
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Jul y 14, 2020
Distance Protection Looking Through a
Transformer
• Phase distance elements can be set to see beyond any 3-
phase power transformer
• CTs & VTs may be located independently on different
sides of the transformer
• Given distance zone is defined by VT location (not CTs)
• Reach setting is in sec, and must take into account
location & ratios of VTs, CTs and voltage ratio of the
involved power transformer
105 /
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Jul y 14, 2020
Transformer Group Compensation
Depending on location of VTs and CTs, distance relays need to compensate for
the phase shift and magnitude change caused by the power transformer
106 /
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Jul y 14, 2020
Setting Rules
• Transformer positive sequence impedance must be
included in reach setting only if transformer lies between
VTs and intended reach point
• Currents require compensation only if transformer
located between CTs and intended reach point
• Voltages require compensation only if transformer
located between VTs and intended reach point
• Compensation set based on transformer connection &
vector group as seen from CTs/VTs toward reach point
107 /
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Jul y 14, 2020
Distance Relay Desirable Attributes
> Multiple reversible distance zones
> Individual per-zone, per-element characteristic:
– Dynamic voltage memory polarization
– Various characteristics, including mho, quad, lenticular
> Individual per-zone, per-element current supervision (FD)
> Multi-input phase comparator:
– additional ground directional supervision
– dynamic reactance supervision
> Transient overreach filtering/control
> Phase shift & magnitude compensation for distance
applications with power transformers
108 /
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Jul y 14, 2020
> For improved flexibility, it is desirable to have the following
parameters settable on a per zone basis:
– Zero-sequence compensation
– Mutual zero-sequence compensation
– Maximum torque angle
– Blinders
– Directional angle
– Comparator limit angles (for lenticular characteristic)
– Overcurrent supervision
109 /
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Jul y 14, 2020
> Additional functions
– Overcurrent elements (phase, neutral, ground, directional,
negative sequence, etc.)
– Breaker failure
– Automatic reclosing (single & three-pole)
– Sync check
– Under/over voltage elements
> Special functions
– Power swing detection
– Load encroachment
– Pilot schemes
110 /
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Jul y 14, 2020
111 /
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Jul y 14, 2020

GE Training For Fundamentals of Distance Protection

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GE Training For Fundamentals of Distance Protection

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Fundamentals of Distance

Classification of line length depends on:

For internal faults:

For external faults:

Consider SIR = 0.1

Reactance comparator [V]

• Fault current generally contains dc offset in

SLG faults LL faults

• Angle at which mho element has maximum reach

Both MHO and

+ = LOOKING INTO LINE

Operate No Operate area

The load encroachment element responds to positive

• Blinders limit the operation of distance relays

R Resultant impedance outside of

The following polarization quantities are commonly used in

Dynamic MHO characteristic for a forward fault

Impedance During Close-up Faults

Dynamic MHO characteristic for a forward fault

Memory Polarization…Improved Resistive Coverage 41 /

• In order to provide flexibility modern distance

Pilot Aided Schemes Non-Pilot Aided Schemes

Communication between No Communication between

Local Relay Remote Relay

Local Relay Remote Relay

✓ DUTT – Direct Under-reaching Transfer Trip

& Local Trip

Local Relay ZONE 2 PKP Remote Relay

POTT RX 4 POTT TX 4 Multi Phase

Local Relay Remote Relay

Local Relay Remote Relay

Local Relay POTT TX POTT RX Remote Relay

• Intended for three-terminal lines and weak

• Requires overreaching (RO) tripping and blocking (B)

TRIP Timer REV IGND

GND DIR OC Fwd GND DIR OC Rev 74 /

(Block) Rx2 AND

FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

AND Channels: OR Channels:

Accurate CTs preserve the

Saturation of CT1 may invert

• Distance relay must correctly identify a SLG fault

• For certain operating conditions, a severe system

Must move and stay

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