Construction Surveying

University of Duhok
College of Engineering
Surveying Department
Construction Surveying
Introduction
©2019
Yousif Y. Zaia
The University of
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Construction surveying Surveying Engineering
Construction surveying (otherwise known as "staking", "stake-out", "lay-

out", "setting-out") is the process of interpreting construction plans and
marking the location of proposed new structures such as roads or buildings.
Construction staking is performed to ensure a project is built according to

engineering design plans. The staked reference points guide the
construction of proposed improvements on the property, and will help to
ensure the construction project is completed on schedule, on budget and as
intended.
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History of Construction Surveying Surveying Engineering
The nearly perfect square-ness and north-south orientation of the Great

Pyramid of Giza, built 2700 BC, affirm the Egyptians' command of surveying.
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A recent reassessment of Stonehenge (c.2500 BC) suggests that the

monument was set out by prehistoric surveyors using peg and rope
geometry.
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In the sixth century BC geometric based techniques were used to construct
the tunnel of Eupalinos on the island of Samos.
Modern technology advanced surveying's accuracy and efficiency. For example,

surveyors used to use two posts joined with a chain to measure distance. This
technology could only account for distance and not elevation. Current technology uses
the Global Positioning System (GPS) that can measure the distance from point A to
point B as well as differences in elevation.
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The role of the Land Surveyor in Construction Staking Duhok
Surveying Engineering
• Accurate construction staking is a critical step in ensuring the success of a

construction project. Engaging an experienced and licensed surveyor will guarantee
accuracy and reliability of results.
• During site development, the land surveyor takes the engineer’s or architect’s design
shown on their plans and places (stakes) their correct location on the ground so the
construction sub-contractors can place the buildings, roads, fences, electrical and
other underground utilities, etc. in their correct location.
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Construction staking may consist of Rough Grade Staking to map the general location on
improvements at a site, or precise Site Layout Surveys for actual construction purposes.
Rough Grade Staking Rough Grade Staking defines the location of the site improvements
with their respective reference to the location and final grade elevation. This is done for
the construction of slopes, building outlines, parking lots and roadways, and enables the
contractor to grade and prepare the site for the next sub-contractor to commence his
work.
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Site Layout Staking Once the site has received inspection and approval from the local
agency, the contractor can move right into the various stages of construction of the
underground utilities, retaining walls, buildings, site lighting and parking lot or street
paving.
This Site Layout Staking phase typically begins with those features that are underground
such as sanitary sewer lines, storm drain lines, water lines, electrical lines etc. Once all
underground utilities are installed the above ground features are staked for construction.
The building corners are staked along with any interior grid lines throughout the building,
as well as onsite items such as fire hydrants, curb and gutter, walls/planters, catch basins
and area drains.
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Types of Construction Projects
Listed below are the types of construction projects that depend a great deal on the
construction surveyor or engineering surveyor for the successful completion of the project:
1. Streets and highways 12. Storm and sanitary sewers
2. Drainage ditches 13. Water and fuel pipelines
3. Intersections and interchanges 14. Piers and docks
4. Sidewalks 15. Canals
5. High- and low-rise buildings 16. Railroads
6. Bridges and culverts 17. Airports
7. Dams and weirs 18. Reservoirs
8. River channelization 19. Site grading, landscaping
9. Sanitary landfills 20. Parks, formal walkways
10. Mining—tunnels, shafts 21. Heavy equipment locations (millwright)
11. Gravel pits, quarries 22. Electricity transmission lines.
Layout equipment The University of
There are several classes of layout instruments in service today. Duhok

3-D laser scanners are the most expensive and technically sophisticated surveying tools.
Imagine using a conventional total station or theodolite to layout 10 or 15 points for a project.
Now imagine setting up a 3-D laser scanner, which looks very much like a robotic total station,
and recording a million points in a few minutes. With this data, you can generate an infinite
amount of information, such as locate any number of points you might need, record information
on a site to create computer-aided design (CAD) drawings, create as-built drawings required by
many projects, or generate accurate records of construction progress that can be useful when
job conflicts arise. Currently, several large general contractors, as well as a few concrete
contractors, own 3-D laser scanners.
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Robotic total stations, once regarded as leading
edge, are now owned by many contractors because
only one person is needed to plot points. An operator
can stand at the instrument to shoot points and
elevations for developing site information to help
generate CAD drawings, saving time and obtaining
information that might otherwise be dangerous to
collect. These instruments also direct excavators and
concrete placing equipment that require 3-D
contours.
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GPS surveying instruments establish location by receiving measurements from satellites
and communicating with a known reference station. GPS units are used for plotting points
and locations or for providing direction to equipment.
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Total stations are the predecessor of robotic total stations. They cost much less to purchase
and are widely used by contractors. Like robotic total stations, data collectors provide the
information needed for plotting points. Total stations' primary drawback is that two people are
needed to operate them: one at the instrument and one at the rod.
Digital levels still are used primarily by surveyors. They gather very precise elevations over
long, level routes. Sometimes the rods used have barcodes instead of numbers, so the
instrument reads the barcode to determine elevation.
Laser levels remain the workhorse of the construction industry and just about every contractor
uses them to set elevations or to guide equipment. Newer models automatically level
themselves, are easier and faster to use, and are less expensive than earlier models.
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Survey Control Points Duhok
A Survey Control Station (also known as a Standard Survey Mark - SSM) is a permanent
point of known Reduced Level (height) and Horizontal Position (Latitude and Longitude
or Easting and Northing).
A Standard Survey Mark is normally a brass plaque set in concrete, such as the one below
These stations are usually positioned below ground level to protect them from being
accidentally or purposely destroyed. An identification plaque is located nearby so that it
can be easily found.
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Protecting Survey Control Stations Surveying Engineering
All construction projects are set out from

survey control points of some sort, either
primary survey control points or from
secondary survey control points. For this
reason, it is very important that these
points are protected from either
accidental damage or from purposeful
destruction.
Most standard survey marks consist of a
brass plaque set in precast concrete.
These are buried in the ground to a
distance of about 150-200mm. Above that
is a precast metal or concrete cover and
lid. The metal cover and lid are totally
detached from the survey mark, so that if
the cover is run over or knocked, the
survey mark will not be disturbed.
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Recovery Marks
After the control point has been placed in the ground, four further pegs or metal rods are
placed so that there is a peg on each side of the control point. If a string is placed across each
of the opposing recovery marks, they will intersect directly over the nail in the survey peg. If
the control point is destroyed, it can be replaced by using the recovery marks.
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Types of Control Point Duhok

Control surveys establish reference points and reference lines for preliminary and
construction surveys.
Vertical reference points, called benchmarks, are established using leveling surveys or
satellite-positioning surveys.
Horizontal control surveys use any of a variety of measuring and positioning techniques
capable of providing appropriately precise results; such surveys can be tied into
(1) state or provincial coordinate grids,
(2) property lines,
(3) roadway centerlines, and
(4) arbitrarily placed baselines or grids.
When using positioning satellites to establish or re-establish ground positions, the always-
available satellite systems themselves can be considered as a control net—thus greatly
reducing the need for numerous on-the-ground reference stations. At present, the only fully
deployed satellite-positioning system is the United States’ Global Positioning System
(GPS); the Russian system, called GLONASS, is about halfway to full deployment; and others
plan to have positioning systems deployed within the next five or ten years—for example,
Europe’s Galileo System, China’s Compass System, and an Indian positioning system.
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Construction Setting-out Duhok

1- Setting-out Buildings
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2- Setting-out Embankment (Fill) and Excavation (Cut)
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3- Setting-out Pipelines and Sewers
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4- Setting-out Electric Transmission Lines
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5- Setting-out and Controlling Piling Works
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6- Setting-out Bridges
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Road Construction
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All roads consist of a carriageway and a drainage system. Set out below is a cross section of
a typical road.
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Parts of a Road Surveying Engineering
Batter
A batter is the artificial side slope of the road
formation from the road to the natural surface.
From the natural surface it can be upward for an
area of fill or downward for an area of cut.
Traffic Lanes
The traffic lanes are that part of a road where
vehicles would normally drive. This will
vary in width, depending on the number of
lanes to the road. A lane is the portion of
road that is allocated for the use of a single
line of vehicles moving in the same
direction.
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Shoulders Surveying Engineering
The shoulders of a road are the widths of
carriageway between the outer edges of
the traffic lanes and the verge. The primary
purpose of the shoulders is to provide stability
to the roads, and to act as a safety strip or
emergency stopping space for vehicles.
Pavement
The pavement is the portion of the road, excluding the shoulders, placed above the sub-grade
to support and form a running surface for vehicles. The pavement is made up of the sub-base,
the base and the surface course. The pavement is designed to distribute the weight of vehicles
and to provide a durable wearing surface.
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Carriageway
The carriageway is the portion of the road intended for use by vehicles, and includes the
shoulders. It can be of single, double or multi-lane construction.
Formation Width
The formation width is that part of the road bounded by the batters on either side. It includes
the traffic lanes, shoulders and the verges on both sides of the road.
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Verge
The verge is that portion of the road that is
between the shoulders and the batters. It is
unpaved and forms the transition between the
roadway and the batter.
Embankments
An embankment is a section of road that has been built up above the natural surface of the
surrounding area. This requires soil being brought in to increase the height of the road
formation.
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Cuttings
A cutting is a section of road that has been cut out of the ground so that the road is below
the natural surface of the surrounding area. This requires soil to be removed to decrease
the height of the road formation.
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Road Drainage Surveying Engineering
A road will be damaged unless the moisture content of the soil is adequately controlled. The
removal of water from a road is important so that the movement of traffic along the road during
periods of rain is not impeded. To achieve this a wide variety of systems is used.
Camber
Camber is the convexity of a road, meaning that the center, or crown, of the road is higher than
the sides. This means that water will drain from the center to either side of the road.
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Cross fall
Cross fall is the straight slope of the road from
one side to the other. Normal practice is for cross
fall to be used on single lane roads, side hill roads
and where it is necessary to drain water to one
side only.
Catch Drain
A catch drain is a drain constructed along the
high side of a road or embankment outside the
batter to intercept surface water. The drain
should be as near as possible to the top of the
cutting, and channel the water into culverts or
natural water courses wherever possible.
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Culverts
Culverts are pipes or enclosed channels used to convey water from one side of the road to
the other side, under the formation level. Drains are designed to run into a culvert on the
uphill side of the road and away from the road on the down hill side of the road.
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Pegging and Leveling a Section of Road Duhok
Prior to the commencement of the construction work on a road, there is considerable

work required by the surveyor.
Once the initial decision has been made to construct a road, the surveyor will visit
the area and make a detailed map of where the road will be constructed. From this
map the tentative location of the centerline of the road is determined.
After the location of the road has been decided on, the surveyor will again visit the
area and commence pegging the centerline of the road.
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Pegging a Road Duhok

The initial stage of pegging the road is to peg the location along the route where the road will
change direction.
The surveyor will also determine the direction and distance between each of these points.
Having determined the location for the centerline, the surveyor then designs the curves to
connect the straight portions into the final road.
The surveyor must now place pegs along the entire length of the centerline of the road.
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Chainage Pegs Surveying Engineering
The surveyor will start placing pegs along the centerline of the road at even intervals, starting
at the first point of the road and continue for the entire length, including around the curves.
These pegs are called chainage pegs.
The most common interval for chainage pegs is 20m although 25m is also used. Each peg is
referenced as a distance from the start, with the start point being chainage 00m. This means
that each peg along the length of the centerline of the road will have a unique reference.
The normal peg used for a chainage peg to indicate the centerline is a 25mm x 25mm
wooden peg, painted white on the top half. These pegs are not permanent, but rather will be
removed once the construction work starts. Each peg would be protected by placing a
survey stake next to it, with flagging, so that they can easily be seen.
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Offset Pegs Surveying Engineering
Once the centerline pegs have been positioned, the surveyor will then position two pegs each side
of each centerline peg. These pegs are placed at right angles from the centerline pegs and at an
even interval from the centerline. The distance from the centerline will depend on the type of road
being constructed, but the more common distances are 10m and 20m or 20m and 40m out.
The offset pegs are best positioned using an optical square, tape and range pole. There is no need
to place a survey stake next to each peg, as they can easily be replaced and only an approximate
position for each is necessary.
Like the chainage pegs, the offset pegs are usually 25mm x 25mm survey pegs, painted white at
the top.
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Earthwork Volumes and

Mass Haul Diagram
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Cross Sectional Area Duhok

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Cross Sectional Area Duhok

Types:
Symbols and Term of Cross Section The University of
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Symbols and Term of Cross Section : Surveying Engineering
b = Road base or
Road width or b
Formation width.
K,L = Slope of natural terrain or 1

1
Slope of ground surface. h
m m
h = Depth at center line or 1 in Ground surface

Depth of cut or fill. k
w1 , w2 = Side width or w1 w2
w =w1 +w2 = width of ground Center line
level.
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Method of Measurement Cross Sectional Area
Measurements of Area of
Cross Section
Arithmetic Method Graphical Method
One Level Section Using Planimeter

Section of Variable Level Using the Divided
(Two levels Section)
Using the Graph
Sections with Cross Fall Paper
(Three Level Section)
Sections Part in Cut and Part in Fill

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1 One Level Section Duhok
w1 w2 b
m
1 1
h m h
b w1 w2
Side width (w1 , w2 ) Cross-sectional Area (A)

= b/2+ m h = h ( b+ m h)
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2 Sections with Cross Fall (Two Level Section) Duhok
One Grade line 1

m h
1:k
w1 w2
w2 w1
1:k
m
1 h
b
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Example: Calculate the cross-sectional area of embankment for a road with

formation width of 40 ft, and side slopes 1:2, where the center height is 10 ft
and the existing ground has a cross fall of 1 in 12 at right angle to the center
line of the embankment.
Solution:
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3 Sectional of variable Level ( Three Levels Section ) Duhok

w1 w2 b
hl 1 h hr
m m
hl 1 h hr
w1 w2
b
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OR Known Grade Line (Two Grade Line 1:k or 1:L)
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1:L
1:k m
h 1
b
1
m h
1:k 1:L
w1 w2
1
m h
1:k 1:L
w1 w2
Example: Find the cross sectional area shown in Figure below: The University of
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Solution
12
h = 31.5 - 29.2 = 2.3,
El. 31.5
hl = 31.5 - 26.4 = 5.1,and
1 1
w1 = (b/2) + m*hl = (12/2) + 4 * 5.1 = 4 4 hr
hl El. 29.2
26.4
El. 26.4 w1 20
4 Sections Part in Cut and Part in Fill The University of
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1:n
h
1:m
1:k
w2 w1
Fill Cut
Note : When the cross section is in fill at the center line, instead of being in cut as shown in figure,
then the following modified formula obtain:
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Example: A road has a formation width of 15m and side slope of 1 vertical to 1 horizontal in cut
and 1 vertical to 2 horizontal in fill. The original has a cross fall of 1 vertical to 5 horizontal. If the
depth of excavation at the center line is 1m. Calculate the side widths and areas of cut and fill.
Solution:
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An irregular cross section as shown in Figure Duhok
below, the area of this type of section can be b Surveying Engineering
determined by dividing the section into
trapezoidal and triangle. However, the most
efficient procedure is to use the coordinates h hr
hl
method. For Example.
w1 w2
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X1 (X2,Y2) (X3,Y3)
Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y1
1
m
(X1,Y1) (X4,Y4)
(X5,Y5)
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Volume from Cross Section Surveying Engineering
Computation of Volume The University of
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Trapezoidal Rule Surveying Engineering
Simpson’s Rule
Where:
A1, A2, A3, ……An-1,An=are areas of cross section.
D1, D2,……Dn-1,Dn=are the horizontal distances
between the successive cross section.
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Volumes by mean method Surveying Engineering
In this method the volume is determined by multiplying the mean

area of the cross sectional area by the distance between the end
sections
If the areas are A1, A2, A3, --------An-1, An
and the distance between the two extreme
sections A1 and An is L then:
A1  A2    An
volume  v  L
n
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Where:
A1 = 1st cross-section area
A2 = 2nd cross-section area
L = length of cut or fill
V = volume of cut or fill
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Example: Calculate the volume of earth required to form the Surveying Engineering
embankment shown in figure
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Example: A roadway cutting is to be

constructed across an area o undulating
ground as shown in figure. Calculate the
volume of material excavated.
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Class Work: Surveying Engineering
The width of a certain road at formation level is 9.50 m with side slopes 1 in 1 for cut and 1 in 2 for
filling. The original ground has a cross-fall of 1 in 10 in embankment. While in cut sections the
original ground surface has three different levels as shown in table.
St. R C L
2+50 106.0 106.4 105.7
3+00 105 105.9 105.5
3+50 106.8 105.3 105.3
Mass Haul Diagram The University of
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Shows two curves:
A continuous curve representing
the profile of the existing grade.
A continuous curve representing
the accumulated volume of earth
work plotted against the linear
profile of the roadway.
Tells Us:
1. Quantities of Materials to cut and fill
2. Average Haul Distances
3. Types of Equipment that should be
considered
4. Mass diagrams are also extremely
useful in determining the most
economical distribution
Definitions Related To Mass Diagrams:- The University of
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• Free haul distance (FHD)- distance earth is moved without additional

compensation
• Limit of Economic Haul (LEH) - distance beyond which it is more

economical to borrow or waste than to haul from the project
• Overhaul – volume of material (Y) moved X Stations beyond Free haul,

measured in sta–yd3 or sta-m3
• Borrow – material taken from outside of project
• Waste – excavated material not used in project

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Mass Diagram Development Duhok
1) Calculate LEH distance (LEH = FHD + (borrow$ ÷ overhaul$))
2) Place FHD and LEH distances in all large loops
3) Place other Balance lines to minimize cost of movement
Theoretical; contractor may move dirt differently
4) Calculate borrow, waste, and overhaul in all loops
5) Identify stations where each of the above occur

Shrinkage and Bulking The University of
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Typical soil volume change during earthmoving

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1000
V
o 500 Mass Diagrams are plotted from the
l
u 0 Earthwork Volume
m
e
- 500
- 1000
2 + 00 4 + 00 6 + 00 8 + 00
Station Numbers
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This is the Mass Diagram

This is a Profile View – It shows existing
and proposed elevations at the centerline
of the road.
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1000
V 500
o
l 0 Station Mass
# Ordinate
u
-m
350 1 + 00 - 350
e - 500
- 1000
1 + 00 2 + 00 4 + 00 6 + 00 8 + 00
Station Numbers
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1000
Station Mass
V 500 # Ordinate
o
l 2 + 00 - 700
u 0
m
e - 500
- 700
- 1000
2 + 00 4 + 00 6 + 00 8 + 00
2 + 00
Station Numbers
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1000
V 500
o
l Station Mass
u 0 # Ordinate
m
e - 500 3 + 00 - 700
- 1000
2 + 00 4 + 00 6 + 00 8 + 00
Station Numbers
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1000
V 500
o
l 0
u
m
e - 500
- 1000
2 + 00 4 + 00 6 + 00 8 + 00
Station Numbers
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1000
V 500
o
l 0
u
m
e - 500
- 1000
2 + 00 4 + 00 6 + 00 8 + 00
Station Numbers
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1000
V 500
o
l
u 0
m
e
- 500
- 1000
2 + 00 4 + 00 6 + 00 8 + 00
Station Numbers
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1000
NODE 1
V 500
o
l 0
u
m
e - 500
- 1000 NODE 2
2 + 00 4 + 00 6 + 00 8 + 00
Station Numbers
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1000
Final Position
Final Position indicates if the
V 500 project is predominately cut or fill.
o
l 0
u
m FILL CUT
e - 500
In a Node, the volume
of cut is equal to the
- 1000 volume of fill.
Shows the transition
from cut to fill.
2 + 00 4 + 00 6 + 00 8 + 00
Transition Point - Where the Mass
Diagram Line changes direction. Station Numbers
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Blue line is existing elevation at centerline.

90
E
l Red line is finished elevation at centerline.
e 80
v
a
t 70
i
o
n 60
50
The amount of cut and fill are roughly balanced.

2 + 00 4 + 00 6 + 00 8 + 00
Station Numbers
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Normally, we will “Cut High and Fill Low”

90
E
l 80
e
v
a 70
t
i
o 60
n
50
2 + 00 4 + 00 6 + 00 8 + 00
Station Numbers
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Example 1 :- for the tabulated data below, draw the mass Surveying Engineering
haul diagram assuming an bulking factor 20% :-
Station Area M ² Volume Of Correction Volume Of Balanced Accumulatio

Fill Cut Cut M ³ Of Cut M³ Fill M³ Vol.M³ n Vol. M³
3+00 0.5 3.0 3+2 /2 *100 0.5+0.5 /2 *100 + 0.0
250 *1.2 300 -50 250

4+00 0.5 2.0 250
550 660 -150 510

6+00 1.0 3.5 760
200 240 -150 90

7+00 2.0 0.5 850
50 60 -910 -850
9+00 7.1 0.0 0.0
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Example 2: - draw the mass haul diagram for the tabulated data below
after adding (10%) to the total volume of fill due to shrinkage factor.
Distance
Distance
(m) (m)Cut volume
Cut volume
Fill volume
Fill volume Fill Fill
(10%)(10%) Accumula.
Accumula.
(𝒎𝟑 )(𝒎𝟑 ) (𝒎𝟑 (𝒎
) 𝟑) (fill*1.1)
(fill*1.1) Volume
Volume
0 0 7.2 7.2 0.00.0
20 20 19.0 19.0 7.27.2
40 40 42.0 42.0 26.2
26.2
60 60 15.5 15.5 68.2
68.2
80 80 3.0 3.0 83.7
83.7
96 96 0.480.48 0.528
0.528 86.7
86.7
100 100 25.025.0 27.5
27.5 86.172
86.172
120 120 8.0 8.0 8.8 8.8 58.672
58.672
140 140 13.513.5 14.85
14.85 49.872
49.872
160 160 17.717.7 19.47
19.47 35.022
35.022
180 180 15.615.6 17.16
17.16 15.552
15.552
200 200 9.1 9.1 10.01
10.01 -1.608
-1.608
220 220 2.752.75 3.025
3.025 -11.618
-11.618
240 240 -14.643
-14.643
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Example 3 :- given the following data, complete the
earthworks using shrinkage of 90% then prepare the M.H.D
and find the following:
a. Limited of economical haul.
b. Free-haul volume
c. over-haul volume
d. Waste volume
e. Borrowing volume
given the cost of Over-Haul = 30 $ / cubic meter
Cost of borrow = 120 $ / cubic meter
Free haul distance = 200 m
Stat. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Cut 1100 1300 1500 1500 350 300 1400
Fill 250 1300 1500 1300 1000 200
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Fill Corrected Cumulated
Station Cut m3 Cut Duhok
m3 fill Volume
0
1 1100 1100
1100
2 1300 1300 2400
3 1500 1500 3900
4 1500 1500 5400
5 350 250 350 275 5475
6 1300 1430 4045
7 1500 1650 2395
8 1300 1430 965
9 1000 1100 -135
10 300 200 300 220 -55
11 1400 1400 1345

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a) LEH = FHD + (borrow$ ÷ overhaul$)
Limited of Economic Haul (LEH) = 2 + (120 ÷ 30) = 6 Stations
b) Free-Haul volumes = y1+y2

= 700+900 = 1600 m3
c) Over-Haul volumes = y3+y4

= 3000+800 = 3800 m3
d) Waste volume = y5 = 1950 m3
e) Borrow volume = y6 = 600 m3

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Route Surveying
( Horizontal and Vertical Curves)
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Introduction Surveying Engineering
It means the essential surveying operations that could be followed

when planning for any kind of transportation purpose, such as
roads, railways, irrigation and drainage channels, oil pipe, etc…….
Surveying steps that must be followed when setting up a

center line of a road are:
1. Reconnaissance
2. Preliminary Surveying
3. Detailed Surveying
4. Contraction surveying
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1. Reconnaissance It includes studying available maps and aerial
photographs to determine many probable locations
of center line.
2. Preliminary Surveying The information must be collected about each

chosen location of center line, these include: -
Topography, Surface drainage, type of soil,
Approximate cut and fill, etc….
3. Detailed Surveying Precise instruments are used for setting out center
line stations for the chosen location and several
cross sections are set out along the center line,
Maps and sketches are drawn using large scale
(1:1000-1:2500) or larger with a contour interval
of 1-2 m.
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4. Contraction surveying as a result two main drawings have to be drawn:

A- Plan B- Profile
Geometric Design of Road:

There are many factors affecting the geometric design of road:
1- Traffic volume;
2- Characteristics of traffic;
3- Design speed;
4- Pavement surface;
5 -Way width; and
6- Medians side slope…etc.
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The Route Curves Include: Duhok
Curves
Vertical Curves Horizontal Curves
Vertical curves
Horizontal curves
Types of Horizontal Curves The University of
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Horizontal Curves Surveying Engineering
Circular Curves Transition or Spiral Curve
Simple Circular Curve Clothoid Curve
Compound Circular Curve Cubic parabola Curve
Reverse Circular Curve Spiral Curve
Lemniscate Curve
Terminology of Horizontal Circular Curves The University of
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Point of intersection: the point of

intersection (PI) is the point
where the back and forward
tangents intersect.
The radius(R): the radius of the circle of

which the curve is an arc.
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The point of curvature = PC,
Beginning of Curve = BC,
tangent to curve = TC.
The point of tangency = PT,

Curve to tangent = CT,
End of curve = EC.
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The length of curve (L): the distance

from the PC to the PT measured along
the curve.
The tangent distance (T): the

distance along the tangents
from the PI to the PC or PT.
These distances are equal on a
simple curve.
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External distance: The external distance

(E) is the distance from the PI to the
midpoint of the curve. The external
distance bisects the interior angle at the PI.
Long chord: The long chord (LC or C)

is the chord from the PC to the PT.
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Middle ordinate: The middle

ordinate (M) is the distance from the
midpoint of the curve to the midpoint
of the long chord. The extension of
the middle ordinate bisects the
central angle.
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Curve designation: Duhok
• Curves are designated by their radius (R) or their degree of Curvature (D°).
• The degree of curvature is defined as the angle subtended at the center of a

circle by an arc of 100 m
• Thus R =100 m / D rad

= (100 * 180) / (D° * π)
= 5729.578 / D°
• Thus a 10° has a radius of 572.9578 m

Geometry of Simple Circular Curve The University of
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The University of
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Long Tangent T=R*tan∆/2=1000*tan(16.633/2)=146.18 ft

Curve length (L)=2πR∆/360=2π*1000*16.633/360=290.31 ft
long chord (C)=2R sin ∆/2=2*1000* sin(16.633/2)=289.29 ft

External Distance E=T tan∆/4=146.18*tan(16.633/4)=10.63ft
Middle Ordinate M=R-R cos∆/2=1000*1-cos(16.633/2)=10.52 ft
Horizontal Curves
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Set out a Simple Circular

Curves
Linear Method or Angular Method or

Chain and Tap Method Instrumental Method
1- Offsets from the long chord 1- Tape and theodolite method

2- Successive bisection of chord (Rankine’s Method)
3- Offsets from the tangents 2- Two theodolite method
4- Offsets from the chords 3- Tachometric method
produced 4- Total station method
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Linear Method (Chain and Tap Method)
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a- Offsets from the Long Chord Surveying Engineering
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a- Offsets from the Long Chord Duhok
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Classwork Surveying Engineering
Two tangents are to be connected by a simple circular curve. The coordinates of

PC, PI and PT stations are (800.000, 1000.000) m, (849.342, 1049.342) m and
(908.690, 1086.044) m respectively. Stakeout the curve by offset from long
chord use 15m.
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b- Offsets from the tangents Duhok
The offsets from tangents may be calculated and set to get the required curve. The offsets can be
either radial or perpendicular to tangents.
(i) Radial offsets: Referring to Fig., if the center
of curve O is accessible from the points on
tangent, this method of curve setting is possible.
Let D be a point at distance x from T1. Now it

is required to find radial ordinate Ox = DE, so
that the point C on the curve is located. From
D OT1D, we get
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b- Offsets from the tangents Duhok
(ii) Perpendicular offsets: If the center of a circle is not visible, perpendicular offsets from
tangent can be set to locate the points on the curve.
The perpendicular offset Ox can be calculated as

given below: Drop perpendicular EE1 to OT1.
Then,
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Example 1: Duhok
Two roads having a deviation angle of 45° at intersection point are to be joined by a
200 m radius circular curve. If the chainage of intersection point is 1839.2 m, calculate
necessary data to set the curve by radial and perpendicular offsets from every full
station of 30 m along tangent.
R = 200 m △ = 45°
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Chainage of T1 = 1756.36 m
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Chainage of T1 = 1756.36 m
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c- Offsets from the chord produced Duhok
This method is very much useful for setting long curves. In this method, a point on the curve
is fixed by taking offset from the tangent taken at the rear point of a chord.
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Example 2: Duhok
Two roads intersect at chainage of 1000 m. The deflection angle being 30ᵒ. Calculate all
necessary data for setting out a circular curve of radius 200 m by method of offsets from
the chord produced, take a peg interval of 20 m.
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d- Successive Bisection of Chord Duhok
In this method, points on a curve are located by bisecting the chords and erecting the
perpendiculars at the mid-point. Referring to Fig.
Perpendicular offset at middle of long chord (D) is
Similarly
Using symmetry points on either side may be set.

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Example 3: Duhok
Use data of example 1, set out the curve using successive bisection of chord method.
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Deflection Angles and Chords Duhok

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Example: Duhok
The horizontal curve below has a deflection angle (13° 16′), radius
(600m) and P.I station (27+45.75), stakeout the curve use 25m
station.
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Point Station Tangent Cumulative Single Total

Angle T. A. Chord Chord
P.C. 26+75.94 00° 00′ 00″ 00° 00′ 00″ 0.00 0.00
1 27+00 01° 08′ 56″ 01° 08′ 56″ 24.06 24.06
2 27+25 01° 11′ 37″ 02° 20′ 33″ 25.00 49.06
3 27+50 01° 11′ 37″ 03° 32′ 10″ 25.00 74.06
4 27+75 01° 11′ 37″ 04° 43′ 47″ 25.00 99.06
5 28+00 01° 11′ 37″ 05° 55′ 24″ 25.00 124.06
P.E. 28+14.87 00° 42′ 36″ 06° 38′ 00″ 14.87 138.93
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Curves and Coordinates
a. Coordinate Equations
The equations below are general equations for computing coordinates using direction and
distance from a known point
Curve point coordinates can be computed using these equations from a base point. Since the
radial chord method uses the BC as one end of all the chords, it can also be used as the base
point for coordinate computations.
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b. Computation Process
Assuming we start with the tangents and PI, then fit a curve, the general process is as follows:
The original tangent lines have directions; PC has

coordinates.
A curve is fit to the tangents.

End points are at distance T from the PI along the tangents.
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b. Computation Process
Compute coordinates of BC using back-direction of

the tangent BC-PI and T.
Compute coordinates of EC using direction of the

tangent PI-EC and T.
Use a curve point's deflection angle to compute the

direction if its radial chord from the BC.
δ is positive for right deflections, negative for left.

Using the direction and chord length, compute the
point's coordinates.
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Example: Surveying Engineering
Given the following data for a horizontal curve

Deflection angle = (55° 00′),
Radius (500m)
P.I station (25+00.00)
Azimuth of the initial tangent is 75°40'10“
Coordinates of the PI are (5000.00, 1000.00) m
Using coordinates method, stakeout the curve use full station.
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Quiz Duhok
The width of a certain road at formation level is 10 m with side slopes 1 in 1 for cut and 1 in 2 for
filling. The original ground has a cross-fall of 1 in 10 in cut. While in embankment sections the
original ground surface has three different levels as shown in table. Work out the following:
1- Determine the quantity of earthwork volumes.

2- Draw MHD.
St. R C L
0+00 72.45 71.15 71.65
0+50 70.90 71.25 71.50
1+00 70.85 70.85 70.60
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Quiz #2 Duhok
A tangent with a bearing of N 85° 55′ 30″ E meets another tangent with a
bearing of S 75° 34′ 30″ E at PI station 1590.25 m and they connected by a
simple circular curve. The design showed that a building obstructs the line of
sight of the driver as shown in figure. Use Deflection Angles and Chords
method, stakeout the curve every 50 m station.
Vertical Curves The University of
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The University of
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• If two given grades are to be connected by a vertical curve, then either r or
L must be assumed and the other value is computed .
• When a vertical curve is laid out so that V lies mid way between the two
ends of the curve measured horizontally, the curve is an equal-tangent
parabolic vertical curve.
EVC
Y g2
BVC V
g1
L/2 L/2 X
L
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sag
+r
-g1 +g2
-r
summit
sag +g2
+r
+g1
-r
summit
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Vertical curves by equation of parabola (analytical Duhok
method) Surveying Engineering
Y EVC
g2
BVC V
g1
L/2 L/2 X
L
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Example: Duhok
g1=+1.25% and g2=-2.75% intersect at station 18+00 , elevation of
V=686.1, length of v. curve = 600 .
Compute Elevation of BVC
Elev. Of EVC
Elev. Of all full stations .
BVC EVC
18+00
16
19 20
17
15+00 21+00
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Station Elev Elev.

BVC Curve
BVC=15 0 0 0 0 882.35 882.35
16 1 1 -0.333 1.25 882.35 883.27
17 2 4 -1.33 2.5 ˶ 883.52
18 3 9 -3 3.75 ˶ 883.10
19 4 16 -5.33 5 ˶ 882.02
20 5 25 -8.33 6.25 ˶ 880.27
EVC=21 6 36 -12 7.5 ˶ 877.85
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Location of highest or lowest point Duhok
In the example The University of
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Setting out Roadways Surveying Engineering
a- Preparation of setting out data
The first step in setting out a roadway is to establish the center line. In order to achieve this, the
coordinates of all points of change of direction must be obtained from the development plan.
Figure below is a skeletal layout of the roadway R1-R4.
The coordinates of starting point R1,
finishing point R4 and intersection
point X1 must be scaled as accurately
as possible from plan or obtained
from a CAD version of the plan.
The coordinate values are shown in
table
Point E (m) N (m)
R1 47.00 106.70
X1 69.00 128.70
R4 107.00 91.80
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b- Methods of setting out Duhok

Setting out curves were explained previously. Two methods are used to setting out straight
roadways.
1- Setting out the roadway as a traverse. Point C (Survey St.), R1, X1, R4, and F are treated as
points of a traverse survey and are set out by angles and distances using theodolite or total
station. The chosen instrument is set up in turn on each of the points and the traverse is closed
on point F.
This method takes time and assistants have to be skilled, particularly if distances are to be set out
by tape. However, the method is self-checking in that the survey finishes on the known
coordinates of point F and any errors are therefore detected.
2- Setting out coordinates by radiation. The coordinates of points R1, X1 and R4 are set out
directly from some convenient survey point, probably B, using total station instrument and
prism.
This method is speedy and an unskilled assistant may be employed to handle the prism. The
disadvantage is that the points are unchecked and errors are not noticed till later, resulting in
more expenditure.
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c- Setting out the road as a traverse Surveying Engineering
The traverse, as already explained, comprises the points C, R1, X1, R4, F.
i- The coordinates of points R1, X1 and R4 are shown in the previous table. (The coordinates of
points C and F are already known.
ii- Calculate the bearing and distance of the lines C-R1, R1-X1, X1-R4, and R4-F, as shown in table.
Station E (m) N (m) Line Length WCB

B 65.621 134.379
C 48.497 113.013 B-C 27.395 218ᵒ 41′ 50″
R1 47.000 106.700 C-R1 6.488 193ᵒ 20′ 24″
X1 69.000 128.700 R1-X1 31.113 45ᵒ 00′ 00″
R4 107.000 91.800 X1-R4 52.968 134ᵒ 09′ 30″
F 116.336 85.572 R4-F 11.223 123ᵒ 42′ 25″
A 100.000 100.000 F-A 21.795 311ᵒ 26′ 30″
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Field work procedures Surveying Engineering
1- The theodolite or total station is set up at survey station C and back sight is taken to station
B with the instrument reading zero degree.
2- The horizontal circle is set to read 154ᵒ 38′ 34″; thus the theodolite now points towards
station R1.
3- The assistants set the tape along this line C-R1 and measure 6.488 m horizontally, this
establishing point R1.
4- The theodolite is removed to station R1, back sight to station C and procedure described
above is repeated, with the next set of data.
5- The setting out is continued to reach peg F.
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d- Setting out by coordinates Duhok
When calculating setting out distances, the plan distance is always produced. However, on the
ground it is often difficult to measure distances horizontally; hence the ground slope along the
line being set out has to be found and the plan distance amended.
Setting out building and engineering works, using total station instrument, has therefore become
standard practice on construction sites, since those instruments allow horizontal distances to be
set out without difficulty.
Using EDM methods requires that the coordinates of every proposed point be determined,
usually by calculation.
In the particular case of roadway

R1-R4, the most convenient
survey station for setting out the
road would probably be station B.
The bearing and distance to point
R1, X1 and R4 from station B are
therefore required.
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SLOPE MEASUREMENTS AND STAKING

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SLOPE MEASUREMENTS Surveying Engineering
In some cases, it is faster and more accurate to measure a distance at an angle to the horizontal
and to calculate the horizontal distance than measure it with several horizontal steps.
The angle up or down from the horizontal is called the slope angle, and the distance is called
the slope distance. The slope distance is always longer than the corresponding horizontal
distance.
Two methods of making a slope measurement and calculating the horizontal distance are
described here.
METHOD 1
The horizontal distance can be calculated by
measuring a slope distance from a point of
known elevation to another point of a
different known elevation. The Pythagorean
Theorem can be used directly
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Suppose one needs to determine the horizontal distance between Points
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A and B. The difference in elevation between Point A and Point B is 8.26
m and the slope distance is measured to be 73.84 m
Using the formula:
METHOD 2
The most frequently used method of slope measurement in construction surveying involves
measuring the slope distance, determining the slope angle, and calculating the horizontal
distance. The horizontal distance can be calculated by multiplying the slope distance by the
Cosine of the slope angle.
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Suppose one needs to determine the horizontal distance between Points A and B. Using a
slope angle of 6° 25′ 21″ and a slope distance of 73.84 m.
Using the formula above:

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SLOPE STAKING
Slope stakes are set to mark the intersection of the proposed side slope and the original ground
or “catch point”. Slope stakes may be placed prior to the contractor clearing and grubbing as a
way to establish the clearing limits. The slope staking procedure should be discussed with the
contractor and the earthwork superintendent prior to beginning earthwork operations so all
personnel are aware of how the slope stakes are marked and read.
The minimum information needed to set slope stakes is:

• The profile grade for each station
• Typical cross section for each station
• Original cross section with elevations
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Slope Staking Procedures Duhok

In this example we are going to slope stake the 2:1 back slope on the right side of the typical
section shown in figure.
First the elevation at the toe of the slope we are staking must be determined. These
elevations are typically determined prior to going out in the field. Performing these
calculations beforehand will greatly speed up the slope staking process once in the field. The
process is as follows:
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1) To calculate the elevation at the toe of slope we must first determine the elevation at centerline.
Centerline elevations are determined by using the plan and profile sheets. For this example, we
will assume a centerline elevation of 6550.00 and use the typical section in figure.
a) First, convert the -2.0% cross slope to decimal form by dividing by 100, -2.0% / 100 = -
0.02 ft./ft.
b) Next calculate the difference in elevation between the centerline and the shoulder by
multiplying the horizontal distance by the -0.02 ft./ft., 20 ‘ x -0.02 ft./ft. = -0.40
d) Repeat this process from the shoulder to the toe of the slope.
c) Subtract this difference from the centerline elevation to calculate the elevation at the
shoulder. 6550.00 – 0.4 = 6549.60.
• 4:1 slope is equal to 1 divided by 4 or 0.25 ft./ft.

• The 0.25 slope multiplied by an 8’ horizontal distance equals a 2.0 difference in elevation
from the shoulder to the toe of the slope.
• This 2.0 difference subtracted from the shoulder elevation equals the elevation at the
toe of the slope. 6549.60 – 2.0 = 6547.60.
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2) Once the toe of slope elevation is determined we are ready to set up the level and begin
slope staking.
a) First set up the level in a convenient location where a back sight to an existing benchmark
can be seen as well as the probable location of the catch point.
b) Then determine an H.I
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3) Once an H.I. is determined, calculate the difference between the H.I. and the finished grade
at the toe of slope. 6555.30 – 6547.60 = 7.7. This difference is called the Grade Rod. This
calculation is done only on paper and is not actually a shot taken with the level. Figure below
shows a graphical representation of a Grade Rod. By determining a Grade Rod we will be
able save time by using the difference in rod readings to slope stake rather than having to
convert them to elevations first.
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4) Once the Grade Rod is determined we can begin taking shots in the approximate location
of the catch point, several attempts may be necessary.
5) While measuring the distance from centerline, take a F.S. in the approximate location of
the catch point. This is called the Ground Rod. For our first attempt we read a -3.2 on the
level rod at a distance of 35’ from centerline. See figure.
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6) The difference between the Grade Rod and the Ground Rod will either be a cut or fill. This
cut or fill is multiplied by the slope and added to our reference offset to determine the
horizontal distance from centerline.
The Reference Offset is the horizontal distance from centerline of the roadway to the beginning
of the slope being staked. This offset represents the horizontal distance that remains unchanged
regardless of where the catch point is staked. In some cases this distance may remain the same
between several typical sections. In our example, it is the toe of slope on the right side 28’ from
centerline. This offset See figure below.
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7) Using the formula above, we can perform the calculations for our first attempt as follows:
a) First calculate the cut or fill. For our example 7.7 is subtracted from 3.2 this equals a fill of 4.5.
b) Next calculate our distance by multiplying the fill by the side slope. 4.5 x 2 = 9.0.
c) Then add this distance to the reference offset. 28’ + 9.0’ = 37.0’.
d) Our calculated distance is then compared to the actual distance we measured. Our measured
distance of 35’ is not equal to our calculated distance of 37’. If they were the same, a slope stake
would be set. But, since they are not, the process is repeated at a new distance from centerline
until the measured distance matches the calculated distance.
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8) For our second attempt we will move further out from centerline and repeat the process. Try
a rod reading of -2.3 at a distance of 40’ from centerline. See figure
28’ + (7.7 - 2.3) x 2 = 38.8’, this is not equal to 40.0’, try moving closer.
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9) For our third attempt try a rod reading of -2.7 at 38’ from centerline. See figure
28’ + (7.7 - 2.7) x 2 = 38’, this is equal to 38’. A stake would then be set at this point.
Setting slope stakes is a process of trial and error; several shots at different distances from
centerline are generally required to set slope stakes
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Setting Out Building on Ground

Setting Out Building on Ground The University of
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• Using Tape and Pins
Setting out of building foundation trenches is the process of laying down the excavation line
and centerline on the ground based on the foundation plan. The setting out process is also
called as ground tracing that is performed before commencing the excavation process.
Once the design of foundation is complete, a setting out plan or foundation layout is prepared
for a suitable scale and the plan is dimensioned accordingly.
Once the design of foundation is complete, a setting out plan or foundation layout is prepared
for a suitable scale and the plan is dimensioned accordingly. Procedure and requirements in
setting out foundation trenches are explained below.
Requirements in Setting Out Foundation

The setting out play out must establish the following requirements:
• The size of the excavation
• The shape of excavation
• The direction
• The width of the walls
• The position of the walls
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Procedure for Setting Out Building Duhok
The basic steps involved in setting out the foundation trenches are:
1. The initial step is to mark the corners of the building. After

which, the lengths of the sides are checked by diagonal
measurements.
2. The axial lines (center lines) of the trenches are marked with
the help of profiles, sighting rails, strings, and pegs.
3. The trench positioning is controlled by outline profile boards.
Profiles are set 2m away from the outline so that they do not
interrupt the excavation process.
4. The offsets are measured from axial lines and the frontage
lines are placed in their correct position relative to local
requirements.
5. The cross walls positioning is performed by measuring along
the main walls and squared from these walls as required. The
total width of trenches must be carefully outlined during this
process.
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• Using Theodolite and Tape
2 A 3
1- Set up the theodolite over any point for instance point (1)
2- Make the horizontal angle zero towards point 2
4
3- Rotate the theodolite with the appropriate angle.
4- Measure the distance from point 1 in the direction of the C
6 5
theodolite towards the required point. B
8
7
1 9
• Using Coordinates Duhok
Setting out points using coordinates has become standard practice on construction sites.
Setting out by EDM methods requires that the coordinates of every proposed point be
determined, usually by calculation. The coordinates of the point are compared with those of
the setting-out control station and the horizontal distance and bearing between the two are
computed. The proposed point is then set out from the control station.
Figure above shows the plan of an industrial estate where the coordinates of survey station
ABCD and E have been determined. A large rectangular building X is to be set out on the estate.
Since the building quite far removed from the survey point, a control station closer to the
building would usually be established. The coordinates of the station, often called free station,
are determined either by intersection or by resection.
Line W CB Length East North Station

1000.00 1000.00 A
AE 123ᵒ 49′ 14″ 1158.270 1962.27 355.31 E
ED 72ᵒ 45′ 22″ 962.683 2881.69 640.69 D
DC 333ᵒ 03′ 25″ 1499.071 2202.45 1977.05 C
CB 281ᵒ 55′ 27″ 798.726 1420.96 2142.08 B
BA 200ᵒ 41′ 00″ 1217.190 1000.00 1000.00 A
1- Intersection of free station
Example: The following field data were observed in previous figure from station R.
Angle CRD = 138ᵒ 10′ 20″
RC = 877.98 m
RD = 725.74 m
Calculate the coordinates of station R from given data and from data in the table.
2- Resection of free station
Example: The following field data were observed in previous figure from station R.
Angle CRD = 138ᵒ 10′ 20″
Angle DRE = 75ᵒ 45′ 00″
Calculate the coordinates of station R from given data and from data in the table.
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Construction Layout Using Total Stations Duhok
As you may know that total stations are particularly well suited for collecting data in
topographic surveys; we also note that both the collected data and computed values (e.g., point
coordinates) could be readily downloaded to a computer along with point attribute data. The
significant increases in efficiency made possible with total station topographic surveys can also
be realized in layout surveys when the original point coordinates exist in computer memory or
computer disks, together with the coordinates of all the key design points. To illustrate, consider
the example of a road construction project.
First, the topographic detail is collected using total stations set up at various control points
(preliminary survey). The detail is then transferred to the computer (and adjusted, if
necessary), and converted into Y, X, and Z coordinates. Various programs can then be used to
design the proposed road. When the proposed horizontal, cross-section, and profile alignments
have been established, the proposed coordinates (Y, X, and Z) for all key horizontal and vertical
(elevation) features can be computed and stored in computer files. The points coordinated
include top-of-curb and centerline (CL) positions at regular stations, as well as all changes in
direction or slope. Catch basins, traffic islands, and the like are also included, as are all curved
or irregular road components.
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The computer files now include coordinates of all
control stations, all topographic detail, and (finally) all
design component points. Control point and layout
point coordinates (Y, X, and Z) can then be uploaded
into the total station. The layout is accomplished by
setting the instrument to layout mode, then setting up
at an identified control point, and properly orienting
the sighted instrument toward another identified
control point. Second, while still in layout mode, and
after the first layout point number is entered into the
instrument, the required layout angle or azimuth and
layout distance are displayed. To set the selected
layout point from the instrument station, the layout
angle (or azimuth) is then turned (automatically by
motorized total stations) and the distance is set by
following the display instructions (backward/forward,
left/right, up/down) to locate the desired layout point.
When the total station is set to tracking mode, the
surveyor can first set the prism close to target by rapid
trial-and-error measurements.
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Verticality Survey
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Checking Verticality Duhok
In figure below an office block rises to a height of five stories and the columns must be
checked at every storey for verticality.
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The Importance of a Verticality Survey Duhok
Put simply, a Verticality Survey checks to see whether a building, structure or even a
retaining wall is completely vertical or leans towards one direction or another.
All project managers know the importance of an accurate Measured Building Survey, however
Verticality Surveys can often be overlooked.
A Verticality Survey can be undertaken either during the construction phase of a new build
or post construction for as-built reports, and can be carried out both internally and
externally.
The benefits of a Verticality Survey cannot be overlooked. It could be invaluable to

architects, civil engineers and designers alike as it allows you to tailor your design work
to an existing structure with an extremely high level of accuracy and detail, and therefore
minimize errors and possible costly problems that could arise during construction.
a Verticality Survey can be used to assess the structural integrity of buildings and their
features, and therefore provide information on preventative measures to ensure the
stability of the building for the future.
The University of
Methods to Check Verticality of Structure during Duhok
Building Construction Surveying Engineering
Checking verticality works would encounter during building construction at several stages such
as during installing vertical formworks of columns and transferring levels up successive floors
of multi storey structures. Various methods which to control or check verticality works during
building construction are discussed.
Verticality Works During Building Construction

The University of
Duhok
Methods to Control Verticality of Structure during Building

Construction
Methods used to check or control verticality works include:
1. Plumb-bob technique
2. Spirit level
3. Theodolite
4. Optical plummet
The University of
1. Plumb-Bob Technique Duhok
Plumb-bob as shown in figure consist of a weight with

pointed tip on the bottom attached to end of a string.
The heavy weight will hang under gravity and offer a
precise vertical line which is called plumb line.
This method is applied for checking or

controlling vertical line of structural elements
especially indoors such as lift shaft. Added to
that, it is used to control verticality of
foundation, walls, and columns.
Checking Verticality of Structural Elements

The University of
Duhok
The plumb line or vertical line of plumb-bob is Surveying Engineering
influenced by wind force and it will lose its

accuracy and precision. Small to moderate lateral
movement of plumb-bob can be reduced
satisfactorily by damping it in oil or water.
If the height of structural member is large, then it
is possible to replace the string with a long wire,
but substantial cautions should be plasticized so as
to avoid imposing risks to the personals working
below.
Checking Verticality of Columns

The University of
2. Spirit Level Method Duhok
This tool is appropriate for controlling verticality of small scale works for example
checking formworks and door frames. If spirit level is employed for approximate
checks, then it is required to check the verticality with more accurate technique.
The University of
3. Theodolite Method Duhok
Theodolite is substantially powerful instrument which

can be used to check verticality works during
construction with great precision and accuracy.
It is suitable for checking or controlling verticality of
towers, wall, foundation and columns as shown in
figure, specifically large number of columns along a
one grid line.
It is possible to measure the slope of out of plumb line
of the member by using Theodolite in combination
with a tape.
The University of
The procedure used to check column verticality includes: Duhok
•Setting up the digital Theodolite centered on a peg. Surveying Engineering
•After Theodolite set up accurately the laser beam will be turned on and focused it to the steel tape which
is held to the formwork.
•Take the reading of the steel tape through the telescope.
•Take the readings of two positions at the same level on both top and bottom levels of the formwork. By
taking two readings at the same level any curvature on the surface can be identified
The University of
4. Optical Plummet Method Duhok
It is an instrument that sight directly down or directly up.

Optical plummet has an automatic compensator which
increases its accuracy significantly compare with other
methods used for controlling verticality.

Construction Surveying

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University of Duhok

Construction surveying (otherwise known as "staking", "stake-out", "lay-

Construction staking is performed to ensure a project is built according to

The nearly perfect square-ness and north-south orientation of the Great

A recent reassessment of Stonehenge (c.2500 BC) suggests that the

Modern technology advanced surveying's accuracy and efficiency. For example,

• Accurate construction staking is a critical step in ensuring the success of a

There are several classes of layout instruments in service today. Duhok

All construction projects are set out from

Types of Control Point Duhok

Construction Setting-out Duhok

Construction Setting-out Duhok

Construction Setting-out Duhok

Construction Setting-out Duhok

Construction Setting-out Duhok

Construction Setting-out Duhok

Prior to the commencement of the construction work on a road, there is considerable

Pegging a Road Duhok

Earthwork Volumes and

Cross Sectional Area Duhok

Cross Sectional Area Duhok

K,L = Slope of natural terrain or 1

h = Depth at center line or 1 in Ground surface

Arithmetic Method Graphical Method

One Level Section Using Planimeter

Sections Part in Cut and Part in Fill

Side width (w1 , w2 ) Cross-sectional Area (A)

One Grade line 1

Example: Calculate the cross-sectional area of embankment for a road with

3 Sectional of variable Level ( Three Levels Section ) Duhok

Volumes by mean method Surveying Engineering

In this method the volume is determined by multiplying the mean

Example: A roadway cutting is to be

• Free haul distance (FHD)- distance earth is moved without additional

• Limit of Economic Haul (LEH) - distance beyond which it is more

• Overhaul – volume of material (Y) moved X Stations beyond Free haul,

• Borrow – material taken from outside of project

• Waste – excavated material not used in project

1) Calculate LEH distance (LEH = FHD + (borrow$ ÷ overhaul$))

2) Place FHD and LEH distances in all large loops

3) Place other Balance lines to minimize cost of movement

Theoretical; contractor may move dirt differently

4) Calculate borrow, waste, and overhaul in all loops

5) Identify stations where each of the above occur

Typical soil volume change during earthmoving

This is the Mass Diagram

Blue line is existing elevation at centerline.

The amount of cut and fill are roughly balanced.

Normally, we will “Cut High and Fill Low”

Station Area M ² Volume Of Correction Volume Of Balanced Accumulatio

250 *1.2 300 -50 250

550 660 -150 510

200 240 -150 90

3 1500 1500 3900

4 1500 1500 5400

5 350 250 350 275 5475

6 1300 1430 4045

7 1500 1650 2395

8 1300 1430 965

9 1000 1100 -135

10 300 200 300 220 -55

11 1400 1400 1345

b) Free-Haul volumes = y1+y2

c) Over-Haul volumes = y3+y4

Long Tangent T=Rtan∆/2=1000tan(16.633/2)=146.18 ft

long chord (C)=2R sin ∆/2=21000 sin(16.633/2)=289.29 ft