Art, Crafts and Industries: Nararkarha A Builder, Chitrakraha Means Painter Who Painted The Walls of

Chapter 4
Art, Crafts and Industries

The period from 200 BC to 300 AD is characterized with the development of various
arts and crafts. So far as the arts and crafts are concerned, a number of references have
been found in the sources of this period. The scriptural, numismatics and epigraphic
evidences give an ample idea about arts, crafts and other occupations. The persons
who were allied with productive activities were potters, carpenters, smiths and other
occupational groups such as barbers, washer men, garland makers etc. Majority of
them were depended on towns for their subsistence 1. The Jatakas has mentioned
different arts and crafts such as the leather work2, carpenters3, dancing girl 4 , weaver 5
, archer 6 and teacher 7 . It further mentions hunter 8 , merchants 9 , treasurer10,
potman11, drummer12, conch-blower13, builder14, a Brahman15, skilled marksman16 ,
sword-tester 17 and fisherman18 . The Milindapanho, a Buddhist text mentions traders
19 , barbers 20 , bowmen 21 , lamp-maker 22 , physician 23 , king’s doorkeeper24,
coppersmiths25, musician26, and carpenter27. Panini mentions kumkarha i.e. a potter,
nararkarha a builder, chitrakraha means painter who painted the walls of
the house, sharlav means reed-cutter. He also mentions that karmakaraha were the
class of artisans. They were involved in different craft activities. Telantudha was the
class of oil-men who manufactured and sold oil. Dutihara was the class who were
carried water. They were water-carrier. They used leather bag to carry water 1.
Manusmriti mentions a dyer, a singer, a blacksmiths, washer of cloths, and seller of
liquors. Manu says that a king should appoint skilled artisans and workmen for their
own cause2. He further mentions the occupations such as tailor, an actor, stage player,
a basket-maker, weapons dealers, and goldsmith. 3. As per Kautaliya state artisans
4
were employed in their offices did their work in order and time . Megasthenes
divided the Indian society into seven castes; the fourth caste consists of artisans. They
made armorers and other implements. They also paid taxes to the government and
1 . The Ashtadhyayi of Panini, tr. Late Srisa Chandra Vasu, Vol. I, Motilal Banarsidas, Varansi,
1962, pp. 407 and 417.
2 . Manusmriti, tr. Arthtrur Coke Burnell, 1884, New Delhi, Lec. VIII, pp. 03-05 and 164.
3 . Manusmriti: The Laws of Manu 1500 BC, tr. G. Buhler, Clarendon Press; Australia, 1886, p. 27.
4 . Arthsastra, ed. by R. Shamsastry, Mysore, 1915, p. 96.
84
they also rendered services to the state. The ship-builders and armour-makers
received wages from the king5. The superintendents of crafts were linked with the
wood-cutters, carpenters, workers in brass and miners 6. Nasik cave inscription gives
the references of the professionals such as weavers, potters (Kularikas), oil-millers,
hydraulic workers (Odyantrikas), writer (Vudhika)7. There are references regarding
the presence of western craftsmen in North-Western parts of India. There is a story
which indicates that king Gondopheres purchased Saint Thomas as a slave in
Jerusalem for the purpose of building his palace at Taxila and even for that the local
craftsmen were trained8. In South-India, some references are found regarding the
craftsmen from outside of Tamilham who came there for work. The artisans from
Magadha, the blacksmiths (kollar) from Avanti, the smiths
(kammar) from the land of the Maharattas and the carpenters from Yavana were found
working in the leading cities of Tamilham9. The crafts were connected with urban
economy, boatmen, traders, goldsmiths, dyers, dye-makers, potters, physicians,
silkweavers, iron-smiths, cloth-dealers, perfumers, lapidarists, architects, naval
architects, actors10.
Towns were the centers of crafts and commerce where most of the population
depended upon for their livelihood. The urban crafts had extensive range of market
system better than that of rural economy. Comparatively urban crafts had more
demands and consumers than the rural crafts11. Cattle-rearing, agriculture, small crafts
connected with forests, animals and land were the parts of rural economy. Village
5 . J. W. Mc Crindle, Ancient India as described by Megasthenes and Arrian, Calcutta, 1877, p. 40

and 84.
6 . The Geography of Strabo, tr. H. L. Jones, vii, BK. XV, London, 1917, p. 83.
7 . Epigraphy Indica (1905-06), ed. by E. Hultzsch, Vol. VIII, New Delhi,1981, pp. 82, 89 and 96
respectively.
8 . Sir Mortimer Wheeler, Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers, London, 1954, pp. 170 and 171;
there are references regarding the presence of foreign craftsmen in the western India as several
yavanas claimed the natives of Dhenukakata and there are some name of Yavanas in the Nasik cave
inscriptions such as Sihadhaya, Simhadata etc. They were the inhabitants of the Dhenukakata town
of Satvahanas. It can be said that no doubt Satvahanas were indigenous ruling dynasty of western
India and Deccan which led to the origin of indigenous arts and crafts but the references above
mentioned made the impression that the foreign arts and crafts had great impact on their indigenous
arts and crafts; Epigraphy Indicia, ed. E. Hultzsch, Vol. VIII, pp. 60-90.
9 . N. Subrahmanian, Sangam Polity, Asian Publishing House, Bombay, 1916, p. 228.
10 . Ibid, p. 97.
11 . Idem.
85
artisans were not found highly skilled as compared in the urban centers. The urban
artisans were more skilled. They manufactured articles for wider consumption
because they worked as whole time artisans and craftsmen. So, this created
specialized class of weavers, lapidarists, smiths, jewelers, later their crafts became
hereditary12.
Terracotta art: Terracotta art was one of the important developments taking place
from 200 BC to 300 AD. Terracotta’s figurines were of humans and animals, toys,
votive tanks, rings for wells, toy-carts, lamps, decorative pieces etc. These terracotta
objects suggested the development of art and craft which led to the rise of towns 13.
The terracotta objects of Taxila Sirkap showed western influence. For example
terracotta objects were consisted of nude mother or earth goddess, female deity, male
figure in Hellenistic dress, male and female figures standing side by side. Buddhist
terracotta and clay figurines have also been discovered from Sirkap. Terracotta
figurines of mother goddess, dwarfs, dwarf musicians, gods and goddesses figures
and cult images also have been reported from Hastinapur. Tenon-head, facial features,
dress and ornaments were the Kushan features. Terracottas from Kausambi depict
new ethnic features. They resembled with the Kushana features such as long-face,
prominent nose, protruding lips, prominent cheek-bones, sunken cheeks. From the
Chirand and Kumrahar sites, Kushana type dresses and non-Indian faces also have
been discovered41. Terracotta tiles have been discovered from all the sites of Kashmir
valley such as Harwan, Ushkur, Semtham, Hutmur, Ganderbal, Doen Pather 42. It was
at Doen Pathar, tiles were not built with well levigated clay and well-baked. Stamps
were slightly under developed. It was from the site of Hoinar where clay was not
well-levigated but motifs were well demarcated. It was from Kanishkapur at
Baramullaha where Brahmi and Kharoshti numerals were inscribed on terracotta tiles.
The tiles from Harwan showed the workmanship of the Parthian people who settled in
Kashmir in the first and second century BC. It can be considered as the art of
Parthians. Hunting scenes were also found on the tiles of Harwan 43. The Kanishkapur,
Ushkur and Harwan belonged to the Kushan. These tiles were also found in Taxila
12 . Kameshwar Prasad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kusanas, pp. 98-99.
13 . Ibid, p. 107.
86
and its neighboring regions44. From the excavation of Juafardih at Nalanda, human
and animal’s figurines, beads, wheels, toy discs etc. made of terracottas have been
reported. The terracotta human figurines also have been reported from the Junnar site
of Pune district45. It was from the site of Tilpi in West-Bengal belonging to the 2 nd BC
to 3rd century AD that terracotta tiles, human figurines, horses, elephant, bangles have
been discovered46. It was from the site Ghoraktora at Nalanda, terracotta objects such
as human and animal figurines, beads, sling balls, seal, bangles etc. have been
reported47. Terracotta tiles and human figurines have been reported from the site
Jajmau at Kanpur belonging to Shunga-Kushan period 48. Terracotta tiles both broken
and intact, terracotta rings and terracotta plaques have been discovered from the
Bangarh site in West-Bengal belonging to the period iii of Shunga-Kushana era49.
Textile industry: Textile Industry was one of the most important and flourishing
industry of this period50. After the Mauryan period, state hardly exercised control over
arts and crafts which became the main cause for the development of art and
41
. Kameshwar Prasad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kusanas, p. 108.
42
. Mohammad Ajmal Shah and B. R. Mani, ‘Kushan Terracotta Tiles in Kashmir valley: The
Chronological interpretation’, Purvattava, No.43, 2013, pp. 239-240.
43
. Ibid, pp. 240-242.
44
. Ibid, p. 245.
45
. Indian Archaeology, 2006-2007, A Review, Director General of ASI, New-Delhi, 2016, pp. 06-07
and 48.
46
. Ibid, pp. 135-136.
47
. Indian Archaeology, 2007-2008, A Review, Director General of ASI, New-Delhi, 2016, p. 38.
48
. Ibid, p. 91.
49
.Indian Archaeology, 2008-09, A Review, Director General of ASI, New-Delhi, 2016, p. 118.
50
. Kameshwar Prashad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kushanas, pp. 108 and 109.
crafts14. The development of textile industry was also indicated by the art works of
this period as reflected in two sculptures, one a Parkham Yaksha sculpture which was
14 . R. S. Sharma, Perspectives in Social and Economic History of Early India, Manoharlal publishers,
New-Delhi, 1983, pp. 140-141.
87
15
found in Mathura. In this sculpture, a figure is depicted with wearing of dhoti .
Another is the statue of Vima Kadphises which has been reported from Mat near
Mathura. It belonged to the first century AD and in this statue a king is shown seated
on the throne wearing of trousers, tunic and heavy felt boots 16. The different terms
which indicate the progress of textile industry during this period were such as kosh
which means cocoon as Silk was made out of cocoon 17. Kshauma garments which
were manufactured at the Pandyan country, Magadhaka the fibrous garments which
were manufactured at Maghdan country, Cinapatta was the silken garments which
were obtained from China18. Madhura, Mihisha, Kasi, Vanga and western parts of
Kalinga which were the centers of cotton textiles industry19. Kautaliya mentions that it
was the duty of the Superintendent of the weaving to employ such persons who were
good in the manufacturing of threads (Sutra), coats (Vrma), cloths (Vastra) and ropes.
Crippled and ascetic women, prostitutes, old servants of king, widows could be
employed to cut wool. They could be given a fixed amount of wages according to the
work done by them and time given to them20. Manusmriti informs that flax, hemp,
skins of he-goat, spotted deer and black antelopes, wool were used for making dresses
at that time21. Arthsastra mentions that blankets were made of sheep’s wool such as
kambala, kauchapaka, varavana, kulamitika etc. He further mentions that Bhingisi
and Apasaraka were the woolen blankets which were used as rain-proof produced in
Nepal and India might import these blankets from Nepal 22. Hou Hanshu mentions the
country of Tianzhu or Juandu made cotton cloths and first-rate wool carpets23. The
clothes were also dye at that time. Dyeing of clothes and sewing of robes needles
15 . V. A. Smith, A History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon, Bombay, reprint 1969, p. 29.
16 . Dr. Suman Mathur, Art and Culture under the Kushanas, Bharatiya Kala Prakashan, Delhi, 1998,
p.
95.
17 . The Ashtadhiya of Panini tr. Late Srisa Chandra Vasu, p. 764.
18 . Arthsastra ed. by R. Shamsastry, p. 84.
19 . Idem.
20 . Ibid, pp. 127-128; there is a reference of weaving in the Jatakas, it informs that a weaver whose
name was Bhimaena worked in the city of Benaras under the royal service; Jataka tales, tr. by H. T.
Francis and E. J. Thomas, p. 99.
21 . Manusmriti: The Laws of Manu 1500 BC, tr. by G. Buhler, P. 05.
22 . Arthsastra ed. by R. Shamsastry, pp. 83-84.
23 . The Western Regions according to Ho Han Shu, tr. John E. Hill, Sep. 2003, Sec.15.
88
were important activity. The clothes were dyed with red ochre24. It was in the city of
Sagala where all kinds of clothes including Benarasi muslin were put for sale25. The
weaving activity was also practiced in the western India as there is a reference
regarding the guild of weavers who lived in Govadhana. They invested money and
provided clothes to the aesthetic class. This shows that weaving was flourishing and
important craft during this period26. In Tamilham, weaving and spinning were the
most important craft. Women who used to spend their time in spinning cotton threads.
They spun during night time by the faint light of the wick lamp. Weaving was
specialized craft activity and Madurai, Urayiur were the important centers of
weaving64. Cloths were made of wood fiber called sirai, maravuri and narmadi and
these cloths were used by priestly class. Woolen cloth, cotton cloth and silk cloth
were sold in the markets of Madurai. Dyeing was also an important craft activity in
Tamilham. The loin cloth was dyed with blue color dye which was most wanted color
of the consumers65. It was in the site of Uraiyur, a brick-built dyeing vat has been
unearthed and similarly dyeing vats have been discovered from the site of
Arkimedu27.
Cotton was the key cellulose fiber. It was produced in India around 3500 BC.
The earliest weaving material of cotton was used by the Harappan people. It was
proved by the discovery of spindles which confirms that Indus people knew the art of
spinning and dyeing of cloth. It was first and foremost as an individual domestic
activity. It was spread to the westward from India as an article of trade then as a plant
and industry28. Aryans had learned the utility of cotton for producing fabrics from
24 . Charaka Samhita, tr. by Gabriel Van Loon, 2002, p. 90.

25 . The Question of King Milindpanho, tr. T. W. Rhys Davids, Part-I, Vol. XXXV, p. 69; The
Benarasi clothes were very famous since ancient times. They were considered best clothes; The
Mahavastu, tr. J. J. Jones, London, 1949, p. 245.
26 . Epigraphy Indica, ed. by E. Hultzsch, Vol. VIII, p.
82. 64. N. Subrahmanian, Sangam Polity, p. 228 65. Ibid,
p. 229.
27 . R. S. Sharma, Perspectives in Social and Economic History of Early India, Manhoharlal, New
Delhi, 1983, pp. 140-141.
28 . Kax Wilson, A History of Textiles, West View Press, U.S.A, 1979, pp. 16-18; Jitesh Ch. Saha, ‘The
History of Cotton Textiles in India’, The Quarterly Review of Historical Studies, Vol. XLVIIl, Nos.
1 and 2, Institute of Historical studies, Kolkatta, April and Sept. 2007, p. 85; there is a reference of
cotton clothes in Mahavastu; The Mahavastu, tr. J. J. Jones, p. 226.
89
Non-Aryan people who inhabited the Ganga regions29. Alexander, the great took
printed cotton cloth from India when he went back to his home 30. India had two
distinct species of cotton, one gosspium herbaceumm which was used for making
clothes and other gossypium arboretum or the tree which was used for making
padding cushion and pillows31. Dukula was the variety of cloth made of cotton. The
Smriti texts considered the dukula garments impure32.
Silk is an animal fiber which is composed of protein called fibroin. It was first
cultivated in China and India imported it from China33. Indian was known for the
cultivation of wild silk even earlier than they came into contact with China and they
learnt the method of domesticating the silk-worm and feeding it on mulberry leaves.
The term such as Patrorna denotes mulberry silk. Cinamsuka was another variety of
silk which was imported from China34. There are references about the silk clothes35.
Even during the Gupta period, it had great demand in India. Mandasor inscription
mentions that a woman could not go to meet her lover in secret until she had put on
two silken garments36. It was used for making banners as Chinese traveler Fa-hien
observed that silk-banners were hangover monk’s seat at a grand Buddhist ceremony
held in Kashmir and the banner was also hang in the parade of the Buddha’s image at
37
Pataliputra . In addition to silk and cotton, other varieties of cloth were also
manufactured there such as hemp (sana) that was an important resource for making
fibers. Bhang, true hemp was also fiber which was used for making garments and
29 . Lallanji Gopal, ‘Textiles in Ancient India’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the
Orient, Vol. 04, No.01, Feb. 1961, p. 61.
30 . Jitesh Ch. Saha, ‘The History of Cotton Textiles in India’, p. 85.
31 . John W. Mc Crindle, Ancient India as described in Classical Literature, Eastern Book House,
Patna,
1987, p. 26.
32 . Lallanji Gopal, ‘Textiles in Ancient India’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the
Orient, vol. 04, No. 01, Feb. 1961, pp. 58-59.
33 . Kax Wilson, A History of Textiles, pp. 19-20.
34 . Lallanji Gopal, ‘Textiles in Ancient India’, pp. 61-64; there is a reference in the Hathgumpa
inscription of Kharavela that silk clothes were imported from China; Epigraphy Indica, ed. by
Hirananda Sastri, Vol. XX, Director General of ASI, 1983, p. 89.
35 . The Mahavastu, tr. J. J. Jones, Vol. I, p. 171; there is also reference of silken garments in the
Charaka Samhita; Charaka Samhita, tr. Gabriel Van Loon, p. 112.
36 . J. F. Fleet, Corpus inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. III, No. 18, plate XI, Indiological Book House,
Varansi, 1963, p. 85; Xinru Liu, Ancient India and Ancient China Trade and Religious Exchanges
1-600, Oxford University Press, 1988, p. 68.
90
bhangela was produced in Kumaon-Almora district used for making garments 38.
Ksauma was a cloth which was made of bark. It was a grass-cloth originated in
Assam and eastern Bengal. Uma or atasi, linseed plant was also used for making cloth
in ancient India. Ksuma, Atasi, uma, kattana, masrna words indicate the diverse
qualities of linseed which was used for making garments 39. Muslin was produced in
Bengal and it was used for making clothes. There is a reference regarding the Roman
General Mark Antony (83-30 BC) who presented muslin cloth to his army which
indicates that muslin or muslin cloths was exported to the Roman world from India
and they had high demands in the Roman world and best markets for them 40. The
clothes were also made of wool and these woolen cloths were wearing in India41.
Carpentry: It was also one of the vital craft of the people since ancient times.
Musical instruments such as flute, veena, lute and drum might have made by the
carpenters. The demands of carpenter class were found in both rural and urban areas 42.
Jataka stories inform about the carpentry, it mentions that 100 carpenters who lived in
a village which was not far from the city of Benaras. It further mentions the carpenter
who used to go to the forest where they shaped the wooden beams and planks for
house-building and for which they were paid wages. This story also infers that the art
of carpentry was practiced in the rural areas and especially this art was performed in
the forests because there was more easily availability of wood which was the source
of raw material for the carpentry profession43. There is a reference regarding the
37 . Xinru Liu, Ancient India and Ancient China Trade and Religious Exchanges 1-600, Oxford
University Press, 1988, p. 68.
38 . Lallanji Gopal, ‘Textiles in Ancient India’, pp. 53-54.
39 . Lallanji Gopal, ‘Textiles in Ancient India’, pp. 56-58; the linen clothes were manufactured by the
threads of the plants which was called ksuma; Yajnavalkya Smriti, tr. Rai Bhadur Srisa Vidyarna,
pp. 280-81.
40 . Jitesh Ch. Saha, ‘The History of Cotton Textiles in India’, p. 85.
41 . Yajnavalkya Smriti, tr. Rai Bhadur Srisa Vidyarna, Allahabad, 1918, p. 206; Yajnavalkya informs
that a sacred clothes of wool was weaved by Sambanaka. This fact is also corroborated by the
foreign source by saying that clothes were made out of wool in India; The Geography of Strabo, tr.
H. L. Jones, VII, BK. XV, London, p. 33.
42 . Kameshwar Prashad, Cities,Crafts and Commerce under the Kusanas, p. 110; Milindapanho
speaks about the art of carpentry; The Question of King Milindpanho, tr. T. W. Rhys Davids, Part-I,
Vol. XXXV, p.306; ayogava were worked as carpenters; Yajnavalkya Smitri, tr. Rai Bhadur Srisa
Vidyarna, p. 214.
43 . The Jataka, ed. E. B. Cowell, Vol. II, Cosmo Publications, Delhi, 1895-1907, p. 14.
91
carpenter from the Dhenukakata whose name was Sami made the door of the cave of
Karle, it shows that the doors for the caves were made by the carpenters whose name
was also mentioned in the inscriptions and this infers this art was considered very
noble profession44. In Tamilham, carpentry was widespread industry and was
practiced as a hereditary profession. The young carpenter boys who made toy-carts for
children at an early age. The objects such as Ships, boats, chariots, buildings were
also built by the class of carpenters45.
Metal Industry: Metal industry was highly flourishing industry during this period.
Iron, gold, silver, bronze, copper, lead and tin is metals which were used since ancient
times. Silver seems to be rare metal. India has possessed all kinds of metals. These
metals were used for the constructions of household utensils, weapons, implements,
Ornaments and coins46. There is a passage given in the Strabo account of India in
which the elephants ornamented with gold and silver, four-horses and yokes of oxen,
then there was great host of attendants with vessels of gold and drinking cups and
lavers, all made of Indian copper. This took place on the special occasion of the feast
47
made by the king when he washed his hair . The Superintendents of metals
(Lohadhyakshah) carried on the manufacturing of copper, leads, brass and tin 48. Hou
Hanshu mentions the region of Tianzu also called Juandu (India) or (North-western
India) produced gold, silver, copper, brass and lead49.
Iron. Iron was the cheapest and most common metals easily available in India. The
rich availability of iron helped in the development of iron technology. The ironsmiths
had high status in the society due to having good skills and they earned huge amount
of wealth out of it. Iron was used for the construction of boats, carriages and chariots,
weapons, utensils, implements and tools. It was in the 4 th century BC, the knowledge
of iron technology spreaded all over the country. Magadha in Bihar was the source of
44 . Epigraphy Indica (1902-03), ed. by E. Hultzsch, Vol. VII, New Delhi, 1981, p. 53.
45 . N. Subrahmanian, Sangam Polity, p. 230.
46 . Kameshwar Prashad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kusanas, p. 111.
47 . John W. Mc Crindle, Ancient India as described in Classical Literature, Eastern Book House,
Patna, 1987, p. 75.
48 . Arthsastra, ed. by R. Shamsastry, p. 88; J. W. McCrindle, Ancient India as described by
Megasthene and Arrian, p. 30.
49 . The Western Regions according to Hou Hanshu, tr. John E. Hill, Sec-15.
92
iron-ore50. In Tamilham, smiths used to manufacture the weapons and weapons were
also repaired. In this industry, a blow pipe or a pair of bellows and iron-wheels was
needed. Fire was also needed which was used for smelting and wielding. The
ironlamps were made which were fed with oil51. According to Periplus of the
Erythean Sea, Indian iron and steel were exported from the Gulf of Cambay (Ariaca)
to the African coast52. Indian iron was exported to the foreign countries in the form of
ingots and pieces of unprocessed iron and steel53. Smelting furnace with iron slag,
crucibles, household objects, tools and weapons like arrow-heads, axes, chisels,
knives, ploughshares etc. have been discovered from the Kushana sites at Noh and
Purana Qila 93. Marshall also reports iron objects from the Taxila such as arms and
armour, household’s utensils, horse bridles, elephant goads, carpenters and
blacksmith’s tools and agricultural implements94. It was from the site Arkimedu, two
iron-nails; iron-ring and iron-blade have been discovered 95. It was from the site of
Sirkap in Taxila where iron handi for cooking, iron-hair comb decorated with incised
busts of a male and female on one side and a duck on the other and iron-anvil square
in section have been discovered which belonged to the Parthian date 96. It was from
the site of Juafardih in Nalanda, sickles, axes, iron-hoe, knives, arrow-heads, chisels
all were made of iron were found97. Fragments of spearhead, bell-ring, utensils made
of iron have been discovered at Ghorakatora in Nalanda 98.
Copper and bronze: Orissa was the source of copper according to Allan 99. Vessels of
copper were prepared by beating it 100. Copper was used for making ornaments, coins,
statues, articles of toilets. Copper objects have been reported from the many sites of
Taxila, Mathura and other sites. Copper and bronze was used by the common people
for common use101. The archaeological findings of Taxila at the Sirkap site were
copper cup with vertical sides on low base, copper carinated goblet with horizontal
ribbing round lower part, square copper seal, copper handi with two ring handles
50 . K. T. M. Hegde, ‘Ancient Indian Iron Metallurgy’, Man and Environment, Vol. XVI, No. I, Indian
Society for Pre-historic and Quaternary Studies, Deccan College Pune, Jan-June 1991, pp. 1-2.
51 . N. Subrahmanian, Sangam Polity, p. 230.
52 . The Periplus of the Erythean Sea, tr. Schoff, Delhi, 1974, pp. 92-93.
53 . G. L. Adhaya, Early Indian Economics: Studies in the Economic life of Northern India and
Western India c.200 BC-300AD, Asian Publishing House London, 1966, p. 75.
93
attached to shoulders, copper inkpot with serpentine handle, copper pen with nib split,
copper bowl, copper pan with ring handle, copper statuette of male figure. These
archaeological findings of copper belong to the early Kushanas and the Parthians 102.
Copper spoon, vase-like inkpot of copper, copper hook with handle, bell-shaped of
copper cooking pots have been discovered from the block D, circular copper mirror
with a short tang for fixing in handle from block E of Sirkap103.
93
. Indian Archaeology, A Review, 1970-71, pp. 62 and 19.
94
. Kameshwar Prashad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kusanas, p. 112.
95
. R. E. M. Wheeler, A. Ghosh and Krishna Deva, ‘Arkimedu: an Indo-Roman Trading Station on the
East Coast of India’, Ancient India, Bulletin of Archaeological Survey of India, No. 02, July 1946,
p. 104.
96
. Annual Report, 1928-29, p. 51.
97
. Indian Archaeology, 2006-2007, A Review, Director General of ASI, New-Delhi, 2016, pp. 06-07.
98
. Indian Archaeology, 2007-2008, A Review, Director General of ASI, New-Delhi, p. 38.
99
. T. N. Ramchandran, ‘Find of Puri Kushan or Oriya Kushan Coins from Sitabhiuji, Keonjhar Distt;
Orissa’, Numismatic Society of India, Vol. XIII, June 1951, Part I, 1951, p. 72.
100
. Kameshwar Prashad, Cities,Crafts and Commerce under the Kushanas, p. 112.
101
. Ibid, p. 113.
102
. Annual Report, 1927-28, pp. 62-65.
103
. Annual Report, 1928-29, pp. 53-54.
Bronze finger ring was found at Sirkap from the block E 104. Copper coins, bangles and
antimony rods have been reported from Juafardih in Nalanda105. Copper bangles,
copper antimony rods and cast copper coins were reported from the site at Bangarh in
West-Bengal106. Copper and bronze were used for the manufacturing of mirrors along
with mercury as it gave a silvery luster. Mirrors have been reported from the site of
Sirkap dated 100 BC to 100 AD. Marshall argues that they were the copies of western
proto-types. They had round rims with Omphalos at the center. Three specimens
which come from the site of Brahmapuri belong to late Satvahana levels dated Ist-2 nd
AD. All of them were made of bronze. It appears that surface was polished after
fashioning them on lathe. One mirror had a wavy rim with omphalos at the center.
Omphalos was commonly found in Roman metal work and perhaps derived from the
earlier articles of Greeco-Roman workmanship. It is further held that the mirrors with
omphalos at the center were made at Alexandria and were brought by way of trade107.
94
Gold: Gold was one of the most essential and valuable metal. Gold was used for
making ornaments. The jewelers were expert in making ornaments both known as
108
suvarnakara and manikara . Kautaliya informs that state goldsmith employed
artisans to manufacture gold and silver coins. He also mentions the artisans who were
employed in mint related to the pure gold, metal mass (Pudgala) coins (Lakshana)
and the rate of exchange (Prayoga)109. It was from the site of Sirkap, tabular gold
ornaments, six pieces of narrow gold necklace, four hollow round beads of gold,
bellshaped flat pendant of gold have been reported from the block G 110. Shoe-Buckles
have been reported on shoes of the headless Mathura statue of Kanishka found at
Tilla-Tepe111. An inscription at Tenur, district Madurai in Tamil Nadu which was in
Tamil language and Brahmi in character assigned from the 2 nd BC to 2nd AD. This
inscription infers that a person name Kothai donated gold bars to the temples and this
indicates the availability of gold in India112.
104
. Annual Report, 1928-29, pp. 54-55.
105
. Indian Archaeology, 2006-2007, A Review, Director General of ASI, New-Delhi, 2016, pp. 06-07.
106
107
. C. Margabandhu, ‘A Note on Some Ancient Indian Mirrors’, Purvattava, No. 07, New Delhi, 1974,
pp. 94-95.
108
. Kameshwar Prashad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kushanas, p. 113.
109
. Arthsastra, ed. R. Shamsastry, p. 96.
110
. Annual Report, 1928-29, pp. 58-59.
111
. Irfan Habib and Faiz Habib, Atlas of Ancient Indian History, p. 66.
112
. Indian Archaeology, 2013-14, A Review, p. 216.
Lapidary: The working in stone was one of the important craft. It was at the site of
Arkimedu where stone objects such as short-cylindrical object of sand stone and
fragmentary gridding-stone of sand stone have been discovered 54. Babbu-Jataka
mentions a Boddhisattva from Benaras became expert in working stones and he
became stone-cutter and used to cut stones. In the village site, he used to quarrying
and shaping the stones. It indicates that the art of lapidary was also prevalent in the
54 . R. E. M. Wheeler, A. Ghosh and Krishna Dev, ‘Arkimedu: an Indo-Roman Trading Station on the
East Coast of India’, p. 104.
95
villages and the stone workers had special site or workshop in the villages where they
practiced their art and crafts55.
Beads of stones, terracotta and semi-precious stones: Bead making was one of the
most flourishing industries during this period from 200 BC to 300 AD. Glass,
terracotta, shells and metals were also used for making beads. Both males and females
used beads for ornaments to decorate different limbs of the body. The figurines and
stone sculptures of this period indicate the use of beads as ornaments 56. Arthsastra
informs that different varieties of metallic beads have been reported from India such
as Madhyamarashtrakas in the central province, Kasmakas obtained from the country
of Kasamaka and Sabharashtrakas in the country of Sabharashtraka57. Semi-precious
stones such as faience, carnelian, quartz, agate, soapstone, lapis lazuli, granite, jasper,
chalcedony, opal and oriental topaz which were used for manufacturing of beads.
Expert lapidarists were needed to bore and polish the beads. The materials were
brought from outside as trade articles. The availability of unfinished materials
highlights the local manufacture of beads. Etching of beads was also known. Stone
beads and semi-precious stones have been discovered from Saikhan Dheri, Taxila,
Noh, Hastinapur, Kurukshetra, Sonkh, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Sonpur, Chirand and
Buxar58. A large number of beads have been reported from the site of Arkimedu. This
site throws light on the evidence that beads were manufactured there. The materials
which were used for the manufacture of beads were chalcedonic quartz, agate,
carnelian, crystalline quartz, amethyst. Bone-beads, Faience beads and terracotta
beads including spherical terracotta beads have been found. Majority of the beads
were made of glass with shades of blue and green are most popular. White, black,
grey, violet and brown glasses were recovered. Collared-beads and lugcollared beads
have also been reported from the site of Arkimedu 59. Conch-shell cutting and bead-
55 . Babbu-Jataka, No. 137, p. 295.

56 . Kameshwar Prashad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kushanas, p. 116.
57 . Arthsastra, ed. by R. Shamsastry, p. 79.
58 . Kameshwar Parshad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kushanas, pp. 116-117; agates were
also used for ornamental, decorative and other purposes; George Watt, Dictionary of the Economic
products of India, Vol. II, Periodical Expert, Delhi, 1972, p. 172.
59 . R. E. M. Wheeler, A. Ghosh and Krishna Deva, ‘Arkimedu: an Indo-Roman Trading Station on
the East Coast of India’, Ancient India, pp. 95-101.
96
making have been reported from the sites Arkimedu (Pondicherry), Alagakulam and
Karaikudi (Tamil-Nadu)60. It was from the site of Ahichchhatra 63 carnelian beads of
spherical and long-barrel circular have been recovered. Beads of agate which were
mostly confined to strata iv and iii. Four beads of yellow quartz were found there, two
are long barrel hexagonal with altering large and small facets, while the other two
were drop-pendants. Seventeen beads of faience have also been recovered from there.
Only two beads were of white colour. The rest were coloured green. Shape of those
beads was spherical beads, long barrel circular and amalakashaped. Wedge-shaped
annular bead also found in the stratum iii of Ahichchhatra, 28 beads of green glass
were recovered from excavations, 12 were transparent and rest opaque. These were
found distributing in all stratas. The shape of these glass beads was spherical and
oblate beads. The forms of these beads were hexagonal, cornering cubes and circular
lenticular. Blue-green glasses were twelve in numbers and all these resemble with the
Persian blue shade belonging to the strata iv and i. Blue-glass beads were 33 in
numbers. Their shapes were mostly oblate beads and spherical, these are of four short
cylinder beads. Orange glasses which have been distributed in strata iv and iii belong
to 100 AD to 750 AD. The orange color was because of the presence of cuprous oxide
held in some particles and dull opaque appearance is due to diversification of the
glass. Gold-foil glasses which have been reported from Tripura in stratum iv belong
to the period of 200 AD and red glass or dark-red opaque of five beads were found in
stratum viii to ii of Tripura site. They were commonly cylinder oblate beads and
lim
represent a common shape. This red glass was very popular in Kausambi in the
us
second century AD. It was also found in Arkimedu and Kolhapur. Beads of terracotta
M
were also found in Ahichhatra, one sample of grey color similar to the arecanut-
h
shaped beads belongs to strata v and iii dated 100 BC to 750 AD. It was also reported
ar
from the kondapur site61. From the site of Sirkap at Taxila, amethyst beads, carnelian
lig
beads and glazed quartz beads have been reported which belonged to the first century
,A
AD. Lapis-lazuli beads, jasper and garnet which are harder than quartz have been
y
reported from Taxila. Glass used for the manufacture of beads were found at Sirkap
ar
br
60 . A. Ramachandram, ‘Recent Reserches on Arkimedu’, PIHC, 58th Session, Bangalore, 1997, p. 99.
Li
61 . Moreshwar G. Dikshit, ‘Beads from Ahichchhatra’, Ancient India, No. 08, 1952, pp. 34 and 58.
d
97
za
A
ni la
i
rs
U au
ve
M
such as copper-blue glass, beads of orange variety, four red glass as same red color
glass have been also reported from Bhir-Mound, Medeteriian world and the
Crimean121. Opaque green glass which was colored by copper was also reported from
Sirkap which was traded by Arabs to South-Africa, Malaya Peninsula and India.
Faience beads have been discovered from Sirkap122. Beads from Sirkap also
representing the figures of birds and animals such as lion, elephant, frog and Indian
crow123. Beads made of steatite and two lime stone beads have been reported from
Sirkap. An amulet possibly representing a comb was made of soft brown steatite 124.
Glass beads and semi-precious stones have been discovered at the site of Junnar
which was one of the important site under Satvahanas 125. Agate, carnelian and
chalcedony have been found at the Tilpi site in West-Bengal 126. Damru site located in
Chattisgarh where beads of terracotta and semi-precious stones were found. The
period I and period II of Damru site belonged to Satvahana and Kushana times.
Shellbeads and semi-precious stones beads have been discovered from the Purana
Qila Delhi both in period II belong to Shunga period and period III belong to Kushana
period127. The site of Porunthal at Tamil-Nadu yielded a large quantity of glass beads
belonged to the Ist-3rd century AD128. So, these archaeological evidences indicate the
bead-making industry was highly developed during the period of the study.
Glass Industry: Glass industry registered noteworthy progress during the early
centuries of the Christian era. B. B. Lal argues that glass tiles which have been
reported from Taxila indicate that Indians were skillful in molding large pieces of
glass129. The knowledge of glass-making was known to ancient Indians as early as the
first millennium BC130. From the Mauryan period onwards, it was commonly used by
the people. Glass was used to make beads, mirrors and bangles. Some glass vessels
121
. Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, No. 65, ed. Sir John Marshall, Delhi, reprinted in
1991, pp.14-28.
122
. Ibid, pp.29-33.
123
. Ibid, pp. 14-28.
124
. Ibid, p. 34.
125
126
98
. Ibid, pp. 135-136.
127
. Indian Archaeology 2013-2014, A Review, ed. Dr. Rakesh Tewari, Director General of ASI,
Janpath, New-Delhi, 2016, pp. 24, 35 and 40.
128
. Irfan Habib and Faiz Habib, Atlas of Ancient Indian History, Oxford University Press, 2012, pp. 64-
66.
129
. Xinru Liu, Ancient India and Ancient China Trade and Religious Exchanges 1-600, p. 62.
130
. M. G. Dikshit, History of Indian Glass, Bombay, 1967, p. 02.
have been discovered from Taxila and Arkimedu. These were considered as articles of
import from the Medeteriian world or manufactured under the supervision of Roman
experts. These specimens can be compared with the custom deposit of Begram
belonging to the 2nd century and early third century of the Christian era.
Glass slags have been discovered from the sites of Taxila, Rajghat and Nalanda131.
Bone and Ivory.
Bones and ivory were materials which were used for making handles of
mirror, bangles, boxes, hairpins and arrowheads. Benaras was the important center of
ivory-workers. Bones and ivory objects have been discovered from many sites such as
from Taxila, Rupar, Saikhan Dheri, Noh, Kurekshetra, Purana Qila. These were also
found in Rajghat, Bhita, Kausambi, Vaishali, Kumrahar, Buxar, Chirand 132. It was at
the site of Arkimedu, a long piece of ivory and fragment of an ivory handle were
found133. Seven bones and ivory beads have been reported from Sirkap, an ivory bead
representing a triratna, these beads belonged to the first century AD134. Ivory and
bone points have been reported from Tilpi site in West-Bengal135.
Perfume Making. It was one of the essential craft. The perfume dealers were the
inhabitants of towns. Mahavastu informs that it was in the city of Vasumata where
two perfume dealers gave 100 pieces to the monk named Abhiya136.
Oil manufactures. Oil industry also flourished during this period. Oil pressing
machine which was used for the extraction of oil137. The guild of oil millers invested
money for the class of religious people or monks138. Oil was extracted from linseed,
sesame, kidney beans by the oil-makers and shepherds139.
99
131
. Arun Kumar Jha, ‘Chemical Industries in Ancient India from Mauryan era to Gupta age’, PIHC,
2003, p. 128.
132
. Kameshar Parshad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kushanas, pp. 119 and 120.
133
. R. E. M. Wheeler, A. Ghosh and Krishna Deva, ‘Arkimedu: an Indo-Roman Trading Station on the
East Coast of India, p. 108.
134
. Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, No. 65, p. 33.
135
. Indian Archaeology, 2006-2007, A Review, Director General of ASI, New-Delhi, 2016, pp.
135136.
136
. The Mahavastu, tr. J. J. Jones, Vol. I, p. 32; there is also a reference that a perfumer who lived in
the Dhenukakata whose name was Simhadata; Epigraphy Indica, Vol. VII, p. 52.
137
. Yajnavalkya Smriti, tr. Rai Bhadur Srisa Vidyarna, pp. 206 and 249.
138
. Epigraphy Indica, ed. E .Hultzsch, Vol. VIII, P. 89.
139
. Arthsastra, ed. by R. Shamsastry, p. 104.
Leather industry. Leather industry is one of the earliest works of India and was
flourishing craft. It was used for making containers for water; wine; meat; curd; meat,
shoe-making and bow-strings140. It had also used, such as used for the protection
against cold and leather sacks had been used for transporting merchandise,
construction of musical instruments141. There is a reference of leather work; it was the
dhigvanas who were leather workers142.
Ceramic industry: Ceramic industry was one of the oldest art and craft of people in
the history of civilization. It was the sign of culture. Water and grains were used to
keep in the pots. For making of pottery, Clay, water and wood were used. It was in the
earlier stages of human society the pottery were made by hand and later it was
Egyptians who first started developed pottery on wheels. It was during the stage of
Neolithic period that the people used to make both handmade and wheel-thrown
pottery in India143. The class of potters who were organized into the guilds of potters
known as Kularikas and were specialized in the manufacturing of their pottery and
they were also helped by labourers144. The period of study from period 200 BC to 300
AD was known for the development of potter’s crafts. The broken pottery was
recovered from the grounds145. There is a reference about a potter who lived in the
146
village named Verudinga whose name was Ghatikar . The pot man has been
mentioned in Jatakas147. As per Nasik cave inscription, the money was invested by the
guild of potters for the aesthetic class and they were called Kularikas148. The sites
100
belong to our period of research have been provided with different potteries and
pottery sherds.
Ahichhatra site is located in Bareilly district of Uttar Pradesh. The stratum iv

and vii belonged the period of study. Stratum vii belonged to 2nd century BC and 1st
century AD. Grey pottery with heavy wares and sometimes with slip were found
140
. Vivekanand Jha, ‘Leather Workers in Ancient and Early Medieval India’, PIHC, 40TH Session,
Andhra Pradesh University, 1979, p. 99.
141
. Kameshwar Parsad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kushanas, pp. 121.
142
. Yajnavalkya Smriti, tr. Rai Bhadur Srisa Vidyarna, p. 214; there is also reference in the Jatakas
which informs us about leather works; Jataka tales, tr. by H. T. Francis and E. J. Thomas, p. 26.
143
. Gurcharan Singh, Pottery in India, pp. 01, 13, 14, 17 and 24.
144
. Kameshwar Prasad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kushanas, p. 105.
145
. The Question of King Milindpanho, tr. T. W. Rhys Davids, Part-I, Vol. XXXV, p. 53.
146
. The Mahavastu, tr. J. J. Jones, Vol. I, p. 267.
147
. The Jataka, tr. by Robert Chalmers, Vol. I, p. 120.
148
. Epigraphy Indica, ed. by E. Hultzsch, Vol. VIII, p. 89.
which was not decorated in this stratum. This stratum indicates the final phase of grey
color pottery culture at the site of Ahichhatra. The grey wares were not large in size
and shape. The lower part of vessel black slip was commonly found. A storage jar
which has blackish in color with buff surface and distinctive jar with a well-defined
lip and a deeply grooved neck were found62. The potscard first time occurs in this
stratum63. Cooking pans with loop handles and small lug ears on their rims have been
discovered. Jars of gritty fabric with no well- defined neck have also been reported.
Flat horizontal rim was the feature of the small jars. A bellied jar with a small bottle
neck and rounded base is a rare type 151. IVth stratum belonged to the Kushana period.
It was in this stratum carinated and waisted jars were found. This type of pottery was
discovered at Maholi near Mathura belonged to Kushana period64. The lug-handles
handles were set up on rims of the shallow troughs. Jars of smaller types generally
with flat horizontal rims occasionally with grooves immediately below were found.
62 . A. Ghosh and K. C. Panigrahi, ‘The Pottery of Achchchhatra’, p. 45.
63 . Idem.
151
. Idem.
64 . Ibid, p. 46.
101
Bottle- necked jars with flaring lip as well as globular body with rounded base and
vertical neck were also discovered65. Sherds of pottery were marked by stamps,
designs and symbols such as Nag symbol, swastika and twin
fish66.
Another important site was Arkimedu. It was one of the main trading stations
of the Romans in the Ist and 2 nd century AD. It always holds significant position in the
history of economic relations of India with outside world67. At this site, arretine ware
(red glazed ware) has been discovered. This kind of pottery belonged to Eastern
Mediterranean, which emerged probably in the 2nd century BC68. Another foreign
pottery discovered in Arkimedu was amphorae sherds which were imported from the
Mediterranean world were of a pink fabric with yellow slip 69. Rouletted black wares
found in all stratas of Arkimedu with smooth, brittle and well-burnt and almost
metallic ring. This rouletted black ware of burned-grey, grayish pink black slip inside
and outside. In a few cases, it was highly polished and interior surface was often
burnished while its exterior received great attention 70. Rouletted wares have also been
discovered at Nasik, Sispulgarh, and Andhra71. It was in Arkimedu, local pottery made
by local potters was found. It was turned on wheel. They were storagejars, ring- wells,
portable ovens and conical jars. The materials which have been used in the pottery
were husk, grit, mica and straw. Slips were fairly widespread. The fabric was usually
clay with sand. The colors of pottery were pink, grayish red, grayish black. The
pottery was plain and utilitarian character. The small percentages of pottery were in
inverted firing72.
65 . Idem.
66 . Idem.
67 . R. E. M. Wheeler, ‘Arikamedu: An Indo-Roman Trading Station on the East Coast of India’, p. 17.
68 . Ibid, p. 34.
69 . Ibid, p. 41; The importing of Medeterrian pottery also mentioned by the Periplus; The Periplus
of Erythean Sea, tr. by Lionel Cassion, Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1989,p. 228.
70 . R. E. M. Wheeler, ‘Arikamedu: An Indo-Roman Trading Station on the East Coast of India’, pp.
45-46.
71 . Mortimer Wheeler, Rome behind the Imperial Frontiers, London, 1954, pp. 151.
72 . Gurchan Singh, Pottery in India, pp. 49-50.
102
In India art of wine cups are depicted in profusion. It appears in Shunga,
Satvahana and Kushana art73. It was from the region of Gandhar pottery with different
fashions belonged to the period of study such as Goblets were found in the Gandhar
region belonged to the Parthian levels. They were used them as wine cups. These
wine cups have carinated bodies, deeply flared mouths, horizontal flutings and
pedestal base. The other was drinking horns that have a wide mouth with the sides
tapering towards the bottom used for drinking purpose. Romans borrowed this art
from Greeks 74 . The third was Mug which had Hellenistic derivation. It was
cylindrical in shape with multi- ribbed exterior. It has a big handle luted to the brim of
the rim and profile. The base was flat. The similar types of mugs have been reported
from Kashmir163. The fourth was Amphoras. It has a vertical neck, globular body and
pedestal base. It was also provided with two handles. They were luted to rim and
body. It was used to keep oil, honey and especially wine 164. The fifth was surahi.
They have long neck, globular body and flat base. Indian imitated them from Romans.
They were used to keep water and wine. They were found in the western Indian and
165
Deccan . The sixth was spouted vessels. They have vertical neck, globular body,
pedestal base or ring base. They have been also reported from the sculptures of
75
Baharuth, Amravati and Nagarjunakonda . The pottery has also reported from
Alagankulam. It was an Indo-Roman trading station or port. It was situated on the
mouth of the Vaigai River167. Pottery at this site was sherds of arretine ware,
amphorae pieces and sherds of Tamil-Brahmi origin168. The amphorae were imported
from Rome but the local craftsmen of India learnt from Roman craftsmen who had
settled in Arkimedu169. The pottery was reported from many Kushana sites in Mathura
such as saur, Arha, jabra, Sonai, Gotha, Anama as Red color pottery, grey ware sherds
with thick fabric along the shunga period bowls with incurred rim were found 170. The
Junnar was one of the important site belonged to the Satvahana period located in the
district of Pune171. From this site, Roman red pottery polished ware, Black ware which
73 .K. Krishna Murthy, ‘The Domestic Art Delineated in the Gandhara Reliefs’, Purattava, No. 07,
1974, p. 98.
74 . Idem. 163. Idem. 164. Idem; Mortimer Wheeler, Rome Behind the Imperial frontiers,
London, 1954, pp. 148-49. 165. K. Krishna Murthy, ‘The Domestic Art Delineated in the
Gandhara Reliefs’, p. 99.
75 . Idem.
103
has green glazed on its surface and Small quantities of green glazed pottery fragments
have been discovered172. These Green glazed potteries were imported from Persian-
173
Gulf . The Dhannchinchani belonged to the Satvahana period. Black and red color
pottery mainly dishes, bowls, drinking cups were found. Fine-grained mica could be
seen in the fine variety of the Black and red ware could have been brought from
Northern India174. The Tilpi in West-Bengal belonged to 2 nd BC and 3rd century AD
from where Red wares including dull-red, buff-red and illfired were found. Grey
wares including dark-grey and grey with red patches are frequent varieties. Black
slipped wares and black and red wares have been reported from there. Grafitti mark
like Brahmi ka was found on the pottery sherds175. Ambar site is located in Assam
where Ceramic industry was found well developed and dominated in this area. The
pottery which has been discovered from this site was red ware, buff-ware and few
grey-wares. It includes both handmade and wheel made pottery. The texture of the
pottery varies from fine to coarse and the fabric varies from medium to thick, in
addition, arretine ware and roulette ware were also found at this site 176. Tibba Name
Shah in Jammu and Kashmir is situated in the Jammu district. Period 3 rd of this site
belonged to the Kushana period. The red ware pottery
167
. K. S. Ramachandran, ‘Alangankulam an Indo-Roman Port: A Critique’, Puravattava, No. 27, 1996-
97, p. 19.
168
. Ibid, pp. 20-21.
169
. Ibid, p. 22.
170
. Ibid, pp. 218-229.
171
. Indian Archaeology, 2006-07, A Review, published by director of ASI, New Delhi, 2016, pp. 0607.
172
. Ibid, p. 43.
172
. Idem.
173
. Ibid, pp. 135-136.
174
. Ibid, pp. 51-52.
175
. Ibid, pp. 135-136.
176
. Indian Archaeology, 2008-09- A Review, published by director of ASI, New Delhi, 2015, p. 17.
was recovered from this site included vases, bowls, pots, storage-jars, lids, dishes
etc.76. These are distinguished by stamped designs and geometrical patterns with black
76 . Indian Archaeology, 2008-09, pp. 68-69.
104
painting on the surface77. Azhakankulam was a Pandya port, a village at the mouth of
Vaigai River. Amphora ware, rouletted ware along with the red ware with Tamil-
Brahmi letters have been discovered from this site 78. Vasavasamudram is a small
village on the erstwhile mouth of the Palar River in the Kanchipuram district. The
pottery which have been discovered from this site were amphorae, rouletted ware, red
ware, red and black slipped wares which suggested the Indian links with the
Medeteriian world79.
Wine Industry: Wine industry was one of the important industries during the ancient
times. Both literarily and archaeological references are available regarding the
consumption of wine and wine making in India. There is a reference regarding the
wine in Jatakas. Culla-Narada Jataka informs that wine was very scrumptious,
odorous and cheap item which was produced in India. “There is a liquor in the world,
my son, that men call wine, fragrant, delicious, honey-sweet and cheap, of flavor
wine”80. One reference comes from the Historian of Alexander. Chares of Mitylene
who accompanied Alexander in crossing the Gandhar Region, recorded the local god
of the Region of Gandhar known as Soroadeios who was considered helper in wine
81
making . Kalash Mountains of eastern Afghanistan were famous for grape
cultivation and wine production82. An inscription was inscribed on large bowl. It
contains leaf decoration outside of the bowl suggest the art of wine making. On the
Sanghol pillar of 2nd AD, there was also the depiction of madhupana (a yakshi
drinking wine) on a Sanghol (Punjab) railing pillar dated to 2 nd century AD.
According to sources, Kapisa was famous for wine-making. Drinking scenes were
also appeared on the sculptures which showed western impact and wine was imported
77 . Idem.
78 . Rajan Gurukkal, Rethinking Classical Indo-Roman Trade; Political Economy of Eastern
Medeteriian Exchange Relations, Oxford University Press, 2016, p. 34.
79 . Idem.
80 . Jatakas, ed. E. B.Cowell, Vol. 04-06, p. 134.
81 . Ardhendu Ray, Wine Production and Consumption: Archaeological Evidences from Sanghol,
PIHC, 75th Session, New-Delhi, 2014, pp. 1135-1138.
82 . The Geography of Strabo, tr. H. L. Jones, Vol. Vii, p. 97; Ardhendu Ray, Wine Production and
Consumption: Archaeological Evidences from Sanghol, PIHC, 75th Session, New-Delhi, 2014, pp.
1135-1138.
105
lim
M
h
ar
lig
from Kapisa. So, Kapisa was the center of the wine production during Kushan era. It
,A
was also confirmed by another fact that grape seeds have been reported from
y
excavation184. The process of wine making was passed through different processes
ar
such as treading of grapes, filtering the wines through textile bags, fermentation in
br
wineskins or large bowls, opening the storage bowls, using a krater, distributing the
Li
filtered wine in wineskins and so on185. In India art of wine cups are depicted in
d
ity za
profusion. The potteries themselves speak about the wine making and its consumption
rs A
186
in India . It was from the region of Gandhar pottery with different fashions
ve na
belonged to the study such as Goblets were found in the Gandhar region belonged to
ni la
the Parthian levels. They were used them as wine cups. These have carinated bodies,
U au
deeply flared mouths, horizontal flutings and pedestal base. The other was drinking
M
horn has a wide mouth with the sides tapering towards the bottom were used for
drinking purpose. Romans borrowed this art from Greeks187. The third was Mug which
had Hellenistic derivation. It was cylindrical in shape with multi- ribbed exterior. It
has a big handle luted to the brim of the rim and profile. The base was flat. The
similar types of mugs have been reported from Kashmir188.
Other Professional Classes: Our sources mention many professionals and

occupational groups such as teachers, physicians, army men, musicians, state officers,
priests, elephant trainers, prostitutes, dancers. Charaka Samhita informs that a teacher
should have expert in his subject and he should be skillful, pure and well equipped 189.
It further mentions profession of physician who should be skillful, expert and should
have practical knowledge190. Even sometimes slaves were expert in curing diseases as
there is reference that a wealthy merchant was suffered from chronic disease and he
was cured by his slave girl 191. Mahavastu speaks about nobles, counselors and
184.
Ardhendu Ray, ‘Wine Production and Consumption: Archaeological Evidences from Sanghol’,
pp. 1135-1138; the liquor was made of rice, cinnamon, fruits, honey, sugar, pepper, jiggery etc. the
wine of grapes was called Madhu which was manufactured at Kapisayana; Arthsastra, tr. by R.
Shamsastry, p.135.
185.
Ardhendu Ray, ‘Wine Production and Consumption: Archaeological Evidences from Sanghol’, pp.
1135-1138.
186.
K. Krishna Murthy, ‘The Domestic Art Delineated in the Gandhara Reliefs’, Purattava, No. 07,
1974, p. 98.
187
106
. Idem.
188
. Idem.
189
. Charakasamhita, tr. Gabriel Van Loon, p. 110; A physician who was expert in medical drugs as he
knew all medical drugs which were found on the earth; Milindpanho, tr. T. W. Rhys Davids, PartI,
Vol. XXXV, p. 116; there is also reference of physician in the law book Yajnavalkya smriti;
Yajnavalkya Smriti, tr. Rai Bhadur Srisa Vidyarna, Allahabad, 1918, p. 164.
190
. Charakasamhita, tr. Gabriel Van Loon, p. 110
191
. Divyavadana, tr. by Andv Rotman, Part I, Boston, 2008, p. 31.
treasures192. The most important amusement classes were musicians. There are many
references regarding the musicians and musical instruments. It was in the city of
Dipavati where musicians were skillful. They produced sound of five musical
instruments193. The musical instruments which were used by musicians were guitar,
flute194, tabor and trumpet195. In India, jugglers carried the musical instruments such as
cymbals, drums and castanets196. Manu argues that even the profession of singing
could also be adopted by the Brahmans197. There were also classes of fortune-tellers
and mendicants who also provided services in the society198. Benaras was famous
199
ancient city where the girls were performed the profession of dancing . The
prostitutes were one of the important amusement classes. They were also the provider
of the services in the society200. Defense industry was highly developed during the
post-Mauryan period. Arthsastra mentions that it was the duty of superintendent of
armoury to employ experienced workmen for the manufacturing of wheels, weapons,
mail armour and other instruments which were used in the battles. They had given
fixed amount of wages for their work201. These weapons were used in the battles.
Sarvatobhadra was the cart wheels which was used to throws stones in all directions
because it could rotate. Jamadagnya was a large machine to shoot arrows.
Bahumukha was the tower situated on the top of the fort. Visvasaghati was the
crossbeam which was kept above the ditch at the entrance of the fort. It was placed in
such a manner which caused to fall down and kill the enemies when they dared to
enter in the fort. Parjanyaka was the water-machine to put out fire202. Sukarika was
the leather bag which was filled with cotton or wool used to protect the towers, roads
etc against the stones thrown by enemies. Hastivaraka was a big rod with two or three
192
. The Mahavastu, tr. J. J. Jones, pp. 152 and 157.
193
107
. Ibid, p. 153; it was from Kausambi excavation the terracotta figurines with specialized types like a
female diety with double-knobbed head dress or peaked caps, musicians and dancers have been
reported which proved that the art of music and dancing were performed there; The Excavations at
Kausambi (1957-59), by G. R. Sharma, The Department of Ancient History, Culture and
Archaeology, University of Allahabad, 1960, p. 15.
194
. The Mahavastu, tr. J. J. Jones, p. 183; Venas played the drums, they were the class of dreamers;
Yajnavalkya Smriti, tr. Rai Bhadur Srisa Vidyarna, pp. 214 and 254, it was in the Tamilham where
lute was blowed by lute-players which was the source of amusement for the people; R. Sivakumar,
‘Sangam Poetry’, Indian Literature, Vol. 44, No. 02, March-April, 2000, p. 187.
195
. The Mahavastu, tr. J. J. Jones, p. 188.
196
. The Geography of Strabo, tr. H. L. Jones, VII, BK. XV, London, p. 35.
197
. Manu Smriti, tr. G. Buhler, p.47.
198
. Yajnavalkya Smriti, tr. Rai Bhadur Srisa Vidyarna, p. 164.
199
. Jataka tales, tr. by H. T. Francis and E. J. Thomas, p. 67.
200
. Yajnavalkya Smitri, tr. Rai Bhadur Srisa Vidyarna, p. 249.
201
202
. Idem.
points which was used to drive the elephants back. Karpana was an arrow which was
thrown by hand203. Nistrimsa, mandalagra and asiyashti were the swords whose
handles were made of the horns of buffaloes, rhinoceros, tusks of elephants and
bamboo woods. Bow-strings were made of hemp, bamboo bark and sinew. Kuddala
was an axe and Kandachchhedana was a big axe. Kavacha was the coat made of iron
pieces which was used to cover head, arms and trunk for protection in the battles. The
edges of arrows were made of wood, bones and iron 204. Talamula was the wooden
shield which was used for self-defense205. India was known for developed defense
industry. This fact was confirmed by numismatics evidences which indicate the use of
weapons such as bow, arrow, shields, battle-axe, armour, swords, spears, etc. 206.
Further Hieun-Tsang also informs about the use of various weapons. He further
mentions that these were sharp and pointed. These weapons were bows, shields,
207
arrows, battle-axes, long Javelins, Spears, swords etc. . This fact can also be
corroborated by Pattinappalai that mentions that the weapons such as shields and
spears which were manufactured and used in the region of Tamilham208.
108
Sources of Metals, minerals and precious stones: India has long history of
metallurgy. They had the knowledge of gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead 83. Our
contemporary and near contemporary sources provide information about the metals,
precious, semi-precious stones and minerals which were found in India. Pearls came
from the coast of Pandya kingdom210. The city of Dipavati was surrounded by gold,
203
204
. Ibid, p. 114.
205
. Ibid, p. 115.
206
. Osmound Bopearachchi, Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythians and Indo-Parthian coins in the Smiths son; an
institution, Washington, 1993, pp. 69-89; V. A. Smith, Coins of Ancient India; Catalogue of the
Coins in Indian Museum Calcutta, Vol. I, Indological Book House, Varansi, 1972, pp. 45-84;
Michael Mitichner, Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian Coinage, vol.2, Hawkins Publications; London,
1975, p. 80; the Kausambi excavation three bladed arrow heads have been discovered belonged to
the Indo Greeks, Sakas, Parthians and Kushanas which throws light on the development of defense
industry during the period of study; The Excavations at Kausambi (1957-59), by G. R. Sharma, pp.
14 and 15; the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman also mentions the use of weapons such as
sword and shield which indicates the defense industry was highly developed during the period of
study; Epigraphy Indicia, ed. E. Hultzsch, Vol. VIII, p. 48.
207
. SI-YU-KI; Buddhist Records of the Western World, tr. Samuel Beal, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner
and Co. LTD, London, 1884, p. 83; Nazir Ali, The Purananuru and the Tamil Concepts of Valour,
Bharatiya Pragna: An interdisciplinary Journal of Indian Studies, Vol. I, No. 03, 2016, p. 28.
208
. Pattinappalai, tr. B. Devendran, Journal of Tamil Studies, International Institute of Tamil Studies,
2018, p. 40.
silver, pearls, ruby, white coral and crystal211. The vicinity of Himalayas was the
source of oyster shells and conch shells212. The diamonds, corals, pearls, conch-shells,
precious stones were also obtained from the ocean mines213. Charaka Samhita also
mentions the gold, silver, copper, tin and brass214. Mahavastu informs that the gold,
silver, tin, copper, precious stones fields which were discovered by Bodhisattavas215.
Manu also mentions iron, lead, and copper, tin. He informs that gems and metals
216
should be cleaned by ashes, earth and water . Hieun-Tsang informs that gold, silver,
copper, pearls were the natural products of India 217. Dionysios Periegetes in his work
Descriptio Orbis informs that the jasper, silver, beryl, topaz, amethyst, diamond were
found in India218. As per Jatakas, the gold, silver, iron, tin, lead, pearls, and beryl
were available in India in abundance. “Some merchants, wanting water, dug the
83 . Dilip K. Chakrabarti, ‘The Pre-industrial Mines in India’, Puratattava, No. 16, 1985-86, p. 65.
210
. The Cambdidge History of India, Vol. I, ed. E. J. Rapson, S. Chand and Co, Delhi, 1955, p. 380.
109
ground. In an old well and there is a treasure found. Tin, copper, iron, lead, silver,
gold, beryl, pearls and jewels manifold” mentions Jataka219.
Iron. Gordon Childe and Mortimer Wheeler argue that iron was appeared in India
due to the Greeco-Roman influences in the 4th and 5th centuries BC. But this theory
was proved superfluous on the basis that iron was discovered in India around 1200
BC. As per some scholars, Aryans were the first settlers who used iron in India. It is
also confirmed that iron-metallurgy was invented independently in India particular in
the regions of Malwa and Banas cultures. Dhatwa and Shanalji produced iron for
domestic use and overseas consumption220.
Copper. In Rajasthan, the copper mining area can be located on the eastern flank of
the Aravallis, extending from Bharatpur, Alwar and Khetri regions in the north-east to
the south of Udaipur in the south-west reaching as Amba-Mata on the border of
Rajasthan and Gujarat. Copper has also been reported in Bagorin during the 3rd
211
. Milindpanho, tr. T. W. Rhys Davids, Part-I, Vol. XXXV, pp. 152 and 153.
212
213
. Ibid, p. 89; this fact was also confirmed from the Hieun-Tsang who informs that precious stones
were obtained from the islands of the sea; SI-YU-KI; Buddhist Records of the Western World, tr.
Samuel Beal, pp. 88-90.
214
. Charaka Samhita, tr. Gabriel Van Loon, p. 207.
215
. The Mahavastu, tr. J. J. Jones, p. 107.
216
. Manusmriti, tr, G. Buhler, p. 32.
217
. SI-YU-KI; Buddhist Records of the Western World, tr. Samuel Beal, pp. 88-90.
218
. John W. Mc Crindle, Ancient India as described in Classical Literature, p. 188.
219
. Jatakas, ed. E. B. Coewll, Vol. II, p. 206.
220
. Arun Kumar Biswas, Minerals and Metals in Ancient India, New-Delhi, 1994, pp. 212, 218, 385.
millennium BC221. Its use was reported from Bihar and Bengal in the 2 nd millennium
BC. Chottanagpur plateau was also the source of copper in eastern India. Guntur,
Nellore and Bellary were the areas where old copper workings have been identified.
Old copper workings were found in the Balaghat area of Madhya Pradesh and the
Kumayun-Garhwal belt of Uttar Pradesh222.
110
Tin. Tin was reported from Chotanagpur plateau and West-Bengal223. Earlier, tin was
imported from Afghanistan and Iran during Harappa and later period also. Tin ore was
also found in the Bhilwara and Udaipur districts of Rajasthan224.
Lead. Harappa people used lead ores such as galena and cerussite and later people
also225. It was primarily occurs in Chotanagpur, Andhra, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh
and Himalayan belt of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. It was widely used for coinage in
early historic period226.
Silver. It was rare in India. It was obtained from the lead-zinc ores of Zawar, Agucha
and Rajpur-Dariba227. Silver metallurgy could be traced from the sites of Sirkap,
Rupar, Vaishali and it was processed in Rajasthan and Baluchistan 228. Varieties of
silver such as Tuthodgata which was extracted from the Tuttha Mountain, Gaudika
from Gauda Mountain, Kambuka from the Kambu Mountain229.
Gold. It was obtained from the Kollar, Hatti and Gadag regions of Karnataka,
Chottanagpur in the east230. Megasthenes writes that the Indians got gold from ants.
They dig holes in the earth like other ants and the heap which they throw up consisted
of gold, the purest and hardest in the entire world 231. This fact is also corroborated by
the Pliny’s Natural History. He informs that the Indians ants which excavated gold
from the holes in the north of India. These ants had the color of a cat and in size they
221
. Dilip K. Chakrabarti, ‘The Pre-industrial Mines in India’, Puratattava, No. 16, 1985-86, pp. 65-66.
222
. Ibid, p. 67.
223
. Ibid, p. 68.
224
. Arun Kumar Biswas, Minerals and Metals in Ancient India, p. 328.
225
. Ibid, pp. 328-330.
226
. Dilip K. Chakrabarti, ‘The Pre-industrial Mines in India’, Puratattava, No. 16, 1985-86, p. 68.
227
. Idem.
228
. Arun Kumar Jha, ‘Chemical Industries in Ancient India from Mauryan era to Gupta age’, PIHC,
64TH Session, Mysore, 2003, p. 125.
229
230
. Ibid, p. 69.
231
111
. J. W. Mc Crindle, Ancient India as described by Megasthene and Arrian, Calcutta, 1877, p. 96.
looked as Egyptian wolf232. The inhabitants of that northern India were known as
Dardae. Varieties of gold such as Jambunada were obtained from the river Jambu,
Satakumba from the Satakumbha Mountain, Hataka from the mines of Hataka and
Vainava from the Venu Mountain233. It was at Maski where the ancient metallurgical
gold plant was discovered. Allchins argues that Greek darhams and Roman dinars
were made from Indian gold were in circulation for trade and often smelted for
reuse234. Indian satrapies paid 360 talents of gold to the Persian Empire and this
tribute must have been levied mainly from the countries situated to the west of the
Indus as it was sure that the Persian Empire never extended beyond the Punjab and
the lower valley of the Indus and this suggested the presence of gold in India 235.
Herodotus writes that Dardic people in Northern Kashmir and Tibetans used to dig
gold-mines during winter in secrecy and keeping their dogs in surroundings 236. It is
also held that the gold-sands were collected from the northern tributaries of the
Brahmaputra valley in Assam237.
Zinc. It was obtained from Rajpura-Dariba, Zawar, Agucha in Rajasthan238. It was

mixed with copper to make brass. Brass was used for casting statuary, covering
temple roofs, fabricating vessels etc.239.
Salt. It was found in salt range of hills between Indus and Hydaspes or Jhelum240.
Diamond. Arthsatra refers to the Indian diamonds. It occurred in Vidarabha,

Kalinga, Magadha, Tripura, the Kosalan country, Benaras241. Ptolomey refers to the
diamonds in the region of Kosa which was situated north of the Tapti and Varada242.
232
. Pliny’s Natural History, tr. John Bostock and H. T. Riley, Vol. III, Book XI, Cambridge, 1885, p.
39.
233
234
. Arun Kumar Jha, ‘Chemical industries in Ancient India from Mauryan era to Gupta age’, PIHC,
64TH Session, Mysore, 2003, p. 124.
235
. John W. Mc Crindle, Ancient India as described in Classical Literature, p. 01.
236
112
237
. Irfan Habib and Faiz Habib, Atlas of Ancient Indian History, p. 62.
238
. Dilip K. Chakrabarti, ‘The Pre-industrial Mines in India’, Puratattava, No. 16, 1985-86, p. 69; M.
V. Krishna Rao, ‘Guild and state in Kautaliya’s Arthsastra’, The Indian Journal of Political
Science, Vol. 11, No. 01, 1950, p. 52.
239
240
. John W. McCrindle, Ancient India as described in Classical Literature, p. 128.
241
242
. J. W. Mc Crindle, Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, pp. 158 and 159.
According to B. N. Mukherjee, that Kanishka annexed Avanti (Akaravanti) from
Satvahanas due to the reason as there was having diamond mines84.
Guild System: Guild was known by various names such as sartha, srenis, vrata,
varga, puga, samgha85. It played a significant role in economy at that time and
organizing infrastructure for the sale and distribution of surplus products of the
villages and urban centers. They had their own rules, laws and regulations which were
accepted by all and respected by the state. It also had judicial power and settled the
disputes by their own executive but not by state tribunals. According to R. C.
Majumdar, Guild or sreni appeared to be a company of merchants 86. Guild was a
union of professionals with a well-defined structure, a framed code of conduct of rules
and membership governed by certain regulations and qualifications. They had their
own funds and properties. They were industrialists and professionals managing the
sale of products. They fulfilled the need of people. They acted as bankers. They
accepted money. They provided loans to the merchants and traders. They financed to
the merchants and traders. They invested money with some interests 87. Different
artisans and craftsmen who were connected with different guilds were Kularikas
(potters), kulikas (weavers), dhanikas (corn-dealers), tilapishakas (oil-mongers),
vadhikas (carpenters), manikaras (jewels), lohavanaijakas or kammaras (iron-smiths,
84 . Arun Kumar Biswas, Minerals, Metals in Ancient India, pp. 340-342.

85 . Dr. A. S. Altekar, ‘Economic Condition of Western India during 200 BC to 500 AD’, PIHC, 14th
Session Jaipur, pp. 29-30.
86 . Benudhar Patra, ‘Merchants, Guilds and Trade in Ancient India: An Orissan Perspective’, Annals
of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 89, 2008, pp. 147-151.
87 . Idem.
113
odayantrikas (hydraulic workers), suvarnakaras (goldsmiths), gandhikas (drugs),
salavanijkas (stone-cutters), malakaras (garland makers)88.
Basis of Arts and Crafts.
Smriti literature provides valuable information about the castes as the basis of
arts and crafts. These castes were assigned particular kind of arts and crafts as well as
occupations. The following were the castes along with their professions and
occupations:
Suta. The Brahmanni mother and kshatriya father was begotten Suta. He was little less
in status than kshatriya. He had to work as driver of elephants, horses and
chariots248.
88 . Dr. A. S. Altekar, ‘Economic Condition of Western India during 200 BC to 500 AD’, PIHC, 14th
Session Jaipur, p. 29.
114
Vaidekika. Vaidekika was the son born to Brahman mother and a Vaishya father. His
249
.
Chandala . Chandala was born to Brahman woman shudra
and a He was
untouchable and must live on the outskirts of the wer
city to
father. whoseas
25
executioner
duties and 0 . e work an
torturer
Magadh . He was begotten by a kshatriya mother vaishyaand His profession
was
a that of a bard and was devoid vrta. Hisocc
of patio was storytelling, oratory
father.
251
and cient in six kinds of languages s . u n
profi
Ksatri. He was begotten by a kshatriya and shudra He was also known
a Nishada
woman . He was outside the pale offather.
all varnas. Heirds
hunted
and the
animals in
252
the
s b.
forests
Ayogav. He was begotten by a vaishya woman and shudra man. He was lower in
253
status
a than a shudra. His was to work in stones and.
occupation wood
Koiri. A Brahmawho entered the order sanyasi with the vow andrahma keep B
widow.nHis offspring
of were Koirio Dolas. Their occupations were n digging of
254
wells, tanks, canals called
reservoirfor their
r livelihood .
and s
Sajjala. The son bornkshatriya woman and vrtya kshatriya wa called Sajjala.
He worked
to as teacher.
manHe had to teach of to the ki
ng,
sonsthe
s use of arms and
255
weapon .
s
24
8 .
24
Yajnavalkya Smriti
, tr. Rai Bhadur Srisa Vidyarna, p. 196.
9
25
. Idem
0 .
occupation had to work in stones and wood for means of livelihood
115
. Ibid, p. 197; the word Chandala signifies a wicked-man who lived apart from others. It is said when
he entered in a town or market place, he strike a piece of wood in order to keep himself separate,
people hearing this sound avoid touching him; Travels of Fa-hian and Sung-Yun,
Buddhist Pilgrims from China to India (400 AD to 518 AD) tr. Samuel Beal, London, 1964, p. 55.
251
. Yajnavalkya Smriti, tr. Rai Bhadur Srisa Vidyarna, p. 197.
252
. Idem.
253
. Idem.
254
. Ibid, p. 199.
255
. Idem.
Malla. A son begotten by sajjala from a kshatriya woman called Malla. He lived by
profession of arms.
Lichchivi. A Malla begot on a kshatriya woman called Lichchivi. His livelihood was
massaging the body of men. He acted as barber256.
116
Nat. The lichch ivi begot on a kshatriya woman
a Nata whose occup ation was
257
a
performance of .
dramas
Abhira. A son born to woman of Mahisaya and a Brahman w s called
man
Abhira.
His occupation was rearing of cattle, to butte milk, s aand enlarged
selland
258
compound. r curd cattle
s
Chhatrapa. A daughter of vaishya father by arahmani
B wifeaswa vaidehi. She
m
married to rahman
aB produced a sonChhatrapa . His occupat
ion was to carry
259
royal called
.
umbrella
Digvana . Ayogaviwas the daughter of a vaishya woman hudra
by afather.
s She
married to rahman
aB gave birth to a Digvana. Hevehad
thetohorses
ser and
260
works . leather
Kunbhakara . A girlwho begotten by a kshatriya father and a shudrawa
calle Ugra. A boywasw mother
as begotten by ugrarahmani
and father whosetions
261
d
making of earthen B . occupa was
pots
Tamra -Kuttaka . The progeny of a shudra woman by a kshatriya husband was a
daughter called Parasavi. This Parasavi by a kshatriya husband gave birth to a child
262
calle Tamra -Kuttaka. His profession was to make copper
s .
d vessel
Malakara . A Mahisya was a son of vaishya father and kshatriya mother. He married
to aNishadawoman begot a son called Malakara
. His occupation was to make
263
garland .
s
25
6 . Yajnavalkya
25
Smriti
, tr. Rai Bhadur Srisa Vidyarna,
199 p.
7 . Idem
258 .
. . Ibid, p. 201.
259
. Ibid, 202.
260
. Idem.
261
. Idem.
262
. Idem.
263
. Ibid, p. 203.
117
Mardaka. The son of a Magadha by a Mahisya female called Mardaka. His profession
was singing and learning four kinds of musical instruments264.
Kukkutaka. The son of a shudra father and a Nishada woman was a Kukkutaka. His
profession was to work in all mills and to superintend the manufacture of coins265.
Mauskalik . The child of an ugra father and Parasavi mother was Mauuskalika. He
266
a
drove the-pressig machine and the pure .
oil n sold oil
Kuravinda . The wife of a Kukkuta in connection
with a Kumbhakara gave birth to a
so wh was called Kuravinda. His assigned profession was to weave the silken
267
n o .
clothe
s
Pamsula . A Paustikabegot from a Nishada woman a son called Pamsula whose
268
occupati n was to weave the hemp .
o clothes
Aurabhra . A chhagali woman produced through bhrijukantha
usband a w o
269
h
called Aurabhra. occupation
His was to blankets and sonrearing of h. was
make sheep
Mahang . Mahangu was a son born to Avarta woman and a ksemaka man. His
270
u fession was to drive the .
pr
o camels
Romika . An Avarta woman by a mallabha man produced a son called Romika. His
271
occupation was o manufacture .
t salt
Kaivartaka . A kaivartaka was born of an ayogavi mother and a Parasava father. His
272
occuption was to make nets and fishe. He also worked as .
a catch s boatman
Karivara . He was the so of a Dhikvani woman and ishada
a N father. His
27
was to ake shoes nand saddles of 3
. profession
m horses
Towns and urban centers. Urbanization is one of the importantofaspects
any
civilization. In 1936 D,AV. Gordon Childe first formulated the concept of urban
26
. Yajnavalkya Smriti
, tr. Ra
i Bhadur Srisa Vidyarna, p. 203.
5
26
. Ibid, p.
206.
6 . Ide .
26
264 7 . Ibid
m , p.
268 207
. Idem.
269
. Idem.
270
118
. Idem.
271
. Idem.
272
. Idem.
273
. Ibid, p. 208.
revolution. His emphasis on the technology is the moving force behind urbanization.
Other is the art of writing which distinguish the civilized people from the
barbarians274. Lewis Mumford is of the opinion that city is the point of maximum
concentration for power and culture of a community. It is the place where the rays of
the many separate beams of light fall into focus, with gains in both social
effectiveness and significance. The city is the form and symbol of an integrated social
relationship; it is the seat of temple, the market, the hall of justice and the academy of
learning. Here, in the city, the goods of civilization are multiplied and manifold; here
is where the human experience is transformed into visible signs, symbols, pattern of
conduct, and system of order. Here is where issues of civilization are focused” 275. In
India, urbanization was old process since the times of immemorial. Urban centers and
cities developed in India since the times of Harappa civilization. It goes back 2300
BC, the Indus valley regions276. Mortimer Wheeler argues that India received the idea
of city from Mesopotamia in the 3rd century BC277. It was in the later Vedic period, use
of iron technology, PGW pottery and its use, iron tools and implements and other
archaeological findings along with the references related to the emerging of various
occupational classes such as carpenters, weavers, and iron-smiths, rope-makers etc.
led to the development of industrial centers and later grew into towns 278. It was from
the 6th century BC, iron played an important role in urbanization which led to the
formation of Mahajanpadas and Magadha emerged important and powerful state 279.
The Mauryan period also witnessed the growth of towns. The most important towns
and cities were Pataliputra, Taxila, Mathura, Saketa, Varansi, Kausambi, Hastinapur,
Gavidhumata, Ahicchatra, Kanyakubja, Ujjayni, Kanchipur, Mahismati, Nasikya 280. A
rapid urbanization was witnessed in the post Mauryan period. It is confirmed by
archaeological evidences too. A number of factors were responsible for the growth of
urbanization and rise of town and urban centers. The first factor was the growth of
urban centers due to the use of iron technology. The use of iron in plough and in other
119
implements of agriculture increased the production of land which was used for both
self-consumption and surplus for trade. This development of trade led to the
274
. V. G. Childe, Piecing together the Past, Routledge and Kegan Paul PLC, London, pp. 17-23.
275
. Lewis Mumford, Culture of Cities, New-York, 1936, p. 03.
276
. R. S. Sharma, India’s Ancient Past, p. 74.
277
. Kameshwar Prashad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kushanas, pp. 01 and 05.
278
. Ibid, pp. 03-05.
279
. R. C. Majumdar, Ancient India, pp. 95-96.
280
. Kameshwar Parshad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kushanas, pp. 09-10.
developments of markets and towns89. The second factor was the development of arts
and crafts. The emerging and development of occupational groups such as potters,
washer man, carpenters, iron-workers, tailors, brick-makers etc. led to the growth of
urban centers. They were engaged in non-agricultural production. They were
converted raw-materials into finished goods in particular places and these places
finally grew into towns. The third factor was the guild system. Each guild was having
a particular section of town. This tendency gave impetus to the localization of crafts
and industries and heredity transmission of skills to the members of a particular art
and craft. The head of the guilds were lived in towns. The fourth factor was the
growth of trade and commerce from 200 BC to 300 AD. This led to the growth of
towns during this period and most of the towns during this period developed on the
major trade routes282. The following were the towns which were developed from 200
BC to 300 AD:
Taxila. Taxila was one of the earliest and famous cities of ancient India. This place is
also mentioned in epics and Buddhist literature. It was the great center of trade and
education. It was located on trade route 283. It was from the Giri in Taxila where
archaeological findings have been reported such as iron, arrow-heads, beads, gold
ornaments, ivory bangles, antimony rods90. The other city of Taxila was Sirkap where
copper cups, copper bowls, copper inkpot, copper handis, ivory-hair comb, ivory
89 . R. S. Sharma, Light on Early Indian Society and Economy, Bombay, 1966, p. 60. 282.
Kameshwar Parshad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kushanas, pp. 01, 05 and 06. 283.
R. S. Sharma, India’s Ancient Past, p. 222.
90 . Annual Report (1927-28), pp. 57-65.
120
anvil square in section belonged to the Parthian era, yellow glazed pottery fragments,
gold and silver ornaments have been discovered91. It was at Sirsukh where pottery,
metal objects, stone objects, coins, beads of semi-precious stones have been reported.
So all these archaeological findings indicate that Taxila was one of the important
urban centers during the post-Mauryan period92.
Kashmir. In Kashmir, many Kushana towns have been developed. Kalhana informs
that Kushana kings got built three towns in Kashmir namely Huskapura, Juskapura
and Kanishkapura93. Terracotta tiles have been discovered from all the sites of
Kashmir valley such as Harwan, Ushkur, Semtham, Hutmur, Ganderbal, Doen
Pather288. It was at Doen Pathar, tiles have not built well levigated clay and wellbaked.
Stamps are found slightly under developed. It was from the site of Hoinar where clay
was not well-levigated but motifs are well demarcated. It was from Kanishkapur at
Baramullaha where Brahmi and Kharoshti numerals are found inscribed on terracotta
tiles. The tiles from Harwan were the workmanship of the Parthian people who settled
in Kashmir in the first and second century BC. It was the exclusive art of Parthian.
Hunting scenes were found depicting on the tiles of Harwan 289. The Kanishkapur,
Ushkur and Harwan belonged to the Kushan period and these tiles were also found in
Taxila and its neighboring regions290.
Mathura. Mathura was important urban center during the Post-Mauryan period. It
was located on royal highway passing from Pataliputra to Taxila 291. It was known for
the manufacture of special kind of cloth called Shataka292. Kautaliya informs that it
was known for the cotton293.
Dhenukakata. It was located in north-west of India. Several Yavanas were the

natives of this place. There was a reference of perfumer 294 and carpenter295 from
Dhenukakata which indicated that it was the important town where these crafts were
practiced.
91 . Annual Report (1928-29), pp. 51-55.

92 . Kameshwar Parshad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kushanas, pp. 35-36.
93 . Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, tr. M. A. Stein, Vol. I, Archibald Constable and Company, LTD,
Westminster, 1979, p. 30.
121
Govardhana. It was important town under Satvahanas. There are references of guilds
of weavers from Govardhana who invested 2000 Kahapanas. The members of
samgha were given clothes296. There are also references of guilds of oil-milers 297 and
hydraulic workers298. It was the place where such arts and crafts were practiced.
Paethan. It was modern Paithan situated on the river Godavari. It was the oldest town
or city of Deccan. It was the capital of Satvahana king Pulumayi II. It was important
town which was the center of Textile industry299.
288
. Mohammad Ajmal Shah and B. R. Mani, ‘Kushan Terracotta Tiles in Kashmir Valley: The
Chronological interpretation’, Purvattava, No. 43, 2013, pp. 239-240.
289
. Ibid, pp. 240-242.
290
. Ibid, p. 245.
291
. Kameshwar Parshad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kushanas, p. 46.
292
293
. Kameshwar Parshad, Cities, Crafts and Commerce under the Kushanas, p. 46.
294
. Epigraphy Indica, ed. by E. Hultzsch, Vol. VII, pp. 52-54.
295
. Idem.
296
. Epigraphy Indica, ed. by E. Hultzsch, Vol. VIII, p. 82.
297
. Ibid, p. 89.
298
. Idem.
299
. The Periplus of Erythean Sea, tr. W. H. Schoof, pp. 195 and 196.
Benaras. It was one of the oldest towns of ancient India. It was the important
religious town of India as it had religious town of India because of its religious
importance. It was famous for muslin clothes. It was the town of traders and
merchants. There was lived many arts and craftsmen94.
Ahichchhatra. It was important town of ancient India located in Uttar Pradesh. The
stratum IV and VII of the excavation here belonged the period of study. Stratum vii
belonged to 2nd century BC and Ist century AD. There found grey pottery with heavy
wares and sometimes with slip was found which was not decorated in this stratum.
This stratum indicates that this was the final phase of grey color pottery culture at the
site of Ahichchhatra. These grey wares were not large in size and shape. It was at the
94 . Jataka tales, tr. by H. T. Francis and E. J. Thomas, pp. 01 to 100; The Jatakas, tr. by Robert
Chalmers, Vol. I, p. 01.
122
lower part of vessel, black slip was commonly found. A storage jar which was
blackish in color with buff surface and distinctive jar with a well-defined lip and a
deeply grooved neck95. The postcard first time occurs in this stratum 96. Cooking pans
with loop handles and small lug ears on their rims have been discovered. Jars of gritty
fabric with no well- defined neck have also been found. Flat horizontal rim was the
feature of the small jars. A bellied jar with a small bottle neck and rounded base is a
type of rare occasion97. It was in the stratum of VI that belonged to the Kushana
period. It was in this stratum carinated and waisted jars have been discovered. We
find in this period flat base, minimum diameter gradually increasing upwards to an
inturned rim. This type of pottery was found at Maholi near Mathura belonging to
Kushana period98. The lug-handles handles were set up on rims of the shallow
troughs. Jars of smaller types generally with flat horizontal rims occasionally with
grooves immediately below were found. Bottle- necked jars with flaring lip as well as
globular body with rounded base and vertical neck were also reported 305. These
findings indicate that it was important center of manufacturing of pottery-Industry
where this craft was practiced.
Arkimedu. It was one of the main trading stations of the Romans as well as important
urban center in the Ist and 2nd century AD. It holds significant position in the history
of economic relations of India with outside world306. In this site, arretine ware (red
glazed ware) has been discovered. This kind of pottery belonged to Eastern
Mediterranean, which emerged in the 2nd century BC307. Another foreign pottery found
in Arkimedu was amphorae sherds which were imported from the Mediterranean
world were of a pink fabric with yellow slip 308. Rouletted black wares were found in
all stratas of Arkimedu were smooth, brittle and well-burnt and almost metallic ring.
This rouletted black ware was of burned-grey, grayish pink black slip inside and
outside. In a few cases, it was highly polished and interior surface was often
burnished while its exterior received great attention309. Rouletted wares have also been
95 . A. Ghosh and K. C. Panigrahi, The Pottery of Achchchhatra, p. 45.

96 . Idem.
97 . Idem.
98 . Ibid, p. 46. 305.
Idem.
123
discovered at Nasik, Sispulgarh, and Andhra310. It was at Arkimedu, local pottery have
been found made by local potters. It was turned on wheel. They were storage-jars,
ring- wells, portable ovens and conical jars. The materials used in the pottery were
husk, grit, mica, straw. Slips were fairly widespread. The fabric was usually clay with
sand. The colors of pottery were pink, grayish red, grayish black. The pottery was
plain and utilitarian character. The small percentages of pottery were in inverted
firing311. A large number of dyeing vats have been discovered from Arkimedu which
indicate the clothes were dyed here 312. This indicates that it was important urban
center where both local and foreign craftsmen lived. This site also proved the
existence of the Indo-Roman trade till 7 th AD as earlier it was thought that it ended in
the 2nd century AD313.
Gandhar. It was the leading town in the North-West of India. It was from the region
of Gandhar where pottery with different fashions belonged the area of study is given
below such as Goblets were found in the Gandhar region belonged to the Parthian
levels. They were used them as wine cups. They have carinated bodies, deeply flared
mouths, horizontal flutings and pedestal base. The other was drinking horn has a wide
mouth with the sides tapering towards the bottom were used for drinking purpose.
306
. R. E. M. Wheeler, ‘Arikamedu: An Indo-Roman Trading Station on the East Coast of India’, p. 17.
307
. Ibid, p. 34. 308
. Ibid, p. 41; The importing of Medeterrian pottery also mentioned by the Periplus; The Periplus of
Erythean Sea, tr. by Lionel Cassion, Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1989,p. 228.
309
. R. E. M. Wheeler, ‘Arikamedu: An Indo-Roman Trading Station on the East Coast of India’, pp.
45-46.
310
. Mortimer Wheeler, Rome Behind the Imperial Frontiers, p. 151.
311
. Gurchan Singh, Pottery in India, pp. 49-50.
312
313
. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient an Early Medieval India, Delhi, 2009, pp. 414-415.
Romans borrowed this art from Greeks 314. The third was Mug which had Hellenistic
derivation. It is cylindrical in shape with multi- ribbed exterior. It has a big handle
luted to the brim of the rim and profile. The base is flat. The similar types of mugs
have been reported from Kashmir315. The fourth was Amphorae. It has a vertical neck,
124
globular body and pedestal base. It is also provided with two handles. They are luted
to rim and body. It was used to keep oil, honey and especially wine 316. The fifth was
surahi. They have long neck, globular body and flat base. Indian imitated them from
Romans. They were used to keep water and wine. They were found in the western
Indian and Deccan317. The sixth was spouted vessels. They have vertical neck,
globular body, pedestal base or ring base. They have been also reported from the
sculptures of Baharuth, Amravati and Nagarjunakonda318.
Pataliputra: It was one of the most important ancient city of India. It was also capital
city under centralized Mauryas319. Megasthenes gives detailed account about the city
of Pataliputra. He talks about commercial administration in this great city. He refers
the superintendents of trade and commerce. Its members had charge of weights and
measures. No one was allowed to deal in one kind of commodity unless he paid
double tax. The fifth class supervised the manufactured articles which they sold.
Adulteration was not allowed. The sixth class was those who collect the one-tenth of
the prices of sold articles. Old and new articles were ordered sell them separately.
Lapses in payments of municipal were sentence to death320.
Puskalvati. It was situated on the west of river Indus. It was the old capital of
Gandhara. It was the great center of Greek, Sakas and Kushana. It was located on the
trade route and way to the Indus delta 321. The traders with their goods used to travel
through this city. The trade of India with China and Central Asia during the period of
Sakas and Kushans were carried on by the North-Western trade route passing through
314
. Mortimer Wheeler, Rome Behind the Imperial Frontiers, p. 151.
315
. Idem.
316
. Ibid, pp. 148-49.
317
. Ibid, p. 99.
318
. Idem.
319
. R. S. Agarwal, Trade Centers and Routes in Northern India (c.322 B.C-500 A.D), B. R. Publishing
Corporation, Delhi, 1982, pp. 93-96.
320
. J. W. Mc Crindle, Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, p. 169; Fa-hian also informs that the
people of Pataliputra was rich, prosperous and virtuous. The Devas were decorated with gold,
silver and lapis lazuli. They were also placed under canopies of embroided silk; Travels of Fa-hian
and Sung-Yun, Buddhist Pilgrims from China to India (400 AD to 518 AD) tr. Samuel Beal, pp.
125
104-106.
321
. Alexander Cunnigham, Ancient Geography of India, Calcutta, 1924, pp. 104-105.
Pushkalavati322. It was also the market of horses and played an important role in horse
trade323.
Sakala. It is modern Sialkot now situated in Pakistan. It was famous urban center
during the Post-Mauryan period. It had good defense system protected by various
strong towers and ramparts with strong gate and entrance archways. It had good
market places. The guilds of traders displayed their goods in the bazaars, all sorts of
flowers, perfumes, clothes of various kinds including Benarasi muslin, copper and
stone wares, jewels. Its streets were filled with elephants, horses, foot-passengers
frequented by groups of handsome men, beautiful women and crowded by all sorts of
men such as Brahmans, nobles, artificers and servants324.
Ujjain. Ujjain was the great urban center. It was the capital of the north Avanti. It was
centrally located and it is situated at the junction of two main routes, one Barygaza-
Kausambi route and other was towards the Deccan. It remained great political center
under Mauryas and Greeks325.The merchants of Ujjain were named Siriguta and
Saghadeva donated gifts to the pious men. This town was also known for weaving and
ivory workmanship326. Periplus mentions the cloth which was exported from Ujjain to
Barygaza327.
Tamralipti. This port-town was important and located on the mouth of Ganga River.
It was a great emporium. It was connected with three main routes, one to Burma and
beyond via the Arakan coast, second to the Malaya peninsula and Far-East via
Paloura and third passed along with Kalinga and Coromandal coasts to the southIndia
and Ceylon. It exported pearls, muslins, spikenard and malabarthum through
vessels328.
Barygaza. It was one of the important ports or port towns during the first century AD.
It is located now in the state of Gujarat. The articles which were imported from this
port were wines, topaz, copper and gold coins, storax, thin clothing, flint glass, coral,
and lead, singing boys, beautiful maidens for harem, realgar and antimony. The
126
322
. R. S. Agarwal,Trade Centers and Route in Northern India (c. 322 BC – 500) p. 98.
323
. The Kautaliya Arthasastra, tr. R. P. Kangle, Motilal Banarsi Das, Delhi, p. 87.
324
. The Questions of Milinda, tr. T. W. Rhys Davids, p. 69.
325
. R. S. Agarwal, Trade Centers and Routes in Northern India (c.322 BC-500 A.D), pp. 112-114.
326
. Idem.
327
. The Periplus of Erythean Sea, tr. W. H. Schoff, Sec-48.
328
. T. N. Ramachandran, Tamralipti, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 14, No. 03, 1951, pp. 226-229.
articles which were exported from this port were costus, bdellium, silk-cloth, cotton
clothes, yarn, long-pepper, mallow clothes, agate and carnelian99.
Madurai. Madurai was one of the important urban centers and was a famous market
in Tamilham. It was an island town in the south of Carnatic. It was ruled by Pandyas.
It was the large and beautiful city. It had many temples, two large markets and well
laid out streets. It had protected walls with huge gates and towers surrounded by deep
moat. In Vaigai, different kinds of crafts activities were prevailed there such as inlay
works, ivory-work, making of gold statues and stucco images, traders of gems and
pearls100. River became the natural defense for the city. There lived traders, jewelers,
gold specialists who could testify the purity of gold. From here the pepper was carried
out down to Bacare in canoes is called Cattonara 101. It was the great center of crafts
such as making of gold-ornaments; inlay work, ivory work, bangle-making and
chunk-cutting. In this city, the traders sold pearls and precious stones. It was the great
center of the fine cotton textiles102.
Puhar. Puhar was important market and urban center in Tamilham. Sliappadikaram
mentions it the city of heaven. There lived a merchant named Mashattuvan, who was
very wealthy merchant. He was generous person as he paid alms to the poor and
needies. In the markets of Puhar, dyes, sandal paste, scented powder, aromatic wood
were sold. Textiles dealers, sellers of salt, oil mongers, dealers in copper and bronze
wares, traders of fish, mutton and ships, seller of cakes, goldsmiths, tailors,
shoemakers, musicians, etc. were sold their goods and provide services. The wealthy
99 . The Periplus of Erythean Sea, tr. W. H. Schoff, p. 287.
100 . R. Champakalakshmi, Trade, Ideology and Urbanization in South-India from 300 BC to 1300
AD, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 122.
101 . John W. Mc Crindle, Ancient India as described in Classical Literature, pp. 112.
102 . Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient an Early Medieval India, p. 401.
127
Greek traders lived in the separate streets. The goods were stored in the warehouses
without ventilators situated near the bazaar. Weavers brought their fine silks and all
kinds of fabrics made of wool and cotton103. “Let us praise Puhar, our beautiful
Puhar. For its fame is interwined always with the glorious lineage of its kings. And
spreads to the sea-fences of this earth’’, in this stanza the author praises the port-city
of Puhar and its kings. He informs that the sea-port was enclosed by walls for
protection104. Another source Pattinappalai gives description about this city. It deals
the fertility and prosperity of this grand city. This city was inhabited by many
occupational groups. From this town, countless cargoes were shipped in the sea. The
ships were loaded with wares with heaps for export and the royal stamp of Cholas was
inscribed on the goods of import and export in the custom house 335. This town was
swallowed up or destroyed by the sea (might be due to floods or Tsunami) because
the Chola king did not held annual Indra festival which caused wrath of the sea
goddess Manimekala336.
Korkai. Ptolemy calls it Kolkhoi, a sea port. It belonged to the Pandyas. It was
famous for pearl trade337. It was also important urban center of shell-bangle industry.
It was connected with Madurai perhaps via Aruppukkottai. There have been
discovered Roman amphora and rouletted ware338.
Palaur. Palaur was the important town located on the coast of Orissa. Ptolemy calls it
Paluma in the second century AD339. The Buddhist missionaries and migrants sailed
from this port to south-east Asian countries. It can be confirmed with the fact that
many Amravati sculptures have been identified in various places of South-East Asia.
Recent archaeological findings such as Roman roulette ware, amphora pieces and
fragments of Chinese celadon were also found. Merchants from Orissa used to go
Java, Sumatra, Bali, and Borneo for trade and commerce340.
Pattanam. It was a town in the Ernakulum district. It was situated on an ancient

channel of the Periyar River. The excavations reports of 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010
which were published in Kerala Council of Historical Research. The archaeological
103 . Silappadikaram, tr. Alain Danielon, London, 1967, pp. 4, 6, 18 and 19.
104 . Laxmi Holmstorm, Silapadikaram Manimekalai, Orient Longman Ltd; Chennai, 1996, p. 01
128
findings were potsherds of early Roman amphorae and terra-sigillata. In addition to,
remains of spindle whorls, lamps, discs, local potsherds, amphorae jar and huge grain
jar which proved its link with the Medeteriian world341.
335
. Pattinappalai, tr. B. Devendran, Journal of Tamil Studies, International Institute of Tamil Studies,
2018, pp. 35-42.
336
. Manimekalai, tr. Dr. Prema Nanda, Tamil University Thanjavur, 1989, pp. 137-138.
337
. J. W. Mc Crindle, Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, p. 58.
338
. Marie-Francoise Boussac, Jean Francois Salles and Jean-Baptiste Yon, Ports of the Ancient Indian
Ocean, p. 302.
339
. J. W. Mc Crindle, Ancient India as described by Ptoloemy, p. 69.
340
. Benudhar Patra, ‘Ports, Port Towns and Hinterland: A Study in Ancient Odishan Perspective’,
Journal of Indian Ocean studies, Vol. 21, No. 03, Part II, New Delhi, Dec.2013, p. 401.
341
. Rajan Gurukkal, Rethinking Classical Indo-Roman Trade; Political Economy of Eastern
Mediterranean Exchange Relations, Oxford University Press, 2016, p. 29.
Azhakankulam. It was a Pandya port-town at the mouth of Vaigai River. Amphora
ware, rouletted ware along with the red ware with Tamil-Brahmi letters, three copper
coins of the Roman emperor Valentine II (375CE), on the reverse a female figure
holding a globe and goddess of victory has been identified on the obverse342.
Uraiyur. It was the capital of Sangam Cholas. Presently it forms a part of

Tiruchirapalli town. It was the port city of Cholas. It was famous center of textile
industry. Excavations reveals that roulette ware, aretine ware, local poetry, dying vats
have been discovered from this urban center343.
Karur or Vanci. It was the capital of Ancient Cheras. It was located on the banks of
Amravati River, a tributary of Cauvery River. A large number of Roman copper
coins, arretine wares and Roman amphora pieces have been reported from this place.
It is also said that gold merchants of Karur donated stone bed to a Jaina ascetic at
Pukalur not far from Karur344.
Kanchi. It was the capital of Pallavas, but its period I A dated from 2 nd century BC to
3rd century AD. Many archaeological data such as coin of Rudra Satkarni, rouletted
ware, terracotta figurines have been discovered there 345. Manimekalai gives detailed
129
information about the city of Kanchi. This city was protected by soldiers. The wine,
fish, sweet spices, betel leaves, cakes, rice-pudding, white-salt were sold by the
merchants of the city346. In this city, the arts and craftsmen such as metal-workers,
carpenters, masons with building expertise, tailors, painters, shoe-makers,
astronomers, garland-makers, dancing girls, cutters of conch-shell bangles,
musicians347. It further informs that there were street of weavers, street of courtesans,
street of trainers of new elephants and horses decorated with gold beads, street of
sellers of gem varieties etc.348.
342
. Rajan Gurukkal, Rethinking Classical Indo-Roman Trade; Political Economy of Eastern
Mediterranean Exchange Relations, p. 34.
343
. R. Champakalakshmi, Trade, Ideology and Urbanization in South-India from 300 BC to 1300 AD,
Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 125.
344
. Ibid, p. 118 cf. Iravartham Mahadevan, Corpus of Tamil Brahmi Inscriptions, Madras, 1966, Nos.
56-66.
345
. R. Champakalakshmi, Trade, Ideology and Urbanization in South-India from 300 BC to 1300 AD,
p. 129.
346
. Manimekalai, tr. Dr. Prema Nanda, pp. 158-160.
347
. Idem.
348
. Idem.
It is said that at the end of the 4 th century AD, many old towns of Tamilkam such as
Tyndis, Naura, Muzuris, Puduca and Pumpuhar lost their importance because of the
political confusion of early Tamilkam which finally led to the decline of Chola, Chera
and Pandyas. At the given time there was also economic decay because of the decline
of Roman trade. It was around 600 AD; there was the rise and revival of old towns.
There was also emergence of new towns105
105 . K. P. Velayudhan, ‘The Role of Merchants Guilds in the Urbanization of South-India’, PIHC,
40th, Session, Andhra Pradesh University, 1979, p. 204.
130

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Chapter 4

Art, Crafts and Industries

5 . J. W. Mc Crindle, Ancient India as described by Megasthenes and Arrian, Calcutta, 1877, p. 40

24 . Charaka Samhita, tr. by Gabriel Van Loon, 2002, p. 90.

55 . Babbu-Jataka, No. 137, p. 295.

Bone and Ivory.

Ahichhatra site is located in Bareilly district of Uttar Pradesh. The stratum iv

76 . Indian Archaeology, 2008-09, pp. 68-69.

Other Professional Classes: Our sources mention many professionals and

Zinc. It was obtained from Rajpura-Dariba, Zawar, Agucha in Rajasthan238. It was

Diamond. Arthsatra refers to the Indian diamonds. It occurred in Vidarabha,

84 . Arun Kumar Biswas, Minerals, Metals in Ancient India, pp. 340-342.

Basis of Arts and Crafts.

Dhenukakata. It was located in north-west of India. Several Yavanas were the

91 . Annual Report (1928-29), pp. 51-55.

95 . A. Ghosh and K. C. Panigrahi, The Pottery of Achchchhatra, p. 45.

Pattanam. It was a town in the Ernakulum district. It was situated on an ancient

Uraiyur. It was the capital of Sangam Cholas. Presently it forms a part of

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