PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT CHAMBA (H.

P)
SUB DIVISION 1
A Industrial Project Report
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Award of the 8th semester of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
(CIVIL ENGINEERING)

TO
HIMACHAL PRADESH TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
HAMIRPUR

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

Er. NEETAIN MAHAJAN
SUBMITTED BY

DIGVIJAY SINGH RATHORE

(University Roll NO : 12BTD5010376)

DEPARMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

L.R INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,

SOLAN, HIMACHAL PRADESH

(AFFILATED TO HIMACHAL PRADESH TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY)

HAMIRPUR (INDIA)
JUNE 2019
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 CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I hereby Certify that I have completed four month’s industrial training in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of 8 th semester in bachelor of technology in Civil Engineering. I did my
training in HPPWD CHAMBA. This project report is submitted to L.R INSTITUTE OF
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SOLAN for project carried out by me under the guidance of
ER.NEETAIN MAHAJAN. I further declare that the matter represented in this report has not been
submitted by me or anyone else, for the award of any degree elsewhere.

PLACE : SOLAN CANDIDATE NAME:

DATE DIGVIJAY SINGH RATHORE

TRAINING SUPERVISOR

HOD, CIVIL ENGG. DEPARTMENT

L.R.I.E.T SOLAN

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all I am thankful to HIMACHAL PRADESH PUBLIC WORK DEPARTMENT for giving me
an opportunity to get a practical exposure in their esteemed organisation to enhance my professional
skills.

I am grateful to ER.JEET SINGH THAKUR (XEN- H.P.PWD) and all other officers of PWD who
supported me, which made my project success.

I express my heartfelt thanks to ER. NETAIN MAHAJAN my project guides, for their untiring
guidance and valuable suggestions without which I couldn’t made my effort a success.

PLACE: SOLAN CANDIDATE NAME

DATE DIGVIJAY SINGH RATHORE

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
DECLARATION i
CERTIFICATE ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF TABLES v
LIST OF FIGURES vi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUTION

INTRODUCTION

1.1.1 H.P.PW.D. : AN OVERVIEW 1

CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY 3

2.1 What is a highway? 3

2.2 Classification of roads as per I.R.C (Indian Roads Congress) 3

2.3 Elements of roads: 4

2.4 Layers in Road construction 6

2.5 Some important definitions 7

2.6 Practical / Site Works Performed 8

2.7Pavement of Asphalt concrete 15

2.7.1 Introduction 15

2.7.2Types of Asphalt concrete 16

CHAPTER 3 CONSTRUCTION OF STRUCTURES 20

3.1Culvert 20

3.2 Setting out and Excavation . 20

3.3 Construction of Box Culvert. 21

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 3.4 Form work 22

3.5 Backfilling 23
3.6 Introduction to RCC Hume pipe Culvert 24

CHAPTER 4 RETAINING WALL 27

4.1 Introduction to Retaining Wall 27

4.2 Types of Retaining Wall 27

4.3 Dry Stone Retaining Walls: 27

4.3.1 Cantilever RCC Retaining wall 29

4.3.2 Gabion wall 31

4.3.3 Anchored Retaining wall 32

CHAPTER 5 CEMENT CONCRETING 33

5.1Construction Material 33

5.2Cement 33

5.3Aggregate 34

5.14Concreting 36

5.15Concreting Operation 38

CONCLUSION 43
REFERENCES...........................................................................................................44

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 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the Industrial project report entitled “Road construction – H.P.P.W.D.
Chamba” submitted to the RAJIV GANDHI GOVT. ENGINEERING COLLEGE NAGROTA
BAGWAN,KANGRA in the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of
B.TECH in CIVIL ENGINEERING is a record bonafide project carried out by me under the
guidance of Er. Gajan Singh Rana I further declare that the work reported in the project has
not been submitted and will not be submitted either in part or in full for the award of any other
degree or diploma in this institute or any institute or university.

Place: CHAMBA ANKAJ KUMAR

Date: May, 2019 (ROLL NO.: 14BTD5010443)
CERTIFICATE
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express our sincere gratitude to the peoples who have been helpful in
the successful completion of our industrial training and this project. I would like to show our
greatest appreciation to the highly esteemed and devoted technical staff, supervisors of
H.P.P.W.D. Chamba. We are highly indebted to them for their tremendous support and help
during the completion of our training and project.

I am grateful to Er. Neetan Mahajan- Junior Engineer, H.P.P.W.D. Chamba who granted us the
permission of industrial training in their shed. We would like to thanks to all those peoples who
directly or indirectly helped and guided us to complete our training and project in their shed,
including the following instructors and technical officers.
 ABSTRACT

As a part of the curriculum, and for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for completion of
the B.tech from L.R Institute of Engineering , Jabli-kiar, Oachghat, Solan H.P I, Digvijay Singh
Rathore, underwent an industrial training at H.P.P.W.D. – Chamba. H.P
During my industrial training I know about how a civil engineer or a contractor finalize the road
to provide aesthetic beauty to the highway. Also, in this period I gain a general idea that how to
deal with the workers those are working on the construction sites. I got information about some
construction equipment’s that are used at the sites. Also, there I got information about the
construction of structures, retaining structure and highway pavement. There I also got the
information about process of grading. During this training program I also visit some sites such as
excavations, grading and see how it was happens.
 LIST OF TABELS
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

Table 1. GRADE OF CONCRETE 39

 LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
Figure 1. Elements of road 4
Figure 2. Typical Cross Section of 4-Lane highway without service road and raised medians
4
Figure 3. Different Layers in road construction 6
Figure 4. Excavation by Excavators 8
Figure 5 Excavation by Excavators 8
Figure 6 Compaction by baby roller 9
Figure 7. Typical fill section 10
Figure 8. Spreading GSB with help of grader in 150 mm Layer 11
Figure 9. WMM Top Layer 12
Figure 10. Spreading WMM with help of grader 12
Figure 11. Baby Roller 14
Figure 12. Boomer 15
Figure 13. Asphalt Concrete 16
Figure 14 Binder course 17
Figure 15. Wearing Course 17
Figure 16. Culvert 20
Figure 17. Setting out and excavation 21
Figure 18. Form work a&b 22
Figure 19. Backfilling 23
Figure 20. RCC hume pipe culvert 24
Figure 21. Water Catchpit 24
Figure 22. Sections of hume pipe 25
Figure 23. Section of hume pipe 25
Figure 24. Section of hume pipe 25
Figure 25. Abstract cost of hume pipe culvert 26
Figure 26. Type of Retaining wall 27
Figure 27. Type of retaining wall 27
Figure 28. Excavation of footing of retaining wall 28
Figure 29. Construction of retaining wall 31
Figure 30. Cantilever retaining wall 29
Figure 31. Framework of RCC retaining wall 30
Figure 32. Construction of retaining wall with Fiori machine 30
Figure 33. Gabion wall 31
Figure 34. Gabion mess 31
Figure 35. Anchored retaining wall 32
Figure 36. Cement 33
Figure 37. Coarse aggregate 36
Figure 38. Machine Mixing of Concrete 39
Figure 39. Placing of concrete 40
Figure 40. Needle Vibrator 41
 ABOUT HPPWD

The department is engaged in planning, construction and maintenance of roads, bridges,

ropeways and buildings (both residential and non-residential of various Govt. departments) in the
State. The department further executes engineering work on behalf of Local Bodies, Public
Undertakings, Boards & other Institutions under Himachal Pradesh Government as "Deposit
works".
 Chapter 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 HPPWD: - AN OVERVIEW
The department is engaged in planning, construction and maintenance of roads, bridges,
ropeways and buildings (both residential and non-residential of various Govt. departments) in the
State. The department further executes engineering work on behalf of Local Bodies, Public
Undertakings, Boards & other Institutions under Himachal Pradesh Government as "Deposit
works". On administrative and functional considerations, the department has been divided into
four zones namely Mandi Zone, Hamirpur Zone, Shimla Zone and Kangra Zone at
Dharamshala. All the four zones are headed by Chief Engineers. Headquarters of Shimla Zone is
at Shimla, Mandi zone at Mandi, Hamirpur Zone at Hamirpur and Kangra zone at Dharamshala.
Chief Engineer (National Highways) with headquarters at Shimla controls the Planning and
Execution of works of National Highways traversing through the State. Engineer-in-Chief
(Quality & Design) acts as State Level Quality Coordinator for achieving quality parameters of
works in the State. Material Testing Laboratories at State level and Zonal Laboratories are
under his control. He conducts quality control checks throughout the State. He is the in-charge
for Standardization of Designs and Drawings for Buildings, Bridges and Assurance of common
Technical Instructions, Manual of Order, Codes & Specifications, Schedule of Rates, Training
Programs, Workshops and allied fields etc. Chief Engineer (PMGSY) is monitoring, planning
and having day-to-day interaction with Govt. of India (MORD) for the works of PMGSY and
PMGSY (world bank) funded projects through National Rural Road Development Agency
(NRRDA) . Superintending Engineer (Electrical) controls the works related to electrical
installation, central heating, air conditioning, lifts, fire-fighting, fire alarm system, L.T. Sub-
Station, Public Address system and CCTV systems in all Govt. residential & non-residential
buildings. Chief Architect is heading Architectural Wing at Shimla . This wing deals with all
Architectural planning for buildings undertaken by PWD under North, South and

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Central Zones. In addition, this wing also undertakes consultancy jobs for corporate bodies and
institutions, such as Regional Engineering College Hamirpur and Railways etc. Superintending
Engineer Arbitration Circle Solan deals with the entire arbitration cases of the Department.
Himachal Pradesh Public Works Department is headed by the Engineer-in-Chief with
Headquarters at Shimla. Works and matters regarding Codes, Specifications, Planning &
Monitoring, Inter-State Connectivity for the entire State and also the entire establishments of
PWD are controlled by the Engineer-in-Chief.
 Chapter 2

INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY

2.1 What is a highway?

A highway is generally considered as a conduit that carries vehicular traffic from one
location to another and is often used to denote any public way used for travel, whether major
highway, freeway, street, lane, pathway, footpaths etc. However, in practical and useful meaning,
a "highway" is a major and significant, well-constructed road that is capable of carrying
reasonably heavy to extremely heavy traffic, having full or partial control of access. Highways
generally have a route number designated by the state and country through which they travel.

2.2 Classification of roads as per I.R.C (Indian Roads Congress)

i. National Highways (NH)
ii. State Highways (SH)
iii. Major district Roads (MDR)
iv. Other district roads (ODR)
v. Village Rods

2.2.1 National Highways (NH):

These are the main highways which connects ports, foreign highways, capital cities of
large states and large industrial and tourist centers including roads of military importance. They
are financed and constructed by central government. All the national highways are assigned the
respective numbers. The highways Vijayawada and Pune, through Hyderabad is NH9. Nagpur –
Hyderabad – Bangalore road denoted as NH7.
2.2.2 State Highways (SH):These are important roads of a state. The state highways connects
national highways of adjacent state, district headquarters and important cities within the state.
They are financed and constructed by the State government
2.2.3 Major District Roads (MDR):
These are important roads within a district serving areas of production and market and
connecting the main highways of a district.
 2.2.4 Other District Roads (ODR):
These roads are serving rural areas of production and connects them with market centers,
Taluq headquarters, and other main roads.
2.2.5 Village roads:
These are the roads connecting villages or group of villages with each other to the nearest
road of a higher category. They are financed and constructed by panchayaths with the help of
zilla parishads and State governments.

2.3 Elements of roads:

Figure 1. Elements of road figure 2 Typical Cross Section of 4-Lane highway

2.3.1 Width of Pavement

The width of pavement or carriage way depends on the width of traffic lane and number
of lanes. The carriage way intended for one line of traffic movement may be called as a traffic
lane. The lane width is
 determined on the basis of the width of vehicle and the minimum side clearance provided for the
safety. When the side clearance is increased there is an increase in speed of the vehicles and
hence in increase in the capacity of the pavement. A width of 3.75 m is considered desirable for a
road having single lane for vehicles of maximum width 2.44 m. For pavement having two or
more lanes, width of 3.5 m per lane is sufficient.
2.3.2 Shoulders
Shoulders are provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency lane for vehicles to
be taken out of the pavement. These also acts as service lanes for vehicles that have broken
dawn. The minimum shoulder width recommended by the IRC is 2.5 m. The shoulders should
have sufficient strength to support loaded even in wet weather. The surface of the shoulder
should be rougher than the traffic lanes so that the vehicles are discouraged to use the shoulder as
a regular traffic lane.
2.3.3 Formation Width
Formation width or Road way width is the sum of the widths of pavements including
separators if any and the shoulders formation width is the top width of the highway embankment
on the bottom width of highways cutting excluding the side drains.
2.3.4 Right of Way
Right of way is the area of land acquired and reserved along its alignment for
construction and development of a highway is known as right of way. A minimum land width is
prescribed for different categories of road. The below table gives the minimum width of right of
way for different categories of road.
2.3.5 Road Boundaries
The portion of the road beyond the road way can be generally called road boundaries.
Following are the road boundaries generally provided.
i. Parking lanes
ii. Bus bays
iii. Service roads
iv. Cycle track
v. Foot path
vi. Guard rails
2.4 Layers in Road construction

Figure 2. Different Layers in road construction

2.4.1 Sub Grade

The sub grade or soil sub grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the layers of
pavement placed over it. The sub grade should be sufficient strength so that the loads are
received and dispersed to the earth mass. The sub grade should be well compacted under
controlled conditions of optimum moisture content and maximum dry density. The sub grade
supports the road structure and form the bed for the road.
2.4.2 Sub Base
Sub base or sub base course is a layer of granular material placed on sub grade, generally
natural gravel. Boulder stone or bricks also may be used.
Functions of Sub base course
i. It reduces the traffic stresses on the sub grade and protects it.
ii. Acts as a working platform for the construction of upper pavement layers.
iii. Acts as a drainage layer by protecting the sub grade from wetting up.
iv. Intercept the upward movement of water by capillary action.
v. It acts as a separating layer between subgrade and base course.

2.4.3 Base Course

Base course is a layer immediately under the weaning course. It is an important structural
part of the road. It should be strong enough to bear the loads of the traffic. The material in a base
course must be of extremely high quality. It must be well compacted.
2.4.4 Wearing Course or Surface Course
Wearing course is the top most layer of a road which is direct contact with the traffic. The
purpose of the weaning course is to give a dense smooth riding surface. It resists the pressure
exerted by tyres and takes up wear and tear due to the traffic. It acts as a water tight layer and
prevents percolation of water.
2.5 Some impor4tant definitions
2.5.1 Camber
Camber is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off rain water from road surface. The camber is given a parabolic or elliptic or
straight line shape in the cross section. The objectives of providing camber are
i. Surface protection of roads especially for gravel and bituminous roads
ii. Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
iii. Quick drying of pavement which inturn increases safety.
Camber is measured in 1 in n or n % (eg. In 1 in 50 or 2%) and the value depends on the type of
the pavement and the amount of rainfall.
2.5.2 Kerbs
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or
footpaths.
2.5.3 Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the
horizontal. It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in n (1 vertical unit to n horizontal units). Sometimes, it
is also expressed as a percentage, n i.e. n in 100. In the alignment of a highway, the gradient is
decided for designing the vertical curve. Very steep gradients are avoided to it is not difficult to
climb the grade, but also the vehicle operation cost is not increased.
2.6 Practical / Site Works Performed
2.6.1 Excavation
Firstly, a particular land area is chosen from which soil is dug. It is cleared of any vegetation
such as tall grass and shrubs. Soil samples are then taken out from that area and tested on field
for various parameters such as Water content, Permeability, etc. After finding out that the soil is
suitable for construction practice, machines such as:

Excavators are used for digging into the ground. They take out soil in bulk and put them
in big trucks.

Figure 4. Excavation by Excavators Figure 5. Excavation by Excavators

2.6.2 Embankment
An embankment refers to a volume of earthen material that is placed and compacted for
the purpose of raising the grade of a roadway (or railway) above the level of the existing
surrounding ground surface. A fill refers to a volume of earthen material that is placed and
compacted for the purpose of filling in a hole or depression. Embankments or fills are
constructed of materials that usually consist of soil, but may also include aggregate, rock, or
crushed paving material.
Normally, the coarser fill materials are placed at or near the bottom or base of the
embankment in order to provide a firm foundation for the embankment and also to facilitate
drainage and prevent saturation. The top portion of an embankment usually is constructed of
 relatively high-quality, well-compacted subgrade material that is capable of supporting the
overlying pavement layers and imposed wheel loadings without deflection or undesirable
movement. The fill material used throughout the remainder of the embankment must be capable
of meeting applicable specification quality requirements and be capable of being placed and
compacted at or close to its maximum achievable density. The material is spread in relatively

Figure 6. Compaction by baby roller

thin layers of 150 mm to 200 mm and each layer is compacted by rolling over it with heavy
compaction equipment.
2.6.3 Subgrade
Subgrade is that portion of the earth roadbed which after having been constructed to
reasonably close conformance with the lines, grades, and cross-sections indicated on the plans,
receives the base or surface material. In a fill section, the subgrade is the top of the embankment
or the fill. In a cut section the subgrade is the bottom of the cut . The subgrade supports the sub
base and/or the pavement section. To ensure a stable, long-lasting, and maintenance free
 roadway, the subgrade is required to be constructed using certain proven procedures that provide
satisfactory results.
After the rough grading is completed, the fine grade stakes are set and the final
processing of the subgrade may begin. The rough grade is the top grade of the embankment as
built using the information provided on the grade sheets. The finish grading operation consists of

Figure 7. Typical fill section

trimming the excess material down to the final grade. Filling any low spots with thin lifts of
materials tends to slide these lifts around if not properly worked into the underlying materials.
The subgrade is constructed uniformly transversely across the width of the pavement including 2
ft outside the edge of shoulders or curbs, unless indicated otherwise on the plans, by one of the
following methods.
2.6.4 Subbase
Subbase is the layer of aggregate material laid on the subgrade, on which the base course
layer is located. It may be omitted when there will be only foot traffic on the pavement, but it is
necessary for surfaces used by vehicles.
Sub base used in site
GSB-The GSB (Granular Sub-Base) can be prepared by laying and compacting well
graded material on prepared sub grade in accordance with specification. The material can be laid
in one or more layers as sub-base. The material to be used for the work shall be natural sand,
crushed gravel, crushed stone or combination of them based on grading required. Some of the
materials like brick metal, Kankar and crushed concrete shall be permitted in lower sub-base.
The material should free from organic or other deleterious constituents.
 Granular Sub Base or GSB is the first layer above the subgrade and other than dispersing load to
the Subgrade is a drainage layer to drain out any water that percolates and thus keeps the
subgrade from losing its shear strength by getting wet. This layer is made of coarse granular
materials but strong enough with a CBR of above 30. This layer is generally 300–500 mm thick
depending on the pavement design. The material for this layer is either naturally available or has
to be prepared by mechanical mixing . The mixed martial is transported in Dumpers, spread by
Graders and compacted by Vibratory Rollers.

Figure 8. Spreading GSB with help of grader in 150 mm Layer

2.6.5 Base
Base course is a layer immediately under the weaning course. It is an important structural
part of the road. It should be strong enough to bear the loads of the traffic. The material in a base
course must be of extremely high quality. It must be well compacted.
Base course used in site
WMM (Wet mix macadam):
Aggregates used are of the smaller sizes, varies between the 4.75 mm to 20 mm sizes and the
binders(stone dust or quarry dust having PI(Plasticity Index) not less than 6%) are premixed in a
batching plant or in a mixing machine. Then they are brought to the site for overlaying and
compaction.

The PI (plasticity Index) of the binding material is kept low because it should be a sound and
non-plastic material. If the plasticity index is more then there are the chances of the swelling and
more water retention properties. So this value should be kept in mind.

Figure 9. Spreading WMM with help of Figure 3. WMM Top Layer

grader
Comparison of the WBM and WMM road construction:
Although the cost of construction of the WMM is said to be more than that of the WBM sub-base
and bases but the advantages given below will compensate for that. Here are the points of
difference:

1. The WMM roads are said to be more durable.

2. The WMM roads gets dry sooner and can be opened for traffic within less time
as compare to the WBM roads which take about one month for getting dry.
3. WMM roads are soon ready to be black topped with the bituminous layers.
4. WMM roads are constructed at the faster rate.
5. The consumption of the water is less in case of the WMM roads.
6. Stone aggregates used in WBM is larger in size which varies from 90 mm to 20
mm depending upon the grade but in case of the WMM size varies from 4.75 mm to 20
mm.
7. In case of WBM, stone aggregates, screenings and binders are laid one after
another in layers while in WMM, aggregates and binders are premixed in the batching
plants and then brought to the site for overlaying and compacting.
8. Materials used in the WBM are the stone aggregates, screenings and binder
material (Stone dust with water) while in WMM material used are only stone aggregates
and binders.
9. Quantity of the WBM is generally measured in cubic meters while that of the
WMM in square meters.
2.6.6 Compaction
For compaction, various machines such as Sheep-Foot rollers, Pneumatic tyre rollers,
Vibratory rollers, etc. are used. The type of rollers used, depends upon the type of soil which is
to be compacted.

Figure 11. Baby Roller

2.5.APPLICATION OF PRIME COAT

Prime coating is used above ABC prior to surface dressing or surface course is laid.
Prime coating is generally used for enhancing the bonding of ABC which was compacted and
dried. Prior to application of the prime coat the ABC surface was brushed to remove all dust,
loose particles and other objectionable material. For aggregate bases such cleaning was
continued until the entire surface show a pattern of exposed large particles free from dust as far
as possible.
 Figure 42 Boomer

After the liquid asphalt has penetrated the base course, the prime coated up to 5mm. Any
vehicular traffic is allowed on the road after a minimum of 7-8 hours. But in this road project the
vehicles were allowed after 1 day.

2.6 APPLICATION OF TACK COAT

Before the pavement of binder course or wearing course, application of tack coat is done. This is
to ensure the proper bonding of the two layers. Prior to the application of tack coat, the surface is
cleaned similar to the application of prime coat. The thickness of the tack coat is also usually
5mm. Bituminous Emulsions of any specified grade can be used for this. Cut Back Bitumen that
is used at the temperature ranging from 1050-1300℃ . After the application of tack coat the
pavement of asphalt is done as soon as possible to get a proper bonding.

2.7. PAVEMENT OF ASPHALT CONCRETE

2..7.1. Introduction
Asphalt concrete is a mixture of two basic components: aggregates (stone, gravel and sand) and
liquid asphalt. These are mixed at elevated temperatures. Asphalt is paved in the carriageway of
the road. Paving with asphalt concrete allows you to pave faster, more efficiently, more
 economically with greater serviceability.

Figure 53 Asphalt concrete

A smooth driveway is obtained by the asphalt concrete pavement. A major advantage for Asphalt
Concrete is the ability for staged construction. The asphalt base course is placed and used under
traffic during initial construction.
This is a flexible pavement which allows it to withstand occasional overloads without serious
damage. Blowups are reduced by the usage of asphalt because of the lack of repetitive joints.
Also the usage of asphalt is economical.

2.7.2 Types of Asphalt Concrete

There are two types of asphalt concrete used. They are used in the form of Binder course and
Wearing Course. The ingredients of bitumen, the aggregate size & passing percentages vary for
every work.

2.7.2.1. Blinder Course

This is paved on top of the ABC layer after the application of tack coat with a thickness of
60mm.After the pavement of Binder Course compaction is done using steel rollers and then
pneumatic rollers. After the binder course is paved it should be made sure no vehicles pass along
the road on top of the newly paved Binder Course for six hours.
 Figure 64 Binder Course

2.7.2.2. Wearing Course

This is paved on top of the Binder Course after a minimum of three days. The thickness of the
Wearing Course should be 40mm. prior to the pavement of the Wearing Course the Binder
Course surface must be well cleaned without dust and loose material.

Figure 75 Wearing Course

2.7.3. Preparation for Pavement of Asphalt
A sharp inspection is done on the existing surface of the road. Factors such as the DOC, surface
texture and flexibility of the pavement are taken into consideration during the inspection. The
existing surface is trimmed to the designated tolerance which is slightly higher than the tolerance
amount allowed for the overlaying asphalt thickness.
As the general practice of road pavement, at this stage also cleaning the surface was done.

2.7.4. Pavement of Asphalt

At the time of paving the Asphalt mixture shall have a temperature above 130℃. Due to the
transportation time the temperature may fall. Therefore, the trucks which carries the asphalt mix
has to be well covered till the paving started.
Before the binder course pavement is done the ABC layer level was checked. Thereafter the
compacting height is determined based on the height of the asphalt layer. If the thickness is less
than 75mm, the compaction is determined to be 20% of the thickness and if it is greater than
75mm, the compaction is 25% of the thickness.
When the asphalt is being paved by the paver machine, in order to check whether the required
height is being paved, the required height is marked on a rod and the rod in pinned into the
course and verified randomly.
The temperature of the Asphalt which is about to be paved in the road was measured. If the
temperature is detected to be less than 130℃
, the following actions are taken.
First the surface temperature of Asphalt which is loaded in truck is measured and if it is less than
130℃
, the Asphalt mixture in the surface is removed using shovels and the temperature of the
Asphalt inside is measured and if it the temperature meets the conditions paving is continued.
But if the inner temperature is also less than 130℃ the mixture is rejected and sent to recycle. If
recycling cannot be done, it will be permanently rejected.
Therefore it is vital that the Asphalt mixture should have an elevated temperature at the time of
loading to the trucks leaving heat losses due to the transportation and waiting until paved. Hence
ambient conditions, the distance to the site and the waiting time to pave the Asphalt are
considered to determine the loading temperature.
The temperature of the Asphalt which is about to be paved in the road was measured. If the
temperature is detected to be less than 130℃
, the following actions are taken.
First the surface temperature of Asphalt which is loaded in truck is measured and if it is less
than 130℃ , the Asphalt mixture in the surface is removed using shovels and the temperature of
the Asphalt inside is measured and if it the temperature meets the conditions paving is continued.
But if the inner temperature is also less than 130℃ the mixture is rejected and sent to recycle. If
recycling cannot be done, it will be permanently rejected.
Before the binder course pavement is done the ABC layer level was checked. Thereafter the
compacting height is determined based on the height of the asphalt layer. If the thickness is less
than 75mm, the compaction is determined to be 20% of the thickness and if it is greater than
75mm, the compaction is 25% of the thickness.
When the asphalt is being paved by the paver machine, in order to check whether the required
height is being paved, the required height is marked on a rod and the rod in pinned into the
course and verified randomly.
 Chapter 3
CONSTRUCTION OF STRUCTURES

3.1. CULVERT
Culverts are structures of less than 6 meter span between faces of Abutment and generally have
two spans. A culvert must be large enough to carry the flow of water without any heading up at
the entrance. They are constructed to enable water flow from one side of water to the other. In
this sector Box/slap culvert and Hump pipe culvert were widened as an improvement for
culverts. Generally culvert includes screed, base, abutment, wing wall, capping beam, deck, and
parapet wall and guard stones

Figure 16. Culvert

3.2. SETTING OUT AND EXCAVATION

This is done in accordance with the design drawing. During setting out measurements should be
taken from the centerline. If this is not done culvert abutment and wing walls may skew to the
road. Initially center of culvert should be located. Then widening length should be marked. Head
walls and wing walls should not be skewed from the centerline. Excavation should be done up to
screed bottom level. Otherwise it may be very difficult to fix reinforcement and formworks and
concrete. In order to achieve this we have to excavate extra 0.5m away from actual setting out
area as working space

.
Figure 17.SETTING OUT AND EXCAVATION

3.3. CONSTRUCTION OF BOX CULVERT

The following procedure was followed in the construction of box culvert.
 Setup safety arrangement.
 Allow water to run through the half way of the clear span.
 Excavate at the level of screed bottom and required dimension and dewater by water pumps.
 Level excavated surface and formwork was done for both screed and base together.
 Spread Polythene at bottom and screed concreting.
 Base concreting (300mm) was performed by C30, some rubble were placed
 Abutment and wing wall construction were done by random rubble masonry. In order to
prevent cracks on RR masonry place Through-Stone at 1m interval along wing wall.
 Construct Capping Beam (C25 used) at the top of the abutment. Backfill layer by using
gravel.
 After four side constructions were finished up to capping beam, construct deck using
reinforced concrete C30.
 C20 reinforced concrete is used to construct Parapet Wall and Guard Stone.
 Formwork for all concreting structure was left to set for 24.
 All compaction of the concrete placed in the forms was by poker.
 Structure was plastered by cement mortar 1:3at an average thickness of 20mm.
 Finally clean the area.

3.4 FORM WORK

Is a structural support is to hold the concrete until it gets strong. For formworks of walls, vertical
and horizontal supports are given by pipes and the bolts. The braces are kept at horizontal and
they are supported at base concrete level by stakes firmly driven into the concrete. Cover blocks
are used to keep the sheets in correct position. Reinforcing steel is checked for its alignment
before laying of concrete. The forms are cleaned and oiled before and after each use. The
formwork is cleaned and washed with water before laying of concrete in it.

Figure 18 (a &b) Form Work

3.5 BACK FILLING

Backfilling is done for culvert widening and retaining wall. After finishing the construction of
wing wall and abutment of culvert, the widened area is filled with gravel layer by layer to get the
maximum efficiency of the compaction.

Maximum thickness allowed for a single layer ranges from 200-300mm and the range of the
compaction is determined by the height of the layer.

Every layer is tested to check the DOC then it is allowed to fill the next layer. The compaction is
done by using jumping jack compactor.

Figure 19 Back Filling

3.6 INTRODUCTION TO RCC HUME PIPE CULVERT

Culvert
A culvert is a structure that allows water to flow under a road, railroad, trail, or similar
obstruction from one side to the other side. Typically embedded so as to be surrounded by soil, a
culvert may be made from a pipe, reinforced concrete or other material.
Culverts are commonly used both as cross-drains for ditch relief and to pass water under a road
at natural drainage and stream crossings. A culvert may be a bridge-like structure designed to
allow vehicle or pedestrian traffic to cross over the waterway while allowing adequate passage
for the water. Culverts come in many sizes and shapes including round, elliptical, flat-bottomed,
pear-shaped, and box-like constructions. The culvert type and shape selection is based on a
number of factors including requirements for hydraulic performance, limitation on upstream
water surface elevation, and roadway embankment height.
If the span of crossing is greater than 12 feet (3.7 m), the structure is termed a bridge.

RCC HUME PIPE CULVERT

Hume pipe Culvert is a cross drainage work or small bridge used to pass flood water through one
or number of Precast RCC Hume pipes laid soil.

Figure 20. RCC HUME PIPE CULVERT Figure 21. Water Catch pit

ESTIMATION OF RCC HUME PIPE CULVERT

For estimation of RCC hum pipe culvert first of all we should know about the plan of culvert, L
section of that, and various details of measurement. For these we have to go to the site of
construction and according to the conditions present there we have to take the measurements.
And it should be kept in mind that the culvert should be made at that point where maximum
quantity of water comes so that catch pit should be made at suitable position.
 Fig. 22 Precast RCC Hume Pipe Figure 23 Section of Hume Pipe
Culvert

Figure 24. Elevation of hume pipe

Details of Measurement of Hume Pipe Culvert

Figure 25. Abstract of Cost of Hume Pipe Culvert

 Chapter 4
RETAINING WALL

4.1 Introduction to Retaining Wall

A retaining wall is a structure designed and constructed to resist the lateral pressure of
soil, when there is a desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle of repose of the
soil.

4.2 Types of Retaining Wall

Figure 26. Types of Retaining Wall

4.3 Dry Stone Retaining Walls:

Figure27. Types of Retaining

27 Wall
 This is the simplest form of retaining wall. The stability of such walls depends upon the
arrangement of stones in the wall and the friction between the individual stones. The stones used
in the wall should be of large size and roughly hammer-dressed so as to ensure maximum
bedding area. The wall should have a minimum top width of 60 cm. and the front face should
have a batter varying from 1 in 4 to 1 in 3. The batter of I in 4 is adopted for walls lesser than 4.5
m in height. In principle, the height of dry stone masonry wall should be restricted to 6 m. For
walls above 4.5 m in height, the upper 4.5 m of the walls is usually built of dry rubble stone
masonry and the portion below this height is built with mortar.
The stones used in the wall construction are laid at right angle to the face baller. A proper bond is
maintained and the front and the rear faces of the wall are nicely bonded with the hearting. The
filling immediately behind the wall should consist of stone chips gravel or similar granular
material and not earth. 75 to 100 mm. square weep-holes should be provided in the wall at 2m
c/c vertically and horizontally to drain off the water from the filling behind.

Figure 8. Excavation for footing of Figure 29. Construction of retaining wall

footing retaining wall

28
4.3.1 Cantilever RCC Retaining Wall
Cantilever retaining walls are most commonly and widely used type of retaining wall.
The following figure shows the cantilever retaining wall.

Figure 30 Cantilever retaining wall

Parts of a cantilever retaining wall and its actions:

1. Vertical stem
Vertical stem in cantilever retaining wall resists earth pressure from backfill side and
bends like a cantilever. The thickness of cantilever slab is larger at the base of stem and it
decreases gradually upwards due to reduction of soil pressure with decrease in depth.
2. Base slab
The base slab form the foundation of the retaining wall. It consists of a heel slab and the
toe slab. The heel slab acts as a horizontal cantilever under the combined action of the weight of
the retaining earth from the top and the soil pressure acting from the soffit.
The toe slab also acts as a cantilever under the action of the soil pressure acting upward. The
stability of the wall is maintained by the weight of the earth fill and on the heel slab together
with the self-weight of the structural elements of the retaining wall. Cantilever type retaining
walls are suitable upto 5m depth of backfill.
Formwork is a mould or die used to support and shape the concrete until it attains sufficient to
carry its own weight. The formwork holds the concrete until it hardens to required shape and
size.
 Figure.31 Framework of RCC Retaining Wall

Figure 32 Constructions of RCC retaining wall with Ajax fiori machine

4.3.2 Gabion wall
A gabion wall is a retaining wall made of stacked stone-filled gabions tied together with
wire. Gabion walls are usually battered (angled back towards the slope), or stepped back with the
slope, rather than stacked vertically.

Figure33. Gabion wall

Figure34. Gabion mesh 1m2

4.3.3 Anchored retaining wall
An anchored retaining wall can be constructed in any of the aforementioned styles but also
includes additional strength using cables or other stays anchored in the rock or soil behind it.
Usually driven into the material with boring, anchors are then expanded at the end of the cable,
either by mechanical means or often by injecting pressurized concrete, which expands to form a
bulb in the soil.
Technically complex, this method is very useful where high loads are expected, or where the
wall itself has to be slender and would otherwise be too weak. Soil-nailed walls (soil reinforced
in place with steel and concrete rods).

Figure 35 Anchored retaining wall

 Chapter 5
CEMENT CONCRETING

5.1 CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL :-

Construction material is any material which is used for a construction purpose. Many naturally
occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood and rocks, even twigs and leaves have been used
to construct buildings. During construction of the building generally cement, sand, stone chips,
steel, Tiles etc are used as materials of construction. Apart from this electric wires for wiring,
pipes for water line, tanks for storage of water, bathroom, kitchen, Sewers for sewer lines are
also used as materials during construction of the Building.
5.2 CEMENT:-
A cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other materials together. It
is a powdery substance made by calcining lime and clay, mixed with water to form mortar or
mixed with sand, gravel, and water to make concrete. The natural cement is obtained by burning
and crushing the stones containing clay, carbonate of lime, and some amount of carbonate of
magnesia. The clay content in such stones is about 20 to 40 per cent . The natural cement is
brown in color and its best variety is known as the Roman Cement. It closely resembles very
closely eminent hydraulic lime. It sets very quickly after addition of water. It is not so strong as
artificial cement. Artificial cement is obtained by burning, at a very high temperature, a mixture
of calcareous and argillaceous materials. The mixture of ingredients should be intimate and they
should be in correct proportion. The calcined product is known as the clinker. A small quantity
of gypsum is added to the clinker and it is then pulverized into very fine powder which is known
as the cement.

Figure 36 Cement
5.3 COMPOSITION OF ORDINARY CEMENT:-
The ordinary cement contains two basic ingredients, namely, argillaceous and
calcareous. In argillaceous materials, the clay predominates and in calcareous materials, the
calcium carbonate predominates. A typical chemical analysis of a good ordinary cement along
with the desired range is as follows:- Lime: 62-67 % Silica: 17-25 % Alumina: 3-8 % Calcium
sulphate: 3-4 % Iron oxide: 3-4 % Magnesia: 0.1-3 % Sulphur: 1-3 % 2.3.1.2

 PROPERTIES OF CEMENT:-
Following are the important properties of a good cement which primarily depend upon its
chemical composition, thoroughness of burning and fineness of grinding: -It gives strength to the
masonry. -It is an excellent binding material. -It is easily workable. -It offers good resistance to
the moisture. -It possesses a good plasticity. -It stiffens or hardens early.

5.4 AGGREGATE:
Aggregate is a granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, crushed hydraulic-
cement concrete, or iron blast-furnace slag, used with a hydraulic cementing medium to produce
either concrete or mortar. Aggregates are the important constituents of the concrete which give
body to the concrete and also reduce shrinkage. Aggregates occupy 70 to 80 % of total volume of
concrete. So, we can say that one should know definitely about the aggregates in depth to study
more about concrete.

5.5 CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES BASED ON SHAPE:-

We know that aggregate is derived from naturally occurring rocks by blasting or crushing etc.,
so, it is difficult to attain required shape of aggregate. But, the shape of aggregate will affect the
workability of concrete. So, we should take care about the shape of aggregate .This care is not
only applicable to parent rock but also to the crushing machine used. Aggregates are classified
according to shape into the following types:- Rounded aggregates Irregular or partly rounded
aggregates Angular aggregates Flaky aggregates Elongated aggregates

5.6 ROUNDED AGGREGATE:-

The rounded aggregates are completely shaped by attrition and available in the form of seashore
gravel. Rounded aggregates result the minimum percentage of voids (32 – 33%) hence gives
more workability. They require lesser amount of water-cement ratio. They are not considered for
high strength concrete because of poor interlocking behaviour and weak bond strength.

5.7 IRREGULAR AGGREGATES:-

The irregular or partly rounded aggregates are partly shaped by attrition and these are available
in the form of pit sands and gravel. Irregular aggregates may result 35- 37% of voids. These will
give lesser workability when compared to rounded aggregates.
5.8 ANGULAR AGGREGATES:-
The angular aggregates consist well defined edges formed at the intersection of roughly planar
surfaces and these are obtained by crushing the rocks. Angular aggregates result maximum
percentage of voids (38-45%) hence gives less workability. They give 1020% more compressive
strength due to development of stronger aggregate-mortar bond. So, these are useful in high
strength concrete

5.9 FLAKY AGGREGATES:-

When the aggregate thickness is small when compared with width and length of that aggregate it
is said to be flaky aggregate. Or in the other, when the least dimension of aggregate is less than
the 60% of its mean dimension then it is said to be flaky aggregate.

5.10 ELONGATED AGGREGATES:-

When the length of aggregate is larger than the other two dimensions then it is called elongated
aggregate or the length of aggregate is greater than 180% of its mean dimension.

5.11 CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES BASED ON SIZE:

-Aggregates are available in nature in different sizes. The size of aggregate used may be
related to the mix proportions, type of work etc. the size distribution of aggregates is called
grading of aggregates.

Following are the classification of aggregates based on size:-

 Fine aggregate
 Coarse aggregate.

5.12 FINE AGGREGATE:-

When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate passed through it called as
fine aggregate. Natural sand is generally used as fine aggregate, silt and clay are also come under
this category. The soft deposit consisting of sand, silt and clay is termed as loam. The purpose of
the fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to act as a workability
5.13 COARSE AGGREGATE:-
When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate retained is called coarse
aggregate. Gravel, cobble and boulders come under this category. The maximum size aggregate
used may be dependent upon some conditions. In general, 40mm size aggregate used for normal
strengths and 20mm size is used for high strength concrete.

Figure 37. COARSE AGGREGATES

5.14 CONCRETING
Concrete is mostly used as a construction material. Concrete is a mixture of the three
components are -cement, aggregate (course & fine ) and water. When these three
components are mixed then it in the plastic stage for a short time. But the mixture when
placed in forms and allow to cure become hard like stone. Hardening is caused by
chemic- -al reaction between cement and water. This process is known as hydration
reaction.
With the increase of time concrete become too hard or concrete grows stronger with age.
The mixture of cement & water is known as matrix.The mixture of cement,sand &water
is called mortar. Mortar fills the voids in the course aggregate to form the concrete. The
process of concrete is known as concreting.

 Concrete is mixture of three component are:-

1. Cement
2. Water
3. Aggregate
 CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE:-
1) According to Binding Material:-There are two binding material are
(a) Lime Concrete
(b) Cement Concrete

2) According to Design there are three types of design are-

(a) Plain Concrete
(b) Pre stressed Cement Concrete
(c) Reinforcement Cement Concrete

3) According to Purpose:-
(a) Light weight concrete
(b) Vacuum concrete
(c) Air-entrained concrete
(d) Heavy concrete
(e) Mass concrete
(f) Saw dust concrete
(g) High early strength concrete
(h) Pre packed concrete
(i) Coloured concrete

 STAGES OF CONCRETE:-
Concrete has two stages before it is used as structural member are:-
1) Plastic stage
2) Hardened stage.

Plastic & hardened stages having different properties which are as follows:-
1) In Plastic Stage:-
a) Good Workability
b) Freedom from segregation
c) Freedom from bleeding
d) Freedom from harshness

2) In Hardened Stage:-
a) Strength
b) Durability
c) Impermeability
d) Dimensional changes
5.15 CONCRETING OPERATIONS
Concrete operations are those operations which are followed for making of concrete and
in improving & maintaining the quality of concrete known as concreting operations.

The concrete operations for making concrete are as follows:-

1) Batching of materials.
2) Mixing of various ingredients.
3) Transportation of concrete mix.
4) Placing of concrete.
5) Compaction of concrete.
6) Finishing of concrete surface.
7) Curing if concrete.

1. BATCHING:-
The process of precise measurement of concrete ingredients to ensure uniformity of
proportions and aggregate grading as per mix design proportions is called batching.
Batching may be by volume or by weight.

I. Batching by Volume :- Batching by volume is generally adopted for general

construction works and it is carried out by using wooden or steel boxes. In volume
batching, bulking effect of sand has to be taken into account.

II. Batching by Weight :- Batching by weight is adopted for important projects and
batching plants are used for this purpose. Weight batching is more accurate than volume
batching.

2. MIXING:-
After precise batching all the ingredients of concrete are thoroughly mixed until the
concrete of uniform color and required consistency is obtained. Mixing of concrete may
be done manually or mechanically.
Manual Mixing :- Manual mixing is adopted for small construction activities. Concrete is
less efficient and requires more cement than that required in machine mixing to obtain
the same strength.
Machine Mixing :- Machine mixing is adopted for general construction works. In this
method batch mixers or continuous mixers are used. Batch mixers are either with tilting
drum or with nontilting drum and are available in various capacities. Batch mixers with
tilting drum are most commonly used. For general works 10/7 or ¼ cubic yard capacity
mixers are used. 10/7 means 10 cubic feet of dry material yields 7 cubic feet of wet
concrete. 1-cement
bag capacity mixers are convenient and generally used. Mixing time should not be less
than 90 seconds.
 FIG. 38 MACHINE MIXING OF CONCRETE

Mixing of concrete is a very important step for achieving good final properties, and one
that can be quite difficult without the right equipment. This is one of the best reasons for
using ready-mixed concrete. Mixing distributes the aggregate evenly throughout the
cement paste, ensures that all of the cement has been fully saturated in water, and
removes large air voids. In addition, mixing breaks up agglomerated clusters of cement
particles and allows air entraining admixtures to generate the correct air void system.
Under mixing leaves large flaws and thus results in inferior strength, while over
mixing wastes time and energy and can destroy entrained air voids. The lower the
workability, the more mixing energy and mixing time is required. MIX DESIGN :-

GRADE OF CONCRETE RATIO

M5 1:5:10
M7.5 1:4:8
M10 1:3:6
M15 1:2:4
M20 1:1.5:3
M25 1:1:2

TABLE 1 GRADE OF CONCRETE

3. TRANSPORTATION :
The process of transferring the concrete from the location of mixing to the construction site is
known as transportation of concrete. Transportation may be manual or mechanical. Manual
Transportation Manual transportation is adopted for small construction activities or when the
construction site is near to the location of mixing. Mechanical Transportation Mechanical
transportation through pumps or lifts is adopted for large construction activities or when the
construction site is at a considerable distance from the location of mixing. Minimum time
should be consumed in transportation to keep the concrete plastic before compaction.

4. PLACING:-

Once the concrete has been adequately mixed, it must be placed into the formwork that
defines its final position and shape. If the concrete is to be reinforced, the rebar must already
be in place so the concrete can flow around it.

FIG.39 PLACING OF CONCRETE

5. COMPACTION:-

The process of consolidating the concrete after correct placement is known as compaction of
concrete. Compaction is an essential step that should not be neglected because the presence
of air bubbles or voids in the concrete considerably reduces its strength. 5% air voids in
concrete may reduce its strength up to 30%. Compaction may be manual or by mechanical
means.

 NEEDLE VIBRATOR:-
It is most commonly used vibrator for concrete. It consists of a steel tube (with one
end closed and rounded) having an eccentric vibrating element inside it. This steel tube
called poker is connected to an electric motor or a diesel engine through a flexible tube.
They are available in size varying from 40 to 100 mm diameter. The diameter of the
poker is decided from the consideration of the spacing between the reinforcing bars in
the form-work.

Fig 40 Needle Vibrator

6. FINISHING:-

For concrete floors and pavements, the appearance, smoothness, and durability of the
surface is particularly important. Finishing refers to any final treatment of the concrete
surface after it has been consolidated to achieve the desired properties. This can be as
simple as pushing a wide blade over the fresh concrete surface to make it flat (screening).
This would be standard procedure for driveways and sidewalks.

After concrete has hardened, mechanical finishing can be used to roughen the surface to
make it less slippery or to polish the surface as a decorative step to bring out the beauty
of a special aggregate such as marble chips.

7. CURING:-

Once concrete has been placed and consolidated it must be allowed to cure properly to
develop good final properties. As the concrete hardens and gains strength it becomes less
and less vulnerable, so the critical time period is the first hours and days after it is placed.
Proper curing of concrete generally comes down to two factors, keeping it moist and
keeping it supported.

Hydration of cement, as the word itself implies, involves reaction with water. To cure
properly, the cement paste must be fully saturated with water. If the relative humidity
level inside the concrete drops to near 90% the hydration reactions will slow, and by 80%
they will stop altogether.
 CONCLUSION

Overall the project gave me the exposure of the real life engineering problems and as an
Engineering student I must know the difficulties that an Engineer faces and how he solves them.

It was a wonderful learning experience at HPPWD CHAMBA during the training period of 4
month. The friendly welcome from all employees is appreciating. They shared their experience
and knowledge which they have gained in the long journey of their work. I hope this experience
will help me in future and also in my career. We learnt that to start any project we first need to
do external works that is setting out boundaries surveying the land setting out earth works.
Since I took my industrial training in HPPWD. I get an opportunity to work in different party of
the construction work which helps me to gain more knowledge by seeing what they work in their
own office and what is their main responsibilities to the client and also each other. Working in
the office got me more knowledge and also helped me to upgrade my knowledge in different
aspects of work.

So , at last I must thank everyone who gave me guidance at construction site and at the office of
PWD. I must also thank to my teachers for their support.
 REFERENCES

1. Official website of HPPWD http://hppwd.gov.in/

2. We can know more about HPPWD at

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh_Public_Works_Department

3. https://theconstructor.org/construction/types-of-construction-cost-estimates/841/

4. ‘CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY’-Author MS Shetty&BC Punmia’ ‘SOIL

MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGG.’-Author BC Punmia & K.R.ARORA
INTERNET. RCC BC Punmia