Jurong Pioneer Junior College

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729)

Topic 6: The Gaseous State

References
1. Hill and Holman – Chemistry In Context (5th edition)
2. E.M. Ramsden (4th edition) - A Level Chemistry
3. http://www.chm.davidson.edu/chemistryapplets/gaslaws/
4. http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/Animation/frglab2.html

Assessment Objectives
Candidates should be able to:
(a) state the basic assumptions of the kinetic theory as applied to an ideal gas
(b) explain qualitatively in terms of intermolecular forces and molecular size:
(i) the conditions necessary for a gas to approach ideal behavior
(ii) the limitations of ideality at very high pressures and very low temperatures
(c) state and use the general gas equation pV = nRT in calculations, including the
determination of Mr
(d) use Dalton’s Law to determine the partial pressure of gases in a mixture.

Section Content LOs Page Remark

1 Properties of a Gas
1.1 Comparing Gases, Liquids and Solids recall 2
1.2 Measurable Physical Properties of a Gas recall 3
1.3 Basic Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of Gases (a) 3

2 The Gas Laws

2.1 Boyle’s Law (c) 4
2.2 Charles’ Law (c) 6
2.3 Avogadro’s Law (c) 7

3 The ideal gas equation

3.1 Manipulation of ideal gas equation (a) 9
3.2 Graphs involving ideal gas equation 11

4 Dalton’s law of partial pressures

4.0 Dalton’s law of partial pressures 12

5 Behavior of real gases and ideal gases

5.1 Definition of an Ideal Gas (a) 14
5.2 Deviation from Ideal Gas Behaviour (b)(ii) 14
5.3 Conditions for Ideal Gas Behaviour (b)(i) 16

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 1 Topic 6: The Gaseous State

1 PROPERTIES OF GASES

 A gas is a state of matter in which the gas particles

translate freely between collisions.
 A gas expands to occupy the entire volume of the
container it is placed in.

1.1 Comparing Gases, Liquids and Solids

Recall from O–Level’s Kinetic Particle Theory.

FIGURE 1 The structures of gas, liquid and solid

General Properties Gas Liquid Solid

free, constant random
Molecular motion random movement but vibrate only at
movement in all particles are in fixed positions
directions close proximity
Takes the shape
Takes the shape
of container but
of container; definite fixed
Shape does not
occupy shape
necessarily
container fully
occupy it fully.
Occupy the
volume of
Volume container definite and fixed definite and fixed
(i.e. Vgas =
Vcontainer)
Widely close but not as
Spacing of particles close contact
separated close as solid
High
Relative (by adjusting
almost zero zero
Compressibility volume of
container)
Strength of attractive Very weak / strong
fairly strong
forces negligible
High due to More volatile
collision of gas liquids can have
Pressure negligible
particles with the higher vapour
walls of container pressure
TABLE 1 Comparison of the nature of particles in the three states of matter

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 2 Topic 6: The Gaseous State

 1.2 Measureable Physical Properties of A Gas

 Unlike solids and liquids, the volume occupied by a given fixed number of mol of
a gas depends on the conditions applied.
 When the pressure or temperature changes, the volume of a gas will change.
Hence, the conditions under which the volume of a gas is measured must always be
quoted.
Examples:
 Room temperature & pressure (r.t.p): 293 K (20 C) & 1 atm (101325 Pa)
Linked to Topic 2:
Atoms, Molecules One mole of any gas at r.t.p occupies a volume of 24.0 dm3.
& Stoichiometry
 Standard temperature & pressure (s.t.p): 273 K (0 C) & 1 bar (105 Pa)
One mole of any gas at s.t.p occupies a volume of 22.7 dm3

Four Measurable Properties of A Gas

Quantity Symbol SI Units Alternative Units
Pressure (p) = force
exerted on a given area Pa (pascal) Other units: atm, bar
of container, due to gas
Pressure p particles constantly or Nm-2 1 atm = 101325 Pa
bouncing off the sides 1 bar = 100 kPa = 105 Pa
of the container.
Other units: cm 3 ; dm3
Volume of a gas (V) is 1 3
Volume the volume of the m3 1 cm3 = ( 100 ) = 1  10-6 m3
V container
1 dm3 = ( 101 )3 = 1  10-3 m3

Absolute Temperature K (Kelvin)

No alternative unit
(T) is a measure of the 0 K is
Temperature
T average kinetic energy absolute zero
of the gas particles. T (in K)= t (in °C) + 273
= -273 oC
Amount n Amount of gas (n) mol
Note: SI units should be used consistently in calculations involving gas equations.

1.3 Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of Gases

1. The gas particles are in constant state of random continuous motion.

2. Volume of the gas particles is negligible compared to the volume of the
container.
Note: volume of the gas = volume occupied by the gas = volume of container
3. There are NO intermolecular forces of attraction between the gaseous particles.
4. Collisions between gas particles (or between particles and with the walls of the
container) are perfectly elastic, with no loss of kinetic energy.
5. The average kinetic energy of the gas particles (k.e. = ½ mv2) is proportional to the
absolute temperature in Kelvin. At a particular temperature all gas particles
possess the same average kinetic energy but not the same speed if gas particles
are of different masses.
A gas with the above mentioned properties is called an ideal gas.
(NOTE : 2 and 3 are very important. Include 4 if asked to state 3 properties)

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 3 Topic 6: The Gaseous State

2 GAS LAWS
These laws relate the volume of an ideal gas to pressure, temperature and the
amount of gas present.

2.1 Boyle’s Law

 Boyle’s law states that at constant temperature, the volume (V) of a given mass of
gas is inversely proportional to its pressure (p).

1
V
p

OR pV = k, a constant

For a given sample of gas under 2 different conditions (initial and final) but at
constant temperature,

pi Vi = k = pf Vf or p1 V1 = p2 V2

Figure 2. Boyle’s law: A kinetic-theory

view and a graphical representation:
pV of ideal gas is constant (4V in this
case)

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 4 Topic 6: The Gaseous State

2.1.1 Graphs illustrating Boyle’s Law (at constant temperature)

Graphical representation of Boyle’s Law:

(a) Graph of p against V:

p
Since pV = k (where k is a constant)
 1
p = k 
V
 1
(i.e. similar to sketching y = k   )
0 V x

(b) Graph of V against 1/p:

V
Since pV = k (where k is a constant)
 1
V = k 
p
(i.e. similar to sketching y = kx)
0

(c) Graph of pV against V:

pV

Since pV = k (where k is a constant)

k
(i.e. similar to sketching y = c)

0 V

Exercise 1:
A sample of fixed mass of gas occupies a volume of 350 cm3 at 99 kPa.
What will its volume be at 150 kPa if the temperature remains constant?

Under constant n and Temperature, p1V1 = p2V2 for any gas.

(350)(99) = (150)V2
Volume of gas at 150 kPa, V2 = 231 cm3

THINK FURTHER!!
Is it necessary to convert the units of volume and pressure to m3 and Pa respectively?

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 5 Topic 6: The Gaseous State

2.2 Charles’ Law

 Charles’ Law states that at constant pressure, the volume (V) of a fixed mass of
gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (T) in Kelvin.
i.e. When absolute temperature (Kelvin) of gas doubles, volume of the gas doubles.

V  T (in K)

V
= k (constant)
T

For a given sample of gas under 2 different conditions (but at constant pressure)

Vi V V1 V
= k = f or = 2
Ti Tf T1 T2

FIGURE 3 Effect of Charles’ Law on inflated balloon.

2.2.1 Graphs illustrating Charles’ Law (at constant pressure)

Graphical representation of Charles’ Law:

(a) Graph of V against T in K:

V
Since V = kT (in K)
(where k is a constant)

0 T /K (i.e. similar to sketching y = kx graph)

(b) Graph of V against T (in C):

V Since V = kT (in K) – eqn (1) and

T (in K) = T (in C) + 273 – eqn (2),
Sub eqn (2) into (1):
V = kT (in C) + 273k
T /C
273 0 (i.e. similar to sketching y = kx + c)

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 6 Topic 6: The Gaseous State

Exercise 2
A 2.00 dm3 sample of gas at 25 oC warmed to 60 oC at constant pressure.

V1 V2
At constant pressure, =
T1 T2
V1T2 2.00  333
V2 = = = 2.23 dm3
T1 298

2.3 Avogadro’s Law

 Avogadro’s Law states: at constant pressure and temperature, the volume (V) of
a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas (n).

Vn

 One mole of any gas occupies the same volume for a given temperature and
pressure.

i.e. when number of moles of gas doubled, volume of gas is doubled.

Mathematical representation:
Under constant p and T
V
V  n (i.e. = constant)
n
V1 V2
For a gas, =
n1 n2
FIGURE 4 Effect of Avogadro’s Law on
balloon blowing.
 Vm = 22.7 dm3 mol–1 at s.t.p.
Vm = 24 dm3 mol–1 at r.t.p.

Standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p)

At s.t.p. (0 oC/ 273 K, 1 bar or 105 Pa), molar volume (Vm) = 22.7 dm3 for an ideal gas

Room temperature and pressure (r.t.p)

At r.t.p. (20 oC/ 293 K, 1 atm or 101325 Pa), molar volume (Vm) = 24 dm3 for ideal gas

Molar volume is volume of 1 mole of gas.

Hence, comparing two gases at the same temperature and pressure,

VA nA
= (i.e. volume ratio = mole ratio for gas)
VB nB

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 7 Topic 6: The Gaseous State

3 THE IDEAL (GENERAL) GAS EQUATION

1
Avogadro’s Law: V  n Boyle’s Law: V  Charles’ Law: V  T (in K)
p

 Combine to form a single equation for the behaviour of an ideal gas:

nT RnT
V => V= or pV = nRT
p p
(R = proportionality constant known as the molar gas constant)

 An ideal gas would obey the ideal gas equation pV = nRT exactly, under all
conditions of pressure and temperature.

p = pressure of the gas in pascal (Pa or Nm-2)

V = volume of gas in cubic metre (m3) *** (IMPORTANT)
n = number of moles of gas (in mol)
R = molar gas constant (8.31 J K-1 mol-1)
T = temperature of gas (K)

Exercise 3:
Assuming ideal gas behavior, calculate the volume, in cm3, of 2 mol of carbon monoxide
at 30 C and 2 atm.
Assuming ideal gas behavior (i.e. pV = nRT),
V = nRT/p

2  8.31   30  273 
volume of CO, V = = 0.0249 m3 = 24900 cm3
2  101325 

Exercise 4
A sample of gas at 1 atm at 25oC warmed to 60oC in a closed vessel. Calculate the resulting
pressure of the gas. (assume ideal gas behavior)
Closed vessel means V is constant. A sample of gas means n is constant.
pV = nRT
 nR 
p = T
 V 
p = kT where k: constant
p2 T2
 =
p1 T1
(60 +273)
p2 = = 1.12 atm
(25 +273)

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 8 Topic 6: The Gaseous State

Exercise 5
A balloon was filled with helium at sea level (1.01  105 Pa, 27o C) and occupied a volume
of 100 cm3.
It was brought to the top of a mountain where the atmospheric pressure was 8.00 x 104 Pa
and the temperature was 10 oC.
What would be the volume of the balloon then?

Assuming ideal gas behavior,

pV = nRT
pV
since n is constant, = nR = k where k: constant
T
p1V1 pV
 = 2 2
T1 T2

Volume of balloon at the top, V2 =

1.01  10 100  10 
5 -6


10  273 
27  273  8.00  10 
4

= 1.19 × 104 m3 = 119 cm3

3.1 Manipulation of Ideal Gas Equation

 Through a rearrangement of the ideal gas equation, expression involving other
physical quantities, such as molar mass, density or concentration, of a gas can be
obtained.

3.1.1 Determination of Molar Mass (or relative molecular mass) of a gas

pV = nRT --------------- (1)

mass m
n= = --------------- (2)
Molar Mass M

mRT
Substitute equation (2) into equation (1), pV =
M

mRT
M=
pV

Exercise 6
A volume of 2.00 dm3 is occupied by 1.798 g of a gas at 298 K and 101 kPa. Calculate the
molar mass of the gas.

pV = nRT
mRT
M= where p = 101103 Pa, m=1.798 g, V=0.00200 m3, T=298 K
pV
1.798  8.31 298
M= = 22.0 g mol-1
101000  0.00200

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 9 Topic 6: The Gaseous State

3.1.2 Determination of density of a gas (or determine M given density)
mass
Density,  = (mass in g and volume in m3, density in g m-3)
volume
m
 =
V
m = V ----------------- (1)

mRT
Substituting equation (1) into M = ,
pV

RT
M=
p

Also,

pM
 (in g m3) =
RT

Exercise 7
Calculate the molar mass of a gas that has a density of 1.798 g dm-3 at 298 K and 101kPa.

RT 1798 8.31  298

M =  = where = 1798 g m-3
p 101  10 3
M = 44.1 g mol-1

3.1.3 Determination of Concentration of a gas

n
Since concentration of gas, c = , rearrange pV = nRT,
V
Rearranging,
p where
c (in mol m3) = p = pressure of gas (in Pa or Nm2)
RT
V = volume of gas (in m3)
n = amount of gas (in mol)
R = 8.31 J mol1 K1
T = temperature of gas (in K)
c = concentration (in mol m3)

Note: The usual units of concentration is mol dm3.

1 mol m3 = 103 mol dm3.

Example: For a gas with a concentration of 2 mol m3,

2 mol 1 m3
concentration (in mol dm3) =  = (2  103) mol dm3
1 m3 103 dm3

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 10 Topic 6: The Gaseous State

 Exercise 8:
The pressure of carbon dioxide in an unopened sealed bottle of fizzy drink has a pressure
of 250 kPa at 25 C.
Calculate the concentration of carbon dioxide gas in the unopened bottle under these
conditions, in mol dm3.

Assuming ideal gas behavior (i.e. pV = nRT),

p 250  10 3
[CO2], c = =
RT 8.31   25  273 

= 101 mol m3 = 0.101 mol dm3

Note: 1 mol m3 = 103 mol dm3

3.2 Graphs Involving Ideal Gas Equation (For a fixed mass of ideal gas)

pV
(a) against p, V or T
T

At constant n,

pV = nRT
nR pV
 nR  constant = k
T

p, V or T (i.e. similar to sketching y = k )

0

(b) pV against T

pV At constant n,

pV = nRT
pV = nRT = kT

0 T /K (i.e. similar to sketching y = kx )

(c) pV against p

PV
At constant T and n,

nRT pV = nRT
pV = nRT = k

(i.e. similar to sketching y = k )

0 p

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 11 Topic 6: The Gaseous State

4 DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES

 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures states that in a mixture of gases that do not
react with one another, the total pressure exerted by the gaseous mixture is
equal to the sum of the partial pressures of each individual gas in the mixture.
[John Dalton (1801)]

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures:

pTotal = pA + pB + pC + …

where pA, pB, pC, … are the partial pressures of gases A, B, C.. respectively.

 The partial pressure of a gas eg. A in a mixture is the pressure that the gas
would exert (on the wall of the container) if it alone occupies the container

pAV = nART ---(1)

Also, ptotalV = ntotalRT ---(2)

where ntotal = nA + nB + nC + … (ntotal = total amount of gases in the mixture),

nA = amount of gas A
V = volume of container

Dividing equation (1) by equation (2):

pA n n
 A  pA = A  ptotal
ptotal ntotal ntotal
nA
where = mole fraction of gas A in the mixture
ntotal

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 12 Topic 6: The Gaseous State

Exercise 9
A 0.500 dm3 container is filled with 2 g hydrogen, 8 g helium and 28 g of nitrogen at 298K.
Find (a) the mole fractions and (b) the partial pressures of He and N2.

2
(a) Amount of hydrogen = = 1.00 mol
2.0
8
Amount of helium = = 2.00 mol
4.0
28
Amount of nitrogen = = 1.00 mol
28.0
Total amount of gases = 1.00 + 2.00 + 1.00 = 4.00 mol

nHe 2.00
Mole fraction of He = xHe = = = 0.500
ntotal 4.00
nN2 1.00
Mole fraction of N2 = xN2 = = = 0.250
ntotal 4.00

(b) Volume of container = 0.500 dm3 = 5.00  10-4 m3

nTotalRT 4  8.31 298
Total pressure of the gases = = = 1.98  107 Pa
V 5.00  10 -4

Partial pressure of He = xHe ptotal = 0.500  1.98  107 = 9.91  106 Pa

Partial pressure of N2 = xN2 ptotal = 0.250  1.98  107 = 4.95  106 Pa

Exercise 10 (J2001/III/6)
A small spacecraft of capacity 10 m3 is connected to another of capacity 30 m3.
Before connection, the pressure inside the smaller craft is 50 kPa and that inside the larger
is 100 kPa.
If all measurement is made at the same temperature, what is the pressure in the combined
arrangement after connection?

After connection, n1 + n2 = ntotal

p1V1 p2 V2 ptotalVtotal
+ = (at constant temperature)
RT RT RT
p1V1 + p2V2 = ptotalVtotal
(50  10) + (100  30) = ptotal(10 + 30)
ptotal = 87.5 kPa

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 13 Topic 6: The Gaseous State

5 BEHAVIOUR OF REAL GASES AND IDEAL GASES
5.1 Definition of An Ideal Gas

 An ideal gas obeys the ideal gas equation pV = nRT exactly under all
conditions of temperature and pressure.
 An ideal gas obeys all assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases.

5.1 Deviation from ideal gas behavior

Gases which do not obey the ideal gas equation are known as real gases.
Real gases deviate from an ideal gas due to the following reasons:
1. Particles of real gases have a certain volume.
2. There are forces of attraction between the gas particles of a real gas.

Note: The presence of intermolecular forces of attraction between gas particles

causes:
a) volume occupied by gas to be smaller than predicted (using ideal gas
equation),
b) pressure exerted by gas particles to be smaller than predicted as
number of collisions per unit area of the wall decreases.

At the instant before a particle collides with a

wall of its container, the particles behind it pull
it back due to presence of intermolecular
forces of attraction between molecules,
decreasing the number of collisions per
unit area and hence, the pressure.

5.2.1 Graphical representation to illustrate deviation from ideal gas

pV
For 1 mol of an ideal gas under all conditions, n = =1
RT
pV
Hence, for 1 mol of an ideal gas, a plot of against p gives a horizontal line
RT
and is equal to 1 at all pressures.

pV non–ideal/
real gas
RT

1 ideal gas

p/atm

pV
FIGURE 5 A sketch of against p for 1 mole of ideal gas and real gas.
RT

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 14 Topic 6: The Gaseous State

5.2.2 Qualitative Explanation for Deviation from Ideal Gas Behaviour
The extent of deviation of a real gas from ideal gas law depends on:
(a) temperature,
(b) pressure, and
(c) nature of gas.

Real gases show the greatest deviation from ideality at low temperature and
high pressure.

(a) Temperature

 At low temperature, gas particles have lower kinetic energy, thus they
have insufficient energy to overcome the intermolecular forces of
attraction between the gas particles, thus the intermolecular forces of
attraction become significant.
 With the increased attraction between gas particles, the collision between
particles less elastic.
 Volume of the gas decreases (Charles’ Law) and gas particles become
closer together with less empty space between them, forces of attraction
become significant as the gas particles are close together.

(b) Pressure

 At high pressure, the volume of the gas is small (Boyle’s Law) and gas
particles are close together. Thus, the volume of the gas particles is
now significant compared to the volume of the container.
 Forces of attraction also become significant as the gas particles are close
together.

(c) Nature of Gas

 A gas with stronger intermolecular attraction between its particles will

deviate more from ideal gas behavior.

These curves show that

molecules with greater number
of electrons per molecule
ideal gas and/or are polar tend to deviate
more from ideal gas behaviour.

pV
FIGURE 6 A sketch of against p for 1 mole of ideal gas and real gases.
RT

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 15 Topic 6: The Gaseous State

  Molecules with greater number of electrons per molecule to be
polarised, the strength of instantaneous dipole–induced dipole
attractions between gas particles will be stronger. Thus, they deviates
more from ideality.
e.g. CO2 deviates more from ideality than N2.

 For polar molecules, the strength of the intermolecular forces of

attraction between gaseous molecules would be relatively stronger and
hence, they deviates more significant from ideality than the non–polar
molecules of comparable Mr.
e.g. NH3 (hydrogen bonding) deviates more from ideality than N2
(instantaneous dipole–induced dipole interaction).

FOR YOUR INFORMATION only

When p  0, real gases behave almost ideally.
As p increases from 0, the gas particles are closer together and hence, the
strength of intermolecular forces of attraction increases which also causes
the particles to collide against the walls of the container with less force,
causing preal<pideal. Thus, graphs of real gases curved below that of ideal gas.
As p increases further, the gas particles are so close such that the repulsive
forces becomes significant, making the gas less compressible. Hence, the
volume is larger than expected and the graphs of real gases curved above
that of ideal gas.

5.3 Conditions for Ideal Gas Behaviour

Real gases only tend toward ideal gas behaviour at
(a) high temperature, and
(b) low pressure.

For a gas at high temperature, the gas particles have high kinetic energy
and hence, have sufficient energy to overcome the intermolecular
forces of attraction between gas particles.

For a gas at low pressure, the volume of the gas is large and the gas
particle are spaced far apart. Hence, the volume of gas particles is
negligible compared to the volume of container.

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 16 Topic 6: The Gaseous State

Exercise 11 (N95/1/3(part))
(a) Suggest two reasons why the noble gases become less ideal in their behaviour down
the group from helium to xenon.
(b) State and explain the two conditions for a real gas to approach ideality.

(a) The atomic radius increases down the group from helium to xenon. Thus, the
volume of the gas atoms becomes more significant and no longer negligible
compared to the volume of the container.
The number of electrons per atom to be polarised increases from helium to
xenon. Thus, the strength of the instantaneous dipole – induced dipole
attractions between the gaseous atoms of noble gas increases and become
more significant.

(b) High temperature and low pressure

 At high temperature, the gas particles have high kinetic energy and
hence, have sufficient energy to overcome the intermolecular forces
of attraction between gas particles.
Collisions between molecules also tend to be elastic.

 At low pressure, the volume of the gas is large and the gas particles are
spaced far apart. Hence, the volume of gas particles is negligible
compared to the volume of the container.
Moreover, the forces of attraction between gas particles is negligible since
the gas particles are far apart.

2021 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9729) 17 Topic 6: The Gaseous State