Th

erma
lPr
oper
tieso
fMa
ter
ial
s
I
NTRODUCTI
ON

By ‘
‘
ther
malp
rop
ert
y’’i
smea
ntt
her
esp
ons
eofa ma
ter
ialt
oth
eap
pli
cat
iono
f
h
eat
.Asas
oli
dab
sor
bsen
erg
yint
hef
ormo
fhea
t,i
tst
emp
era
tur
eri
sesa
ndi
ts
di
men
sio
nsi
ncr
eas
e.Th
e en
erg
y ma
ybet
ran
spo
rted t
oco
oler r
egi
onso
fth
e
s
pec
imen i
ftemp
era
tur
egr
adi
ent
sex
ist
,an
dul
tima
tel
y,t
hes
pec
imen ma
y mel
t.
Hea
tca
pac
ity,t
her
malex
pan
sio
n,a
ndt
her
malc
ondu
cti
vit
yar
epr
oper
tiest
hata
re
o
ftenc
rit
ica
lint
hep
rac
tic
alu
til
iza
tio
nofs
oli
ds.

HEAT CAPACITY

As
oli
d ma
ter
ial
,wh
en h
eat
ed,ex
per
ien
cesa
nin
crea
sei
ntemp
era
tur
esi
gni
fyi
ng
t
hats
omeen
erg
yha
sbeena
bso
rbed.Hea
tca
pac
ityi
sap
rop
ert
yth
ati
sin
dic
ati
ve
o
fama
ter
ial
’sa
bil
ityt
oab
sor
bhea
tfr
omt
heex
ter
nals
urr
oun
din
gs;i
trep
res
ent
s
t
hea
mou
nto
fen
erg
yreq
uir
ed t
opr
odu
ceau
nitt
emp
era
tur
eri
se.I
nma
thema
tic
al
t
erms
,th
ehea
tca
pac
ityC i
sex
pres
seda
sfo
llo
ws:
C=dQ/dT
wh
ere dQ i
sth
een
erg
yreq
uir
ed t
opr
odu
cea dT t
emp
era
tur
ech
ang
e.Or
din
ari
ly,
h
eatc
apa
cit
yiss
pec
ifi
ed p
er mo
leo
f ma
ter
ial(
e.g
.,J/
mol
-K,o
rca
l/mo
l-K)
.
Sp
eci
fich
eat(
oft
enden
oted b
yal
ower
caec
s )i
sso
met
imesu
sed;t
hisr
epr
esen
ts
t
heh
eatc
apa
cit
yperu
nitma
ssa
ndh
asv
ari
ousu
nit
s(J/
kg-K,c
al/
g-K)
.
Th
erea
rer
eal
lyt
wowa
ysi
nwh
icht
hisp
rop
ert
y ma
ybe mea
sur
ed,a
cco
rdi
ngt
o
t
he en
vir
onmen
talc
ondi
tio
nsa
cco
mpa
nyi
ngt
het
ran
sfero
fhea
t.On
eist
heh
eat
c
apa
cit
y wh
ile ma
int
ain
ingt
hes
pec
imen v
olu
me c
ons
tan
t,Cv
;th
eot
her i
sfo
r
c
ons
tan
tex
ter
nalp
res
sur
e,wh
ichi
sden
oted Cp .Th
e ma
gni
tu f Cp i
de o sal
ways
g
rea
tert
hanCv;h
owev
er,t
hisdi
ffer
enc
eisv
erys
lig
htf
ormo
sts
oli
d ma
ter
ial
s
a
tro
omt
emp
era
tur
ean
dbel
ow.

VI
BRATI
ONAL HEAT CAPACI
TY
I
nmo
sts
oli
dst
hep
rin
cip
almo
deo
fth
erma
len
erg
yas
simi
lat
ioni
sbyt
hei
ncr
eas
e
i
nvi
bra
tio
nalen
erg
yoft
hea
toms
.Ag
ain
,at
omsi
nso
lid ma
ter
ial
sar
eco
nst
ant
ly
v
ibr
ati
nga
tver
yhi
ghf
req
uen
ciesa
ndwi
thr
ela
tiv
elys
mal
lamp
lit
udes
.Ra
thert
han
b
ein
gin
dep
enden
tofo
nea
not
her
,th
evi
bra
tio
nso
fadj
acen
tat
omsa
rec
oup
led b
y
v
irt
ueo
fth
eat
omi
cbo
ndi
ng.Th
esev
ibr
ati
onsa
rec
oor
din
ated i
nsu
chawa
yth
at
t
rav
eli
ngl
att
ice wa
vesa
rep
rodu
ced,a p
hen
omen
onr
epr
esen
ted i
n Fi
gur
ebel
ow.
Th
ese ma
ybet
hou
ghto
fasel
ast
ic wa
veso
rsi
mpl
yso
und wa
ves
,ha
vin
gsh
ort
wa
vel
eng
thsa
ndv
eryh
ighf
req
uen
cies
,wh
ichp
rop
aga
tet
hro
ught
hec
rys
tala
tth
e
v
elo
cit
yofs
oun
d.Th
evi
bra
tio
nalt
her
mal en
erg
yfo
r a ma
ter
ialc
ons
ist
sofa
s
eri
eso
fth
eseel
ast
icwa
ves
,wh
ichh
avear
ang
eofdi
str
ibu
tio
nsa
ndf
req
uen
cies
.
On
lyc
ert
ainen
erg
yva
luesa
rea
llo
wed (
theen
erg
yiss
aidt
obeq
uan
tiz
ed)
,an
d
as
ing
leq
uan
tumo
fvi
bra
tio
nalen
erg
yisc
all
edap
hon
on.(
Aph
ono
nisa
nal
ogo
ust
o
t
heq
uan
tumo
fel
ect
roma
gnet
icr
adi
ati
on,t
hep
hot
on.
)Ono
cca
sio
n,t
hev
ibr
ati
ona
l
wa
vest
hems
elv
esa
ret
ermedp
hon
ons
.

Fi
g:Sc
hema
ticr
epr
esen
tat
iono
fth
egen
era
tio
noft
hel
att
icewa
vesi
nac
rys
tal
b
ymea
nso
fat
omi
cvi
bra
tio
ns.

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF THE HEAT CAPACI

TY

Th
eva
ria
tio
nwi
tht
emp
era
tur
eoft
hev
ibr
ati
ona
lco
ntr
ibu
tio
ntot
heh
eatc
apa
cit
y
a
tco
nst
antv
olu
mef
orma
nyr
ela
tiv
elys
imp
lec
rys
tal
lin
eso
lidsi
ssh
owni
nFi
gur
e
b
elo e Cv i
w.Th szer
oat 0 K,b
uti
tri
ses r
api
dly wi
tht
emp
era
tur
e; t
his
c
orr
esp
ondst
oani
ncr
eas
ed a
bil
ityo
fth
ela
tti
cewa
vest
oen
han
cet
hei
rav
era
ge
en
erg
y wi
tha
scen
din
gtemp
era
tur
e.Atl
owt
emp
era
tur
est
her
ela
tio
nsh
ipb
etween
Cva
ndt
hea
bso
lut
etemp
era
tueT i
r s
Cv= AT3
wh
ereA i
sa t
emp
era
tur
e-i
ndep
enden
tco
nst
ant
.Ab
ove wh
ati
sca
lled t
he Deb
ye
t
emp
era
tur
e ,Cvl
D
evel
sof
fan
dbec
omeses
sen
tia
llyi
ndep
enden
toft
emp
era
tur
e
a
tav
alu
eofa
ppr
oxi
mat
ely 3R,R b
ein
gth
ega
sco
nst
ant
.Th
usev
ent
hou
ght
he
t
ota
len
erg
yoft
hema
ter
iali
sin
crea
sin
gwi
tht
emp
era
tur
e,t
heq
uan
tit
yofen
erg
y
r
equ
iredt
opr
odu
ceao
ne-deg
reet
emp
era
tur
ech
ang
eisc
ons
tan
t.

THERMAL EXPANSION
Mo
sts
oli
d ma
ter
ial
sex
pan
dup
onh
eat
inga
ndc
ont
rac
twh
enc
ool
ed.Th
ech
ang
ein
l
eng
thwi
tht
emp
era
tur
efo
ras
oli
dma
ter
ialma
ybeex
pres
seda
sfo
llo
ws:

o
r
wh
ere l
0 a
nd l
f r
epr
esen
t,r
esp
ect
ivel
y, i
nit
iala
nd f
ina
llen
gth
s wi
th t
he
t
emp
era
tur
ech
ang
efr
om T0 t
o Tf .Th
epa
ramet
er l i
sca
lled t
hel
inea
r
c
oef
fic
ien
toft
her
malex
pan
sio
n;i
tisama
ter
ialp
rop
ert
yth
ati
sin
dic
ati
veo
fth
e
ex
ten
tto wh
ich a ma
ter
ial ex
pan
ds u
ponh
eat
ing
,an
dha
sun
itso
frec
ipr
oca
l
0 -1 0 -1
t
emp
era
tur
e[(C) or(F)].
Ofc
our
se,h
eat
ingo
rco
oli
nga
ffec
tsa
llt
hedi
men
sio
nso
fab
ody,wi
thar
esu
lta
nt
c
han
gei
nvo
lume.Vo
lumec
han
geswi
tht
emp
era
tur
ema
ybec
omp
utedf
rom

wh
ere Va
nd V0 a
ret
hev
olu
mec
han
gea
ndt
heo
rig
ina
lvo
lume,r
esp
ect
ivel
y,a
nd
v s
ymb
oli
zest
hev
olu
me c
oef
fic
ien
toft
her
malex
pan
sio
n.I
nma
ny ma
ter
ial
s,t
he
v
alu
eof v i
san
iso
tro
pic
;th
ati
s,i
tdep
endso
nth
ecr
yst
all
ogr
aph
ic di
rec
tio
n
a
lon
g wh
ichi
tis mea
sur
ed.Fo
r ma
ter
ial
sin wh
icht
het
her
mal ex
pan
sio
nis
i
sot
rop
ic, vi
sap
pro
xima
tel
y3 l .
Fr
oma
nat
omi
cper
spec
tiv
e,t
her
malex
pan
sio
nisr
efl
ect
ed b
yani
ncr
eas
eint
he
a
ver
age di
sta
nceb
etweent
hea
toms
.Th
isp
hen
omen
onc
anb
estb
eun
der
sto
odb
y
c
ons
ult
ati
ono
fth
epo
ten
tia
len
erg
yver
susi
nter
ato
mics
pac
ingc
urv
efo
ra s
oli
d
ma
ter
iali
ntr
odu
ced p
rev
iou
sly,a
ndr
epr
odu
ced i
nFi
gur
e1 3a
7. .Th
ecu
rvei
sint
he
f
ormo
fap
oten
tia
len
erg
ytr
oug
h,a
ndt
heeq
uil
ibr
iumi
nter
ato
mics
pac
inga
t0 K,
r
0,c
orr
esp
ondst
oth
etr
oug
hmi
nimu
m.Hea
tin
gtos
ucc
ess
ivel
yhi
ghert
emp
era
tur
es
T1,T2 ,T3 ,et
( c.)r
ais
est
hev
ibr
ati
ona
len
erg
yfr
om E1t
oE2 t
oE3 ,a
nds
o
o
n.Th
eav
era
gev
ibr
ati
ona
lamp
lit
ude o
fana
tomc
orr
esp
ondst
oth
etr
oug
hwi
dth
a
tea
cht
emp
era
tur
e,a
ndt
hea
ver
agei
nter
ato
micdi
sta
ncei
srep
res
ent
ed b
yth
e
mea
npo
sit
ion
,wh
ichi
ncr
eas
eswi
tht
emp
era
tur
efr
omr
0tor
1tor
2 ,a
nds
oon
.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Th
erma
lco
ndu
cti
oni
sth
eph
eno
men
onb
y wh
ichh
eati
str
ans
por
ted f
romh
ight
o
l
ow-t
emp
era
tur
ereg
ion
sofas
ubs
tan
ce.Th
epr
oper
tyt
hatc
har
act
eri
zest
hea
bil
ity
o
fama
ter
ialt
otr
ans
ferh
eati
sth
eth
erma
lco
ndu
cti
vit
y.I
tisb
estdef
ined i
n
t
ermso
fth
eex
pres
sio
n

wh
ere q den
otest
heh
eatf
lux
,orh
eatf
low,p
eru
nitt
ime p
eru
nita
rea (
area
b
ein
gta
ken a
sth
atp
erp
endi
cul
art
oth
efl
ow di
rec
tio
n),k i
sth
eth
erma
l
c
ondu
cti
vit
y,a
nd dT/
dxi
stet
h emp
era
tur
egr
adi
entt
hro
ught
hec
ondu
cti
ngmedi
um.

Th
eun
it fqa
so nd ka
r m2 a
eW/ nd W/
m-K ,r
esp
ect
ivel
y.Ab
oveeq
uat
ioni
sva
lid
o
nlyf
ors
tea
dy-s
tat
ehea
tfl
ow,t
hati
s,f
ors
itu
ati
onsi
nwh
icht
heh
eatf
luxdo
es
n
otc
han
ge wi
tht
ime.Al
so,t
he mi
nuss
igni
nth
e ex
pres
sio
nin
dic
atest
hatt
he
di
rec
tio
nofh
eatf
lowi
sfr
omh
ott
oco
ld,o
rdo
wnt
het
emp
era
tur
egr
adi
ent
.
MECHANI
SMS OF HEAT CONDUCTI
ON
Hea
tist
ran
spo
rtedi
nso
lidma
ter
ial
sbyb
othl
att
icev
ibr
ati
onwa
ves(
pho
non
s)a
nd
f
reeel
ect
ron
s.A t
her
malc
ondu
cti
vit
yisa
sso
cia
ted wi
thea
cho
fth
esemec
han
isms
,
a
ndt
het
ota
lco
ndu
cti
vit
yist
hes
umo
fth
etwoc
ont
rib
uti
ons
,or
k= kl+ ke
wh
erek
ladk
n er
epr
esen
tth
ela
tti
cev
ibr
ati
ona
nd el
ect
ront
her
malc
ondu
cti
vit
ies
,
r
esp
ect
ivel
y;u
sua
llyo
neo
rth
eot
herp
redo
min
ates
.Th
eth
erma
len
erg
yas
soc
iat
ed
wi
thp
hon
onso
rla
tti
ce wa
vesi
str
ans
por
ted i
nth
e di
rec
tio
noft
hei
rmo
tio
n.Th
e
kl c
ont
rib
uti
onr
esu
ltsf
rom an
et mo
vemen
tofp
hon
onsf
rom h
igh
- t
olo
w-
t
emp
era
tur
ereg
ion
sofab
odya
cro
sswh
ichat
emp
era
tur
egr
adi
entex
ist
s.
Fr
ee o
rco
ndu
cti
ng el
ect
ron
spa
rti
cip
atei
nel
ect
ron
ict
her
malc
ondu
cti
on.Tot
he
f
reeel
ect
ron
sinah
otr
egi
ono
fth
esp
eci
meni
simp
art
edag
aini
nki
net
icen
erg
y.
Th
ey t
hen mi
gra
te t
oco
lder a
rea
s, wh
ere s
ome o
fth
isk
inet
ic en
erg
y i
s
t
ran
sfer
red t
oth
eat
omst
hems
elv
es(
asv
ibr
ati
ona
len
erg
y)a
sa c
ons
equ
enc
eof
c
oll
isi
ons wi
th p
hon
onso
rot
her i
mper
fec
tio
nsi
n t
he c
rys
tal
. Th
e r
ela
tiv
e
c
ont
rib
uti
o fk
no et
oth
eto
talt
her
malc
ondu
cti
vit
yin
crea
seswi
thi
ncr
eas
ingf
ree
el
ect
ronc
onc
ent
rat
ion
s,s
inc
e mo
re el
ect
ron
sar
eav
ail
abl
etop
art
ici
pat
eint
his
h
eatt
ran
sfer
enc
epr
oces
s.