Piezoelectric sensor

“A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect, to measure changes in pressure,
acceleration, temperature, strain, or force by converting them to an electrical charge. The prefix piezo- is
Greek for 'press' or 'squeeze’ ‘’.

Some important points:

o Piezoelectricity is the ability of some materials (notably crystals and certain ceramics) to generate an
electric potential in response to applied mechanical stress.
o This may take the form of a separation of electric charge across the crystal lattice.
o If the material is not short-circuited, the applied charge induces a voltage across the material.
o The word is derived from the Greek piezein.

➢ Reversible piezoelectric effect: ---------

▪ The piezoelectric effect is reversible in that materials exhibiting the direct piezoelectric effect (the
production of electricity when stress is applied).
▪ These materials also exhibit the inverse piezoelectric effect (the production of stress and/or strain when
an electric field is applied).

Applications:
✓ Production and detection of sound
✓ Generation of high voltages
✓ Electronic frequency generation
✓ Microbalances
✓ Ultra-fine focusing of optical assemblies etc…
In a nano positioning scanner, by applying voltage in different dimensions, the scanner can move or
bend in different dimensions

Piezo Electric Materials: ---------------

➢ Naturally-occurring crystals
✓ Berlinite (AlPO4), a rare phosphate mineral that is structurally identical to quartz
✓ Cane sugar
✓ Quartz
✓ Rochelle salt
✓ Topaz
✓ Tourmaline-group minerals

➢ Man-made ceramics
✓ Barium titanate (BaTiO3)—Barium titanate was the first piezoelectric ceramic discovered.
✓ Lead titanate (PbTiO3)
✓ Lead zirconate titanate (Pb [ZrxTi1−x ] O3 , 0<x<1) - more commonly known as PZT, lead zirconate
titanate is the most common piezoelectric ceramic in use today.
✓ Potassium niobate (KNbO3)
✓ Lithium niobate (LiNbO3)
✓ Lithium tantalate (LiTaO3)
✓ Sodium tungstate (NaxWO3)
❖ What is a crystal?
o A class of materials arranged in a definite, geometric pattern in three dimensions (table salt and sugar are
common examples)
o Quartz Crystal is silicon and oxygen arranged in a crystalline structure (SiO2).
o SiO2 is also found abundantly in nature in a non-crystal structure (“amorphous”) as sand.

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Working of The Piezoelectric Effect:

• Case 1: Crystal material at rest: No forces applied, so net current flow is 0

• Case 2: Crystal material with forces applied in direction of arrows……….

• Case 3: Changing the direction of the applied force……….

 The Electromechanical Nature of Piezoelectric Material:
In general, if you deform a piezo crystal by applying a force, you will get charge separation: Think of a simple
battery.
➢ Electromechanical Effect:
• Case 1: Replacing the current meter with a power source capable of supplying the same current indicated by the
meter….

• Case 2: When the switch is closed, and you apply the exact amount of power to get the same current that resulted
when you squeezed the crystal, the crystal should deform by the same amount!!

• Case 3: Switching the battery around

 Deformation modes:
o Piezoelectric sensors can produce outputs in the form of charge or voltage with force, acceleration, velocity,
as (displacements) inputs and then occurs ‘deformation’ (in the crystals).
o This deformation is of different types depending on the application of inputs in it.
Multimorphs modes:
o Instead of a single element sensor, it is possible to cement together two such elements as in a sandwich to
obtain larger (ideally double) output.
o Such elements are often termed as ‘bimorphs’. Proceeding in a similar way, multimorphs may be obtained for
more than two elements.
o Bimorphs may be obtained by series sandwiching or by parallel arrangement.
o The polarization of the two plates with respect to each other, is different so that the series (bending strain) or
parallel arrangement(torque) may be achieved.

❖ The Resonance in Piezo Electric Materials:

o The unique piezoelectric and converse piezoelectric properties of crystalline quartz allow us to design an
electro-mechanical device (mechanical force = electrical signal; electrical field = mechanical
deformation)
o By operating the device at its mechanical resonance frequency, we can get a useful electrical signal out of
it: The electrical signal will be at the same frequency as the mechanical resonance frequency.
o If we know how to control the devices mechanical resonance frequency, we ought to be able to design a
device at any frequency of interest…...

❖ Summary of the Piezoelectric & Electromechanical Effect:

o A deformation of the crystal structure (e.g.: squeezing it) will result in an electrical current.
o Changing the direction of deformation (e.g.: pulling it) will reverse the direction of the current.
o If the crystal structure is placed into an electrical field, it will deform by an amount proportional to the
strength of the field.
o If the same structure is placed into an electrical field with the direction of the field reversed, the
deformation will be opposite.

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❖ Piezoelectric Accelerometers:
▪ An accelerometer is an electromechanical device that will measure acceleration forces.
▪ These forces may be static, like the constant force of gravity pulling at your feet, or they could be dynamic -
caused by moving or vibrating the accelerometer.
THE PIEZOELECTRIC ACCELEROMETER (Compression Type): --------------
▪ The sensing element is a crystal which has the property of emitting a charge when subjected to a
compressive force.
▪ In the accelerometer, this crystal is bonded to a mass such that when the accelerometer is subjected to
a 'g' force, the mass compresses the crystal which emits a signal. This signal value can be related to
the imposed 'g' force

Accelerometer Design:
o Example: Shear type accelerometer with ring-shaped piezoceramics.
o The inertial force of a seismic mass generates an electric signal at the electrodes of the piezo material.
 Working of Piezoelectric Accelerometer:
All piezo-electric accelerometers work by measuring the charge generated by a crystal that is being compressed or
shear loaded by a mass influenced by acceleration. In most applications this high impedance charge output is converted
to a low impedance voltage output by the use of integral electronics.

Advantages of Piezoelectric Accelerometers:

✓ Extremely wide dynamic range, almost free of noise - suitable for shock measurement as well as for almost
imperceptible vibration
✓ Excellent linearity over their dynamic range
✓ Wide frequency range, high frequencies can be measured
✓ Compact yet highly sensitive
✓ No moving parts - long service life  Self-generating - no external power required
✓ Great variety of models available for nearly any purpose
✓ Integration of the output signal provides velocity and displacement
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 Hall Effect
The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage) across an electrical
conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor and to an applied magnetic field perpendicular
to the current.

From Lorentz to Hall

▪ The Hall effect is an extension of the Lorentz force, which describes the force exerted on a charged particle—
such as an electron—moving through a magnetic field.
▪ If the magnetic field is oriented perpendicular to the direction of the electron’s motion, the electron
experiences a force that is perpendicular to both the direction of motion and the orientation of the magnetic
field.

o Hall effect was discovered in 1879 by Edward H. Hall.

o Exists in all conducting materials • Is particularly pronounced and useful in semiconductors.
o One of the simplest of all magnetic sensing devices.
o Used extensively in sensing position and measuring magnetic fields.

Materials: The key factor determining sensitivity of Hall effect sensors is high electron mobility. As a result, the
following materials are especially suitable for Hall effect sensors:
• Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
• Indium arsenide (InAs)
• Indium phosphide (InP)
• Indium antimonide (InSb)
• Graphene
 Some important points:
o Hall Effect Sensors consist basically of a thin piece of rectangular p - type semiconductor material such as
Gallium arsenide (GaAs), Indium antimonide (InSb) or Indium arsenide (InAs) passing a continuous current
through itself.
o When the device is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic flux lines exert a force on the semiconductor
material which deflects the charge carriers, electrons and holes, to either side of the semiconductor slab.
o This movement of charge carriers is a result of the magnetic force they experience passing through the
semiconductor material.
o As these electrons and holes move side wards a potential difference is produced between the two sides of the
semiconductor material by the build-up of these charge carriers.
o Then the movement of electrons through the semiconductor material is affected by the presence of an external
magnetic field which is at right angles to it and this effect is greater in a flat rectangular shaped material.
o The output voltage, called the Hall voltage, (VH) of the basic Hall Element is directly proportional to the
strength of the magnetic field passing through the semiconductor material (output ∝ H).

Hall effect – principles:

o A voltage develops between the back (positive) and front (negative) surface. This voltage is the Hall voltage
and is given by:

o If the current changes direction or the magnetic field changes direction, the polarity of the Hall voltage flips.
o The Hall effect sensor is polarity dependent,
• may be used to measure direction of a field
• or direction of motion if the sensor is properly set up.
o The term 1/qn [m3 /C] is material dependent and is called the Hall coefficient KH.

Hall coefficient:
o Hall coefficients vary from material to material
o Are particularly large in semiconductors.
o Hall voltage is linear with respect to the field for given current and dimensions.
o Hall coefficient is temperature dependent and this must be compensated if accurate sensing is needed.
o The hall voltage is usually represented as:

Few applications:
A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to a magnetic field. Hall
effect sensors are used for proximity switching, positioning, speed detection, and current sensing
applications ---------------------
 Position sensing:
▪ Sensing the presence of magnetic objects (connected with the position sensing) is the most common
industrial application of Hall effect sensors, especially those operating in the switch mode (on/off mode).
The Hall effect sensors are also used in the brushless DC motor to sense the position of the rotor and to
switch the transistors in the right sequence.

Direct current (DC) transformers

▪ Hall effect sensors may be utilized for contactless measurements of DC current in current transformers. In
such a case the Hall effect sensor is mounted in the gap in magnetic core around the current conductor. As
a result, the DC magnetic flux can be measured, and the DC current in the conductor can be calculated.

Automotive fuel level indicator

▪ The Hall sensor is used in some automotive fuel level indicators. The main principle of operation of such
indicator is position sensing of a floating element. This can either be done by using a vertical float magnet
or a rotating lever sensor.
▪ In a vertical float system, a permanent magnet is mounted on the surface of a floating object. The current
carrying conductor is fixed on the top of the tank lining up with the magnet. When the level of fuel rises,
an increasing magnetic field is applied on the current resulting in higher Hall voltage. As the fuel level
decreases, the Hall voltage will also decrease. The fuel level is indicated and displayed by proper signal
condition of Hall voltage.

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Error
Error is the difference between the actual value of a quantity and the value obtained in measurement.

❖ Random (or indeterminate) errors: -----------------------------

o Random (or indeterminate) errors are caused by uncontrollable fluctuations in variables that affect
experimental results.
o For example, air fluctuations occurring as students open and close lab doors cause changes in pressure
readings.
o A sufficient number of measurements result in evenly distributed data scattered around an average value or
mean.
o This positive and negative scattering of data is characteristic of random errors.
o The estimated standard deviation (the error range for a data set) is often reported with measurements because
random errors are difficult to eliminate.
o Also, a "best-fit line" is drawn through graphed data in order to "smooth out" random error.

Random errors
▪ Random errors arise from unknown and unpredictable variations in condition.
▪ It fluctuates from one measurement to the next.
▪ Random errors are caused by factors that are beyond the control of the observers.
▪ Random error can cause by
a) personal errors such as human limitations of sight and touch.
b) lack of sensitivity of the instrument: the instrument fail to respond to the small change.
c) natural errors such as changes in temperature or wind, while the experiment is in progress.
d) wrong technique of measurement.
▪ One example of random error is the parallax error. Random error can be reduced by
e) taking repeat readings
f) find the average value of the reading

Reducing Random Errors: Random error can be reduced by --------

▪ Taking several readings.
▪ Find the average value of the reading.

Error Analysis:
▪ The term error in a measurement is defined as: Error = Instrument reading – true reading.
▪ Error is often expressed in percentage as:

% error = [(Instrument reading- true reading) / true reading] * 100

❖ Systematic (or determinate) errors: ------------------------------------
o Systematic errors are errors which tend to shift all measurements in a systematic way so their mean value is
displaced. Systematic errors can be compensated if the errors are known.
o Systematic (or determinate) errors are instrumental, methodological, or personal mistakes causing "lopsided"
data, which is consistently deviated in one direction from the true value.
o Examples of systematic errors: an instrumental error results when a spectrometer drifts away from calibrated
settings;
o A methodological error is created by using the wrong indicator for an acid-base titration;
o A personal error occurs when an experimenter records only even numbers for the last digit of burette volumes.
o Systematic errors can be identified and eliminated after careful inspection of the experimental methods, cross-
calibration of instruments, and examination of techniques.

Reducing Systematic Errors: Systematic error can be reduced by ----

1. Conducting the experiment with care

2. Repeating the experiment by using different instruments

Caution! Systematic error cannot be reduced by finding the average of the readings.
 Key Differences between the Random & Systematic Error: The following are the major differences
between the systematic and random error.

1. The random error means the unpredictable disturbance occurs in the experiment by the unknown source.
Whereas, the systematic error occurs because of the inbuilt defect of the apparatus.

2. The random error occurs in both the direction, whereas the systematic error occurs only in one direction.
The systematic errors arise because of the inbuilt fault of the apparatus, hence it always gives the same
error. The random error occurs because of the unknown source, thereby occurs in any direction.

3. The magnitude of systematic error remains constant because the defect is inbuilt inside the apparatus.
Whereas, the magnitude of the random error is variable.

4. The zero error and the incorrect calibration of apparatus cause the systematic error. The random error is
because of the parallax or by incorrectly using the apparatus.

5. The random error reduces by taking the two or more readings of the same experiment, whereas the
systematic error reduces by carefully designing the apparatus.

6. The random error does not have any specific types, whereas the systematic error is categorised into three
types, i.e., instrument error, environment error and systematic error.

7. The random error is non-reproducible whereas the systematic error is reproducible because the defect is
inbuilt with the apparatus.

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❖ Calibration and error reduction: ---------------------------------------------

o Random errors cannot be eliminated. But by taking a number of readings under the same condition and
taking the mean, we can considerably reduce the random errors.
o If the number of readings is very large, we can say that the mean value will approach the true value, and
thus the error can be made almost zero.
o For finite number of readings, by using the statistical method of analysis, we can also estimate the range of
the measurement error.
o On the other hand, the systematic errors are well defined, the source of error can be identified easily and
once identified, it is possible to eliminate the systematic error.
o But even for a simple instrument, the systematic errors arise due to a number of causes and it is a tedious
process to identify and eliminate all the sources of errors.
o An attractive alternative is to calibrate the instrument for different known inputs.

Calibration:
o Calibration is a comparison between a known measurement (the standard) and the measurement using your
instrument. Typically, accuracy ratio of 3:1 is acceptable by most standards organizations.
o Calibration of your measuring instruments has two objectives. It checks the accuracy of the instrument. In
practice, calibration also includes repair of the device if it is out of calibration.
 o To explain how calibration is performed we can use an external micrometre as an example. Here, accuracy
of the scale is the main parameter for calibration. A calibrated optical flat is used to check the flatness and
parallelism of the measuring surface.

Why calibration is important?

o The accuracy of all measuring devices degrades over time. This is typically caused by normal wear and tear.
o Changes in accuracy can also be caused by electric or mechanical shock or a hazardous manufacturing
environment (e.g., oils, metal chips etc.).
o Depending on the type of the instrument and the environment in which it is being used, it may degrade very
quickly or over a long period of time.
o Calibration improves the accuracy of the measuring device. Accurate measuring devices improve product
quality.

When should you calibrate your measuring device?

A measuring device should be calibrated:

▪ According to recommendation of the manufacturer.

▪ After any mechanical or electrical shock.
▪ Periodically (annually, quarterly, monthly).

Hidden costs and risks associated with the un-calibrated measuring device could be much higher than
the cost of calibration.

Magnetic sensors
On the basis of sensing principles, magnetic or electromagnetic sensors can be classified as:

▪ Hall sensors
▪ Magnetostrictive / Magnetoelastic sensors
▪ Magnetoresistive sensors
▪ Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) / Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Sensors
▪ Barkhausen sensors
▪ Wiegand sensor
▪ Magneto-optical sensors
▪ Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs)
 MAGNETOSTRICTIVE/MAGNETOELASTIC SENSORS: ---------------------

Magnetostrictive Effects:

o Joule and Villari Effects

o The magnetostrictive effect relates a material’s elastic state to its magnetic state.
o All FM materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and their alloy (alnico = aluminum-nickelcobalt alloy),
exhibit a change in size and shape resulting from magnetization change.
o This effect was first discovered by James P. Joule in 1842, thus it is also known as Joule effect.
o Joule effect can be understood by considering an FM material consisting of many tiny, oval shaped,
permanent magnets. When the material is not magnetized, the domains are randomly arranged. If the
material is magnetized, the domains are oriented with their axes approximately parallel to one another.
o As a result, the overall dimension of the material changes (expands or contracts, depending on the
direction of the magnetic field applied)

o Inversely, applying a force to an FM material will cause a change in its magnetization.

o This effect is called Villari effect.

The relationship between magnetization and mechanical stress or strain can be described by two
coupled linear equations:

The first equation indicates that the mechanical strain ε is due to both the mechanical stress σ and
the applied magnetic field H. d* is the strain coefficient (unit: m ⋅ A-1), EyH is the Young’s modulus under
the magnetic field H.
 The second equation describes how the magnetic flux density B responds to the applied field H and
to the mechanical stress σ. μσ is the permeability under the stress σ, and D* is a coefficient (unit: T ⋅ Pa-1).
Both ε and B depend on σ and H.

Wiedemann and Matteuci Effects: ------------------------

o Additional magnetostrictive effects are Wiedemann and Matteuci effects. When a current carrying FM rod is
placed in a longitudinal magnetic field, the rod experiences twisting.
o This phenomenon is called Wiedemann effect, named after the German physicist, Gustav Wiedemann, who
discovered the effect in 1858.
o Inversely, twisting a magnetostrictive element or a magnetized wire causes a change in magnetization (Matteuci
effect).

If the current is alternating, the rod will begin torsional oscillation. The twisting angle of rod α can be
approximated by ------

where j is the current density; h15 is the magnetoelastic parameter, proportional to the
longitudinal magnetic field value H; and G* is the shear modulus, a magnetoelastic property of the
rod.

Torsional twist in an FM wire allows measuring both circular and longitudinal magnetic fields.
Inversely, measuring changes in magnetization can be used to determine the applied torque.

Magnetostrictive Torque Sensors:

▪ A typical magnetostrictive torque sensor includes an FM shaft supported in a housing, a detecting coil, and a thin
layer of magnetostrictive material coated on the peripheral surface of the shaft.
▪ The detecting coil is usually fixed to the inner wall of the housing (stator), and a predetermined air gap exists
between the stator and the shaft.
 o The current passing through the drive coil generates a magnetic field that penetrates the shaft.
o If a torque is applied to the shaft, stress will be developed in the shaft at 45° from the shaft axis, resulting in a
change in the magnetic field.
o The changing magnetic field induces a current in the pickup coil that is proportional to the applied torque.
o Two factors can affect the sensor output:
➢ the air gap between the shaft and the sensor core
➢ current in the drive coil.

Capacitive sensors
▪ It is a passive transducer that means it requires external power for operation.
▪ The capacitive transducer works on the principle of variable capacitances.
▪ The capacitance of the capacitive transducer changes because of many reasons like overlapping of plates, change
in distance between the plates and dielectric constant.

Capacitive sensors can ----------

o directly sense a variety of things—motion, chemical composition, electric field

o Indirectly sense many other variables which can be converted into motion or dielectric constant, such as
pressure, acceleration, fluid level, and fluid composition.

Applications: Capacitive sensors have a wide variety of uses. Some are -----------------------------
• Flow -- Many types of flow meters convert flow to pressure or displacement, using an orifice for volume flow
or Coriolis effect force for mass flow. Capacitive sensors can then measure the displacement.
• Pressure -- A diaphragm with stable deflection properties can measure pressure with a spacingsensitive
detector.
• Liquid level -- Capacitive liquid level detectors sense the liquid level in a reservoir by measuring changes in
capacitance between conducting plates which are immersed in the liquid, or applied to the outside of a non-
conducting tank.
• Spacing -- If a metal object is near a capacitor electrode, the mutual capacitance is a very sensitive measure of
spacing.
• Thickness measurement -- Two plates in contact with an insulator will measure the insulator thickness if its
dielectric constant is known, or the dielectric constant if the thickness is known.

• Ice detector -- Airplane wing icing can be detected using insulated metal strips in wing leading edges.
 • Shaft angle or linear position -- Capacitive sensors can measure angle or position with a multiplate scheme
giving high accuracy and digital output, or with an analog output with less absolute accuracy but faster
response and simpler circuitry.

• Lamp dimmer switch -- The common metal-plate soft-touch lamp dimmer uses 60 Hz excitation and senses
the capacitance to a human body.

• X-Y tablet -- Capacitive graphic input tablets of different sizes can replace the computer mouse as an x-y
coordinate input device.

Capacitive displacement sensor:

A displacement can be converted in a variation of the geometric properties of a capacitor as well as the
permittivity.

C = f (G, ℇ)

Example is the parallel plate capacitor……………...

✓ Advantages:
• Long life time due to reduced friction,
• Negligible load effect,
• Robustness against temperature variation,
• High operating range,
• High resolution (10 pm)

✓ Disadvantages:
• It is very much sensitive to changes in environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity etc. This
will affect the performance.
• The measurement of capacitance is hard comparing to measurement of resistance.
• Capacitive proximity sensor are not so accurate compare to inductive sensor type.
• Bad plate insulation can introduce resistive effect – Humidity,
• Coupling between plates and power lines.
 • Distortion -----

Example:
❖ Capacitive proximity sensors:

Capacitive proximity sensors are non-contact devices that can detect the presence or absence of virtually any
object regardless of material. They utilize the electrical property of capacitance and the change of capacitance based
on a change in the electrical field around the active face of the sensor.

✓ Advantages:
▪ It can detect both metallic and non-metallic targets.
▪ Good stability.
▪ High speed
▪ Good in terms of power usage.
▪ Low cost.

✓ Disadvantages:
▪ They are affected by temperature and humidity
▪ Difficulties in designing
▪ Aren’t as accurate as compare to inductive sensors.

✓ Some features:
o Contactless sensing: Contactless proximity sensing allows for detection without touching the object, ensuring
object stays well-conditioned
o Unaffected by surface conditions: Proximity sensors are nearly unaffected by surface colors of objects since
it mainly detects physical changes
o Suitability for wide range of applications: Proximity sensors are suitable for damp conditions and wide
temperature range usage, unlike your traditional optical detection. Proximity sensors are also applicable in
phones as well, be it your Android or IOS devices. It consists of simple IR technology that switches on and
off display accordingly to your usage. For example, it turns off your display when a phone call is ongoing
such that you wouldn’t accidentally activate something while placing it near your cheeks!
o Longer service life: Since a proximity sensor uses semiconductor outputs, there are no moving parts
dependent on the operating cycle. Thus, its service life tends to be longer as compared to traditional sensors!
o High speed response rate: Compared to switches where contact is required for sensing, proximity sensors
offer a higher-speed response rate.
❖ Important information about Capacitive displacement sensor:
❖ Capacitance calculations for certain figures: