Unit 2:

Incompressible flow in pipes and channels

for Newtonian and non-Newtonians

1
 Objectives

• Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids are illustrated

• Calculate the Apparent viscosity
• Derive the Pressure drop equation in Laminar flow
• Express the Pressure drop expression in turbulent flow
• Derive the Turbulent velocity profiles
• Evaluate the Pressure drop in pipes for Newtonian and non-Newtonian flows
• Apply the Dimensional analysis in fluid flow.
• Application of Moody chart
• Differentiate and evaluate the Major and minor losses in pipe
• Application of Mechanical energy balance equation (Bernoulli's equation)
• Solve related problems
2
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids
The plot of shear stress (τ) against shear rate (dz/du ≡ γ) is different in
Newtonian fluids than that in non-Newtonian fluids as shown in Figure 1.
For Newtonian fluids the plot give a straight line from the origin but for non-
Newtonian fluids the plot gives different relations than that of Newtonian
some of these relations are given in Figure 1 below.

• A- Newtonian fluids
• B- non-Newtonian (pseudoplastic)
(power law n<1))
• C- non-Newtonian (dilatant)
(power-law n>1)
• D- non-Newtonian (Bingham) Figure 1: Shear stress (τ) against
shear rate (dz/du−≡−γ) 3
n is the flow behavior index given as :

𝒅𝒍𝒏 ∆𝑷/(𝟒𝑳/𝑫)
𝒏=
𝒅𝒍𝒏 𝟖𝒖/𝑫

For Newtonian fluids a plot of shear stress (τ), against shear rate (- γ ≡ du/dy)
on Cartesian coordinate is a straight line having a slope equal to the dynamic
viscosity (μ).
For many fluids a plot of shear stress against shear rate does not give a
straight line. These are so-called “ Non-Newtonian Fluids”. Plots of shear
stress against shear rate are experimentally determined using viscometer.

The term viscosity has no meaning for a non-Newtonian fluid unless it is

related to a particular shear rate, 𝜸ሶ , and it will be known as : Apparent
viscosity
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 Apparent viscosity
The term viscosity has no meaning for a non-Newtonian fluid unless it is
related to a particular shear rate, 𝜸ሶ , and it will be known as :
𝝉
Apparent viscosity, 𝝁𝒂 = ሶ
𝜸

𝝉 = 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝜸ሶ = 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔

• Types of Non-Newtonian Fluids

There are two types of non-Newtonian fluids: -

1-Time-independent.
2-Time-dependent

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Time-Independent Non-Newtonian Fluids

• In this type the apparent viscosity depends only on the rate of shear
at any particular moment and not on the time for which the shear
rate is applied.
• The relationship between shear stress and shear rate is more complex
and this type can be written as:

For power law fluids: 𝜏 = 𝑘 −𝛾ሶ 𝑛

For Bingham plastics fluid:𝜏 = 𝜏0 + 𝑘 −𝛾ሶ

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Newtonian - Flow Characteristic [8u/d]
The velocity distribution for Newtonian fluid of laminar flow through a
circular pipe, is given by the following equation:

𝑟 2 𝑟 2
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 1− = 2𝑢 1 −
𝑅 𝑅

Where, u: is the mean (average) linear velocity

u = Q/A
𝑑𝑢𝑥 2𝑟 𝑟
𝛾ሶ = = 2𝑢 − = −4𝑢 2
𝑑𝑟 𝑅 𝑅

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At the pipe walls: (r = R)

𝑑𝑢𝑥
𝛾ሶ = 𝛾ሶ = ቤ
𝑑𝑟 𝑟=𝑅

1 −4𝑢
𝛾𝑤
ሶ = −4𝑢 =
𝑅 𝑅

𝟒𝒖 𝟖𝒖
Therefore: −𝜸ሶ 𝒘 = =
𝑹 𝒅

𝟖𝒖
−𝜸ሶ 𝒘 =
𝒅

• Flow characteristic For laminar flow

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Recall:
𝝉 𝟖𝒖
Apparent viscosity, 𝝁𝒂 = and −𝜸ሶ 𝒘 =
𝜸ሶ 𝒅

𝟖𝒖
𝝉𝒘 = −𝝁𝜸ሶ 𝒘 = 𝛍 …………………at the wall.
𝒅

The contuinity, energy and force (momentum) balance on an element of fluid

of L length:

Consider a horizontal pipe, fully developed, and incompressible flow

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 Fully developed laminar

 (shear stress)
a
r z r
p
L P+dp L
dz
Pipe wall

Let’s apply conservation of mass, momentum, and energy to this CV (good review problem!)
Fully Developed Pipe Flow  (shear stress)
a
Pressure drop
Conservation of Mass
r z
p
r

L P+dp L
dz
Pipe wall

Conservation of x-momentum (Force balances)

 dp  2
p r   p 
2
L  r   2 rL  0
 dz 

r  dp 
   
2  dz 
 Fully Developed Pipe Flow
Pressure drop
Thus, x-momentum reduces to

or

𝝅 𝟐
𝝉𝒘 𝝅𝑫𝑳 = 𝑫 𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐
𝟒

∆𝑷 𝟖𝒖
𝝉𝒘 = − 𝑳 =𝛍 ……… equation for Newtonian fluids
𝟒 𝒅
𝑫

∆𝑷 𝟖𝒖 𝒏−𝟏 𝟖𝒖
𝝉𝒘 = − 𝑳 =𝑲 . ..equation for Non-Newtonian fluids
𝟒 𝑫 𝒅 𝒅
The apparent viscosity for pipe flow

𝒏−𝟏
𝟖𝒖
𝝁𝒂 = 𝑲
𝒅

∆𝑷 𝟖𝒖
𝝉𝒘 = − 𝑳 = 𝝁𝒂 …………….shear stress of a Non-Newtonian fluid
𝟒 𝑫 𝒅

Reynolds number for the of non-Newtonian fluids can be written as;

𝜌𝑢𝑑
𝑁𝑅𝑒 = …………………….….For Newtonian fluid
𝜇
𝜌𝑢𝑑
𝑁𝑅𝑒 = …………………….….For Non-Newtonian fluid
𝜇𝑎

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 Example:
A general time-independent non-Newtonian liquid of density 961
kg/m3 flows steadily with an average velocity of 1.523 m/s through a
tube 3.048 m long with an inside diameter of 0.0762 m. For these
conditions, the pipe flow consistency coefficient K has a value of 1.48
Pa.s0.3 [or 1.48 (kg / m.s2) s0.3] and n a value of 0.3. Calculate the values
of the apparent viscosity for pipe flow (μa), and the Reynolds number
NRe.

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15
Exercises.
1. A non-Newtonian incompressible fluid flow in a tube with an average
flow rate of 2 m3/h. The tube is 25 m long and has an inside diameter
of 30 mm. Determine the apparent viscosity, and the NRe. The fluid
properties are 𝜌 = 830 kg/m3, k = 1.32 Pa.s0.7
2. Power-law liquid of density 961 kg/m3 flows in steady state with an
average velocity of 1.523 m/s through a tube 2.67 m length with an
inside diameter of 0.0762 m. For a pipe consistency coefficient of 4.46
Pa.sn [or 4.46 (kg / m.s2) s0.3], calculate the values of the apparent
viscosity for pipe flow (μa) in Pa.s, and the Reynolds number NRe for
power-law indices n = 0.3, 0.7, 1.0, and 1.5 respectively. Conclude on the
observation made on your calculations.

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 Pressure drop equation in Laminar & Turbulent flows
A. Laminar Flow
Recall the equation for mean velocity applicable to incompressible, laminar, conduit
flow
a 2  dp 
um   
8  dz 

This can be re-written as

dP  um
  32 2
, where D(diameter) = 2a
dz D

Separating the variables and integrating this expression along a length L of the passage,
we get

P  um L
  dP  32 2  dz and
Po D 0

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  u m L…………… Hagen–Poiseuille equation
P  32
D2
∆𝑃𝐷2 ∆𝑃𝜋𝐷4
𝑢𝑚 = …&…….. 𝑄 = ………… For straight pipe line
32𝜇𝐿 128𝜇𝐿

∆𝑃−𝜌𝑔𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐷2 ∆𝑃−𝜌𝑔𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜋𝐷4

𝑢𝑚 = ….&….. 𝑄 = ……….For inclined pipes
32𝜇𝐿 128𝜇𝐿
(sinθ > 0 for uphill flow, and sinθ < 0 for downhill flow)

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Forming expression for friction head loss we get
P  um L
hL   32
g gD 2
In practice, the pressure losses for all types of fully developed fluids is expressed as:

∆P = f (L/D)(ρu2/2), where f(Darcy) = 4ff ( Fanning)

Combining this expression with that containing friction factor ff

 um L L u2
hL  32  2ff
gD 2
D g

Solving for ff we obtain

 16
f f  16 
 u m D N Re

This expression indicates that ff is inversely proportional to NRe in the laminar flow regime; the19
friction factor is not a function of the pipe roughness for values NRe<2000.
Examples.
1. An unknown fluid at 25 oC having an SG of 0.9 flows at a rate of 2.0 x10-5
m3/s in a horizontal pipe with a 0.020 m inside diameter, and a length of 10
m. The dynamic viscosity of the fluid is 0,4 N.s/m2. How steep a hill (θ),
must the pipe be if the pressure drop equals to zero?

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2. Oil of absolute viscosity of 0,1 Pa.s and relative density of 0.85 flows through
a 3048 m long cast iron pipe of 305 mm diameter at a flow rate of 44.4 x10-3
m3/s. What is the frictional head loss, and the pressure head in the pipe?
Assume laminar flow.

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B. Turbulent Flow

In the case of turbulent flow in closed conduits or pipes the relation

for ff is not simply obtained or expressed as in the laminar case.
Several different kinds of equations are available in open literature.
For the foregoing discussion, we will explore two cases: flow in
smooth pipes/tubes and flow in rough pipes/tubes.

Smooth tubes

For hydraulically smooth surface i.e. situations where the surface

irregularities do not protrude beyond the laminar boundary layer
immediately adjacent to the wall, the following relation can be use to
approximate ff

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Friction factor in Turbulent flow

A number of expressions have been proposed for calculating friction

factor in terms of or function of (NRe). Some of these expressions are
given here:

…………………For 2,500 < NRe < 100,000

………….For 2,500 < NRe < 100,000,000

These equations are for smooth pipes in turbulent flow

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The funning frictional factor for turbulent flow of general time
independent non-Newtonian fluids in smooth cylindrical pipes can be
calculated from:

where, a, and b are function of the flow behavior index (n)

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Examples.
A general time-dependent non-Newtonian fluid with an SG 0f 0.86
flows at a steady state with a mean velocity of 1.25 m/s through a
tubing of 0.05 m inside diameter, and 5 m long. The pipe coefficient,
K = 1.4 Pa.sn, with n = 0.3. Calculate the following:

• a) The apparent viscosity of the fluid.

• b) The NRe
• c) The pressure drop.

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For rough pipes,

The ratio of (e/d) acts an important role in evaluating the friction factor in
turbulent flow as shown in the following equation:

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Rough tubes
How a roughness length scale  can be assigned to the surface of a
particular wall material is a question to grapple with. Initially,
Nikuradse conducted pressure –drop measurements on pipes that
he had artificially roughened by coating their inside walls with
glue and sprinkling on a single layer of sand grains of known
diameter. This is shown in the figure below


wall

Nikuradse then deduced the friction factor for a large number of

cases and was able to build up a friction factor plot for artificially
roughened pipes. The table below gives a summary of surface
roughness for a variety of surfaces 27
Examples.
1. Medium fuel oil at 10 0C is pumped to tank 2 through 1892 m of
new, riveted steel pipe , 406 mm inside diameter. The pressure at
tank 1 = 13.79 kPa(g) when the flow is 0.198 m3/s. the kinematic
viscosity is 5.16 x 10-6 m2/s and a density of 861 kg/m3. pump
roughness, e = 0.9 mm, and tank 2 is 24.38 m higher than the
pump. What is the head that the pump must develop?

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29
2. 98% H2SO4 is pumped at 1.25 kg/s through a 25 mm inside
diameter pipe, 30 m long, to a reservoir 12 m higher than the feed
point. Calculate the pressure drop in the pipeline. Take that ρ = 1840
kg/m3, μ= 25 mPa.s, e = 0.05 mm.

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 Graphical evaluation of friction factor – Moody
diagrams
• As with the results of Reynolds number the curves are in three regions in
figure below.
• At low values of Nre, (NRe < 2,000), the friction factor is independent of
the surface roughness, but at high values of NRe (NRe > 2,500) the friction
factor vary with the surface roughness.
• At very high NRe, the friction factor become independent of NRe and a
function of the surface roughness only.
• Over the transition region of NRe from 2,000 to 2,500 the friction factor
increased rapidly showing the great increase in friction factor as soon as
turbulent motion established.

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32
Examples

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 Friction in Pipes
When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some resistance
due to which some of energy of fluid is lost. This loss of energy is classified
on:

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 Major Losses: Turbulent flow
The pressure head loss:

∆𝑃𝐿 𝐿 𝑢2 𝐿 𝑢2
𝐻𝑚 = = 𝑓𝐷 = 4𝑓𝑓
𝜌𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔

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Example:
1. Oil of absolute viscosity of 0.1 Pa.s and relative density of 0.85 flows
through 3048 m of 305 mm cast iron pipe at a flow rate of 44.4 x 10-3
m3/s. What is the lost head in the pipe if the flow is laminar, and if it is
turbulent.

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37
2. A general time-independent non-Newtonian liquid of density 961
kg/m3 flows steadily with an average velocity of 1.523 m/s
through a tube 3.048 m long with an inside diameter of 0.0762
m. For these conditions, the pipe flow consistency coefficient K
has a value of 1.48 Pa.s0.3 [or 1.48 (kg / m.s2) s0.3] and n a value
of 0.3. Calculate the values of the apparent viscosity for pipe flow
(μa),the Reynolds number NRe, the pressure drop, and the
head loss.

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39
 Minor Losses
Losses in Fittings and Valves
Pipe fittings and valves also disturb the normal flow lines in a pipe and
cause additional friction losses. In a short pipe with many fittings, the
friction losses from these fittings could be greater than in the straight
pipe. Losses in Fittings and Valves are often expressed as a loss
coefficient, K, times the velocity head.

𝑢2 𝐿𝑒 𝑢2 𝐿𝑒 𝑢2
𝐻𝐹−𝑉 =𝐾 = 𝑓𝐷 = 4𝑓𝑓
2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔

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Standard pipe fittings and standard valves

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Table of the Friction losses in pipe fittings
FITTINGS K Le/D
45° elbows (a) 15 0.3
90° elbows (b) 30 – 40 0.6 – 0.8
90° square elbows (c) 60 1.2
Entry from leg of T-piece (d) 60 1.2
Entry into leg of T-piece (d) 90 1.8
Unions and couplings (e) Very small Very small
Globe valves fully open 60 – 300 1.2-6.0
Gate valves: fully open 7 0.15
3/4 open 40 1
1/2 open 200 4
1/4 open 800 16

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 Sudden Expansion (Enlargement) Losses
If the cross section of a pipe enlarges gradually, very little or no extra
losses are incurred. If the change is sudden, as that in Figure, it results
in additional losses due to eddies formed by the jet expanding in the
enlarged suction. This friction loss can be calculated by the following
for laminar or turbulent flow in both sections, as:

𝑢12 𝐴1 2
𝐻𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒 , where 𝐾𝑒 = 1 −
2𝑔 𝐴2

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 Sudden Contraction Losses
The effective area for the flow gradually decreases as the sudden
contraction is approached and then continues to decrease, for a short
distance, to what is known as the “Vena Contacta”. After the Vena
Contracta the flow area gradually approaches that of the smaller pipe,
as shown in Figure below. When the cross section of the pipe is
suddenly reduced, the stream cannot follow around the sharp corner,
and additional loses due to eddies occur.

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 𝑢22 𝐴2
𝐻𝑐 = 𝐾𝑐 , where 𝐾𝑐 = 0.55 1 −
2𝑔 𝐴1

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 Total Friction Losses
The frictional losses from the friction in the straight pipe (skin friction),
enlargement losses, contraction losses, and losses in fittings and valves
are all incorporated in 𝐻𝐹 term in mechanical energy balance equation
(modified Bernoulli’s equation), so that,

𝐻𝐹 = 𝐻𝑚 + 𝐻𝐹−𝑉 + 𝐻𝑒 + 𝐻𝑐

𝐿 𝑢2 𝑢2 𝑢12 𝑢22
𝐻𝐹 = 4𝑓𝑓 +𝐾 + 𝐾𝑒 + 𝐾𝑐
𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔

If all the velocity u, u1, and u2 are the same, then this equation becomes,
for this special case;
46
 𝐿 𝑢2
𝐻𝐹 = 4𝑓𝑓 + 𝐾 + 𝐾𝑒 + 𝐾𝑐
𝐷 2𝑔

If equivalent length of the straight pipe for the losses in fittings and/or
valves, then this equation becomes;

𝐿 𝐿𝑒 𝑢2
𝐻𝐹 = 4𝑓𝑓 +෍ + 𝐾𝑒 + 𝐾𝑐
𝐷 𝐷 2𝑔

47
 Modification of Bernoulli’s Equation
The real fluids are viscous and hence offer resistance to flow. Friction
appears wherever the fluid flow is surrounding by solid boundary.
Friction can be defined as the amount of mechanical energy irreversibly
converted into heat in a flow in stream. As a result of that the total
energy is always decrease in the flow direction i.e. (E2 < E1). Therefore
E1 = E2 + HF, where HF is the energy losses due to friction.

Thus the modified Bernoulli’s equation becomes,

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
𝑍1 + + = 𝑍2 + + + 𝐻𝐹
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

48
 Pump work in Bernoulli’s equation
A pump is used in a flow system to increase the mechanical energy of
the fluid. The increase being used to maintain flow of the fluid. Assume
a pump is installed between the stations 1 and 2 as shown in Figure
below. The work supplied to the pump is shaft work (– Ws), the
negative sign is due to work added to fluid.

49
Since the shaft work must be discounted by these frictional force
(losses) to give net mechanical energy as actually delivered to the fluid
by pump (Wp).

Thus, Wp = η Ws where η, is the efficiency of the pump.

Therefore, the modified Bernoulli’s equation for present of pump

between the two selected points 1 and 2 becomes,

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝜂𝑊𝑠 𝑃2 𝑉22

𝑍1 + + + = 𝑍2 + + + 𝐻𝐹
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔

50
 Examples
A water is pumped in a 1.9 cm internal diameter copper (drawn tubing)
pipe at a rate of 45 L/min through a distance of 40.0 m in a horizontal
direction and then up through a vertical height of 35 m through a faucet
of 1.3 cm internal diameter. In the pipeline there are two control valves
(K=0.7) and seven pipe fittings (K = 0.1 each). Furthermore, the line has a
heat exchanger across which there is a head loss of 3 m. The pressure at
point (2) and the distance, Z1 equals to zero. (Hint) use the initial velocity
for the major and minor loss calculations.

The properties of water at 25 0C are:

Density = 998.2 kg/m3
Dynamic viscosity = 1.002 X 10-3 Pa.s
Assume that α1, and α2 from the Bernoulli’s equation equals to unity.
51
1. Determine the flow regime, the major, and the minor losses in the
pipe.
2. Determine the entrance length of the pipe
3. Determine the pressure at point (1), P1, if:

• All losses are neglected

• The only losses included are major losses
• All losses are included

52
53
Dimensional analysis in fluid flow.

54