INTRODUCTION

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

What are Science, Technology and society, and why should people want to study
and learn it? Why should students, teachers, researchers and other professionals have
interest in the subject? Primarily, we need some background and understanding of the
significance of science and technology in the living past and their importance in the
modern world (Mosteiro,2004)

NATURE OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

SCIENCE
 from the Latin word Scientia which means knowledge.
 It is a systematic , organized knowledge that investigates nature.
 A method of obtaining knowledge through the use of scientific method (problem,
observation, hypothesis, experiment, theory, law); and made use of logical, mathematical,
and technological means.
 It is also a process of a very diverse events shaped by social forces and historical change, thus
also shapes culture
TECHNOLOGY
 From the word Techne (art, craft, skill), Logos (word).
 It means a system of skills, techniques, processes and products of the scientific concept.
Simply, it is the scientific study of the practical or industrial arts.
 It is the application of science – a complex combination of knowledge, materials and methods
with organization and manipulation of materials for useful purposes of mankind.
 It is concentrated with inventing new or better tools and materials for a better way of living
resulting to a total societal enterprise.

SOCIETY
 In sociology, it is defined as the people who interact in such a way as to share a common
culture. It is a network of ethnic or racial, based on gender, or due to shared beliefs, values,
and activities.
 In geography, it refers to people who share a common culture in a particular location. For
example, people living in arctic climates developed different cultures from those living in
desert cultures. In time, a large variety of human cultures arose around the world.

CHAPTER 1
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS

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 “If we lived on a planet where nothing ever changed, there would be little to do. There would
be nothing to figure out. There would be no impetus for science. And if we lived in an unpredictable
world, where things change in random or very complex ways, we would not be able to figure things
out. But we live in an in-between universe where things change but according to patterns, rules, or as
we call them, laws of nature. If I throw a stick up into the air, it always falls down. If the sun sets in
the west, it always rises again the next morning in the east. And so it becomes possible to figure
things out. We can do science, and with it we can improve our lives.” (Carl Edward Sagan).

From the beginning of time, man has tried to improve his way and quality of life. The
caveman discovered how to make and used tools, developed a logical sequence of activities, and
evolved processes that added value to his life. The totality of the use and the application of his
knowledge, skills, tools, and materials, constitute what we today describe as “technology”.

Technosphere
 The sphere or realm of human technological activity; the technologically modified
environment.
 It comprises all of the structures that humans have constructed to keep them alive on the
planet – houses, factories, farms, mines, roads, airports and shipping ports, computer systems,
together with its discarded waste.
 The technosphere is the brainchild of the USA scientist Peter Haff.
 According to Professor Mark Williams of University of Leicester, "The technosphere is a
major new phenomenon of this planet – and one that is evolving extraordinarily rapidly".
Geologists from the said university has made the first estimate of the sheer size of the
physical structure of the planet's technosphere, which has a mass approximates to an
enormous 30 trillion tons, representing a mass of more than 50 kilos for every square meter of
the Earth's surface

In view of these, the impact humans have made to the planet - has provided an understanding
that humans have greatly changed the Earth. The realization that discoveries and inventions are
shaped by historical forces and in turn influence values, aspirations, events, and institutions, thus
shaping the course of history.

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY (STS)

 is an interdisciplinary study of the interaction of science and technology with society and
culture.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN DIFFERENT PERIODS

How civilization have changed over the centuries display the understanding of humankind in
the natural world (science) and ability to control (technology).and influence it (society).

Ancient Times
As modern humans evolved from their ancestors, accumulation and transfer of knowledge
evolved correspondingly. Simple stone tools became more efficient, hence, the ability to make
weapons and other implements from bones, wood, and antlers. Born hunters were transformed to
farmers and fishermen. Naked humans began to realize the need for clothing. Slowly but surely,
different elements are coming together to the level of sophistication commonly referred to as
civilization.

Sumerian Civilization
 Sumerian civilization emerged c. 3,500 BC in the southern region of Mesopotamia
(corresponding to the modern-day Iraq and Kuwait).
 Is generally considered the cradle of civilization.
 They rely on agriculture as the primary source of livelihood.
 Created irrigation system by constructing dikes and canals to control flooding.
 Built large structures from sun-dried bricks made of clay.
 Invented the wheel, sail, and plow improving trade and farming.
 Forged bronze from copper and tin (around 3,000 BC) allowing for stronger tools and
weapons.
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  Credited for developing the first formal writing system called “cuneiform”
 Introduced a 360-day calendar
 Developed the sexagesimal number system of counting in units and intervals of sixty (60)
which served as the basis for graduating the circumference of a circle to 360 degrees and the
sixty minutes equal graduations to an hour duration in time.

Cuneiform Symbol The plow and the cart Sumerian Calendar Irrigation
System

Babylonian Civilization ( About 3,500 BC until 500 BC)

 located in the border of the famous Euphrates and Tigris rivers in Iraq.
 used a numeral system with 60 as its base, which allowed them to divide circles into 360
degrees.
 used a calendar with alternating 29 and 30 day months. This system required the addition of
an extra month three times every eight years, and as a further adjustment the king would
periodically order the insertion of an additional extra month into the calendar.
 Likewise dig canals and developed earthen dikes to irrigate their crops and provide water to
their livestock.
 Adopted the Sumerian sexagesimal system.
 showed a remarkable talent in Astronomy, believed that the movement of the heavenly bodies
forecasted some terrestrial events like eclipses. They kept complete lists of eclipses
 Babylonians astronomers compiled lists of planets and stars.

Babylonian clay tablet with math annotations Babylonian Star Calendar Ruins of
a palace in Ur. An example of Babylonian Architecture.
.
Egyptian Civilization
 Historians noted that ancient Egypt began between 5,000 – 3,100 BC geographically situated
in the Northeastern part of Africa.
 The Nile River provided Egypt the necessary water requirements to support agricultural
activities.
 Produced a variety of earthen wares and pottery items.
 Worked on metals to produce tools, weapons and agricultural implements.
 Constructed dwellings made of reeds and air-dried mud bricks.
 Built great pyramids
 Ancient Egyptians devised a 365-day calendar.
 Hieroglyphics is an Ancient form of writing created by the Egyptians. They use symbols to
represent words. The Rosetta Stone is an ancient artifact that helps us decode and understand
these meanings.

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 Pyramids Clock Hieroglyphics
Papyrus

Greek Civilization
 Greek civilization emerged at around 1,100 BC.
 had a stronger connection with philosophy, and was able to replace the supernatural beliefs
through the concept of a universe that is governed by laws of nature. Scientific works of wise
and gifted Greeks such as Thales, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle, Archimedes, and Ptolemy
served as foundation and pillars of western civilization.
Pythagoras also studied geometry and discovered the Pythagorean Theorem
Euclid wrote several books on the subject of geometry called Elements
Aristotle studied animals in great detail and wrote down his observations in a book called the
History of Animals
Hippocrates is often called the "Father of Western Medicine."
 also made contributions to the study of map making or "cartography."
 Here are some of the inventions that are typically attributed to the Ancient Greeks.
a. Watermill - A mill for grinding grain that is powered by water. The Greeks invented the
waterwheel used to power the mill and the toothed gears used to transfer the power to the
mill.
b. Alarm Clock - The Greek philosopher Plato may have invented the first alarm clock in
history. He used a water clock to trigger a sound like an organ at a certain time.
c. Central Heating - The Greeks invented a type of central heating where they would transfer hot
air from fires to empty spaces under the floors of temples.
d. Crane - The Greeks invented the crane to help lift heavy items such as blocks for constructing
buildings.
e. Archimedes' Screw - Invented by Archimedes, the Archimedes' screw was an efficient way to
move water up a hill.

Alarm clock Cartography

Roman Civilization
 Spanned from 102 – 44 BC
 stablished a sophisticated system to circulate written news which it published on Acta diurnal
which translates to “Daily events”, and also published the Acta Senatus that recorded the
proceedings in the Roman senate.
 were particularly skillful in building infrastructures with a good integrity and built.
 The Romans developed infrastructure networks and constructed roads from Rome to other
places in Italy.
 Constructed big permanent structures such as domes, colosseum, and stadiums.

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 Roman Numerals Domes Newspaper

Indian Civilization (1500 and 1000 BCE)

 A fine knowledge of geometry was developed in India as a result of strict religious rules for
the construction of altars.
 Shulba Sutras, a work containing the detailed explanations on how to perform all the
geometrical operations required to support the religious procedures regarding the altars. This
text also develops mathematical topics such as square roots and squaring the circle.
 Developed the numbers and decimal notation that the world uses today , thus the most
influential achievement of Hindu science was the study of arithmetic. The so-called “Arabic
numbers” actually originated in India; about 1,000 years, they appeared in the Rock Edicts of
the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE), before they are used in Arabic literature.

Arithmetic Ayurveda Ruler Measurement

Chinese Civilization
 Displayed an exceptional talent in making inventions like Gunpowder, paper, woodblock
printing, the compass (known as “south-pointing needle")
 The plow was invented and the lunar calendar was developed in China.
 Chinese doctors started the use of acupuncture.
 Astronomers were able to record solar eclipses.
 They used bamboo strips or paper made from barks to write on.
 Developed the technology of paper making and invention of printing press.
 Invented “earthquake weather clock” or what is now known as the seismograph.

Porcelain Seismograph called Houfeng Didong Paper

Making

Medieval Era
It began just before 500 A.D,nd often called The Middle Ages or the Dark Ages. This is due to
a great loss of power throughout Europe by the Roman Emperor. The Middle Ages span roughly
1,000 years, ending around 1450 A.D. This era founded today's modern European countries; involved
great political turmoil and violence and was also considered as one of human growth and
development.

Life in The Middle Ages

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  People formed small communities with their Lord or Master. It consists of the Castle, the
Church, the Village, and the surrounding Farm Land. Most lived in the Manors, which were
isolated, and with only occasional visits from merchants or pilgrims on their way to the
Crusades or soldiers from other kingdoms.
 Feudalism is the form of government

King - (awarded land grants to his most important nobles)

Barons and Bishops - (provide soldiers for the King's armies)
Lords/Earls/Marquis/Viscount - (act as local justice and held court for local matters, provides land)
Vassals or tenants - (serve as guard duty, and later they paid a fee to acquire mercenaries (soldiers-
for-hire)
Peasants/serfs/villeins - (lowest class of society, provides the Lord with labor, share the products
yielded from his land in exchange for protection, land to work and a place to live)
Every village had a Lord, and people were almost entirely farmers. After the 1100's, castles
often dominated village landscapes, and some villages continued to exist for centuries.

The Village People

Peasants 
 The poorest people in the medieval era and lived in cottages using wood, reeds, twigs,
mud and straw.
 They could be educated and marry if they could afford it.
Serfs
 The poorest of the peasant class, and were a type of slave.
 Lords owned the serfs who lived on their lands in exchange for a place to live,
 They could do neither and were not permitted to relocate with out the lord’s approval.
Farmers
 A bit better off than peasants, as some owned their own farms and also lived in cottages.
Carpenters
 highly skilled (knowledge of math, woodworking and the use of tools) and were elite
tradesmen. One had to gain the skills to join a guild as an apprentice and learn the craft to
become a carpenter.
 employed by Kings and nobles as specialists. A master carpenter was always in demand in
building decoratively furnished castles and estates and could earn high wages.
Metalsmiths
 sometimes called blacksmith ('smith' who worked in the "black" metal, namely iron)
 The "white" metals used were tin, silver or gold.
 The Medieval Blacksmith made a huge variety of items and objects which included:
- Medieval Weapons including swords, daggers, lances, arrow heads etc.
- Siege Weapons
- Medieval Armor and shields
- Tools
- Nails
- Church and Castle Doors - hinges, locks and keys
- Instruments of torture and chains
- Household objects including knives, light fittings, pokers etc.
- Ornaments, Jewelry & Decorative Objects

The technology used in everyday Medieval life

The Medieval period involves major technological advancement.

Below is the list of some inventions from the Middle Ages.

1. Mechanical Artillery/Weaponry
Counterweight trebuchet (12th) . use of counterweights allowing to throw huge
stones to a very long distances.

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Missile weapons.
Longbow with massed, disciplined archery (13th)
Steel crossbow (14th, late) 

2. Agriculture
Heavy plough (5th - 8th) .It is used in cultivation of rich,
heavy, often wet soils of Northern Europe. It was first appeared in Slavic lands
before it came to Northern Italy (the Po Valley).

Horse collar (6th - 9th) - It went through multiple evolutions from the
6th to 9th centuries and is used in pulling heavy ploughs.

Horseshoes (9th) - As early as 50 BC, Romans and

Celts known to use this for horses to adapt rocky terrain, mountains and
carry heavier loads.

3. Architecture and construction

Artesian well (1126) - It was named for Artois in France, where the first was drilled
by Carthusian monks in 1126.

Wheelbarrow (1170s) –It is used in construction, mining, and farming; and its first
illustration is in the 13th century although it appeared in stories and pictures between
1170 and 1250 in North-western Europe.

Blast furnace (1150-1350) - Cast iron first appears in Middle Europe around 1150

4. Clocks
Hourglass (1338) – it was first documented in Siena, Italy; a dependable, affordable and accurate
measure of time.

Mechanical clocks (13th -14th) - A European innovation, these weight-driven clocks were used
primarily in clock towers.

5. Vertical windmills (1180s) - Invented in Europe and was first mentioned

In Yorkshire, England 1185; a pivotable post mill efficient at grinding grain or
draining water.

6. Spectacles (1280s) - 6. It was developed in Florence, Italy, and made up of convex

lenses to help far-sighted people.

7. Spinning wheel (13th) - Brought to Europe probably from India.

8. Chess (1450) - The earliest predecessors of the game originated in 6th century AD India. Spread
through Persia and the Muslim world to Europe.

9.Mirrors (1180) – It was made in 1180 by Alexander Neckham who said "Take away the lead which
is behind the glass and there will be no image of the one looking in."

10.Oil paint (ca. 1410) - Flemish painter Jan van Eyck around 1410 introduced a stable oil mixture
and is used to add details to tempera paintings. 

11. Quarantine (1377) – It was introduced by the Republic of Ragusa, a 40-day-period Quarantine, to
prevent the spreading of diseases like the Black Death. Venice began quarantines, then the practice
spread around in Europe.

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 ALCHEMY: One important stimulus was the monarchs' growing demand of coinable
precious metals; mining made giant strides to meet this demand. New pumping devices, new
machines for lifting heavy loads, and new methods of finding and extracting of metals were
developed. Metallurgy and metalworking were carried to new heights during the 16th century.
Alchemists, who were eager to solve the problem of the shortage of gold in their laboratories, more or
less accidentally laid the foundation of modern Chemistry.

FIREARMS, ARCHITECTURE, FORTIFICATION: The invention of gunpowder and

firearms made mathematical knowledge indispensable; artillery without ballistic competence would
have been inefficient. The knowledge of geometry and statics enabled architects of the Middle Ages
to construct such wonderworks like Gothic cathedrals. Also, the sophisticated fortifications
constructed in Italy, France, and England during the 15th and 16th centuries would not have been
effective if their architects had not applied mathematical principles.

VISUAL ARTS: Progress in visual arts was made via the study of light and pigments, and
the new principles of perspective and proportion required careful study of the mathematical principles
upon which they are founded.

ANATOMY: It was also painters and sculptors who, in the 15th and 16th centuries, made
intensive studies of the human body. They improved their knowledge of human anatomy by drawing
upon discoveries made by anatomists who, in contempt of a Church law, had started to dissect human
cadavers and to study in detail the structure of the human body.

EXPLORATION OF THE EARTH: From the 14th century onwards, western merchants
travelled as far as China (e. g. Marco Polo, q.v.) and brought back information on the hitherto
unknown countries in the East. Based upon new and more precise maps, the world was explored by
Portuguese and Spanish sea captains (Bartholomeu Dias, Vasco da Gama, Columbus, q.v.), and the
view of the Earth became shattered. The culmination point of this process was reached when Nicolaus
Copernicus disproved the geocentric conception of the universe.

BOOK PRINTING: The 15th century saw one of the greatest inventions in the history of
humankind. In 1450 Johannes Gutenberg, a citizen of the German town of Mainz, was able to print
books. Himself a gifted craftsman and engineer possessing a thorough knowledge of metallurgy, he
developed the prototype of the printing press, which made it possible for humanity to spread and give
access to the knowledge of the world to everybody everywhere on the globe, and to accumulate and
store it in libraries, the evergrowing treasure houses of human knowledge.

THE CALENDAR: The Church almost never interfered with technological or scientific progress. On
the contrary, there was a strong motive for the clergy to solve some of the problems posed by the
Bible which mathematics, astronomy, and science were able to provide solutions to: the problem of
the exact date for Easter which led to the publication of a reformed Christian calendar and
chronology. The reform of the Christian calendar was the result of a commission of astronomers,
presided over by the popes, which reacted to information provided as early as the 14th century. Pope
Gregory XIII in 1582 concluded this effort by his bull Inter Gravissimas, thus introducing the
Gregorian Calendar which, in the centuries to follow, came to be accepted as the established civil
calendar worldwide.

Science in the Medieval Era

Alchemy
 Medieval people believed that they could change, or transmute metals.
 The Philosophers' Stone was the most sought-after goal for a long time, even Sir Isaac
Newton and Nicolas Flamel sought it. It is a legendary alchemical substance, which is capable
of turning metals into gold.
Some also believed it to be an elixir of life, to achieve rejuvenation and immortality.
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 The Stone was the central symbol of the mystical terminology of alchemy. It symbolizes
perfection, enlightenment, and heavenly bliss, thus the discovery of the philosopher's stone
was known to be as the Great Work. It has been a subject of inspiration in tons of artistic
works in novels, comics, movies, animations, video games, and even in music from the
medieval days and still today.

The Great minds of the Middle Ages and how they've affected us today.
 Al-Battani improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis.
 Physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), an 11th-century Muslim is considered the father of
modern optics.
 Al-Kindi established the application of quantification and mathematics in the field of
medicine and pharmacology from his work “De Gradibus”. He used mathematics to measure
the strength of drugs and to determine in advance of the most critical days of a patient's
illness.
 Al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is
derived from his publication Al-Jabr. He recognized algebra as a distinct field of
mathematics.

Also, the birth of more advanced mathematics arises from the replacement of Roman
numerals with the decimal system and the invention of algebra. Furthermore, the improvements or
refinements of civilization in and before the Middle Ages such as street lamps, window-panes,
firework, stringed instruments, cultivated fruits, perfumes, spices, and so forth were originated from
the Saracens (Muslims)

However, series of events that came to be known as the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages
ensued. Massive scientific change ended due to The Black Death of 1348. Mostly in the crowded
conditions of the towns in Europe- the heart of the innovations, the plague occurred. It killed a third of
the people in Europe and recurrences of the plague and other disasters was experienced. Thus, caused
a continuing decline of population for a century.

Renaissance Period (15th – 17th Century)

The term renaissance refers to the period of the rebirth as age of preparation for the seventeenth
century scientific developments and achievements.
 Johannes Gutenberg introduced the metal movable type printing press.
 Isaac Newton made the first reflecting telescope.
 The musket was developed in Spain in the 1500’s.
 Polish mathematician and astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus presented the theory of
heliocentric where he said that the sun is the center of the solar system instead of the earth.
 Galileo Galilei improved the telescope, discovered new celestial bodies, and found support
for a heliocentric solar system. He also invented the thermometer in 1593.

Industrial Revolution
In the 18th Century
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes. This transition included
going from hand production methods to machines, the increasing use of steam power, the
development of machine tools, and the rise of the factory system.
 Scottish inventor James Watt’s refinement to the steam engine began the revolution.
 Robert Fulton invented the steamboat using one of the engines of Watt.
 Light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison.
 George Stephenson developed the first steam powered locomotive.

In the 19th Century

The rise of modern industry was witnessed in the 19 th century. The effects of scientific and
technological developments are evident in the areas of communication, transportation, and electricity.
 Samuel Morse invented the telegraph and the Morse Code.

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  Telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell.
 Facsimile was invented by Alexander Bain.
 Charles Wheatstone invented the microphone.
 William Burt invented the typewriter and typographer.
 John Tyndall demonstrated the principles of fiber optics.
 Guglielmo Marconi proved the feasibility of radio communication.
 Jean Lenoir invented the internal combustion engine.
 Count Alessandro Volta invented the battery.
 Electro-magnet was invented by William Sturgeon.
 Michael Faraday invented the dynamo.
 Mechanical calculator was invented by Charles Babbage.
 John Walker invented the modern matches.
 Hamilton Smith patented the rotary washing machine.
 Nikola Tesla invented the AC motor and transformer.
 Louis Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization.
 Alfred Nobel invented the dynamite.
 The first safety elevator was introduced by Elisha Otis.
 Jesse Reno invented the escalator.

In the 20th Century

In the face of an ever-growing complexity, technology has become more scientific and natural science
more technological. It is in this context that scientific research laboratories were established in order
to cope up with the demands of the times.
 Air conditioner was invented by Willis Carrier.
 The Wright brothers invented the first gas motored and manned airplane.
 Albert Einstein published the Theory of Relativity and made famous the equation E=mc 2
 The very first piloted helicopter was invented by Paul Cornu. But it was Igor Sikorsky who
invented the first successful helicopter.
 Henry Ford revolutionized automobile manufacturing.
 Thomas Edison demonstrated the first talking motion picture.
 Scottish biologist Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin.
 German inventors invented the electron microscope.
 The photocopier was invented by Chester Carlson.
 There had been a lot of claims on who invented the television but it was in 1940 that the
modern color TV system was invented by Peter Goldmark.
 Nuclear fission research began in the 1930’s resulting to the development of the atomic bomb
used in the Second World War. Post war researches by the superpowers to develop nuclear
industries led to the generation of electricity of the first Russian nuclear reactor in 1951.
 It was in 1942 that the first electronic digital computer was made.
 Personal computer resulted in the development of a microprocessor in 1971 that made the
computer smaller, easier to use, and more affordable
 Mobile phone was invented in 1947 but cell phones were not sold until 1983.
 1989 saw the advent of the World Wide Web.
 The field of artificial intelligence research was born at Dartmouth College in 1956

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