CHAPTER 2

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

2.1 Introduction
A fluid at rest is characterized by absence of relative motion between adjacent fluid
layers. Under such a condition, the velocity gradient is zero and there is no shear stress,
therefore, viscosity of fluid has no effect on fluids at rest. But fluids at rest do exert forces on
the solid boundary. Knowledge of force variation or more appropriately pressure variations
in a static fluid is important to an engineer.
There are so many practical examples of fluids at rest such as water retained by a
dam, an overhead tank supplying water to the public, gas or fuel in a tank truck. The object
of this chapter is to measure pressure variations in a static fluid to discuss pressure and
pressure measurement and laws of fluid pressure.
W
P= N/m2 or Pa
A

2.2 Hydrostatic Pressure

In the gravity environment, the static pressure in the fluid is proportionally increased linearly
with the depth and always acted perpendicular or normal to the surface as shown in Figure
2.1.

h1

depth
1 h2

Δh

Figure 2.1 Static pressure increased linearly with the depth

The hydrostatic pressure at every location with the depth, h from the free surface is given as

P=Patm + ρ gh (2.1)

by neglecting Patm equation 2.1 becomes

P=ρ gh (2.2)

and this is called gage pressure that always use in the calculation of static pressure. As a
example, for point 1 and 2 in Figure 1 can be written as:

P1= ρ gh1 (2.3)

P2 =ρ gh 2 (2.4)

Thus, the pressure different between points 1 and 2 can be written as:

ΔP=P2 −P1 =ρgΔh (2.5)

where Δh=h2-h1

The fluid pressure at rest is constant along the horizontal line. In other words, the pressures
for all points with similar depth have same magnitude, and it is independent of the shape or
cross section area of the fluid container (see Figure 2.2). This may be stated as the equal
level-equal pressure principle that forms the basis for many pressure-measuring devices such
as barometer and manometer. It also contributes to the operation of a hydraulic jack that a
small input force creates a larger output force.
 F
A B C D E

Figure 2.2 Pressures are equal for all points along horizontal plane

Example 2.1
A tank is connected to a vertical tube is filled with water (γ= 9810N/m3). Determine:
(a) Absolute pressure at levels A, B, C, D, E, and F
(b) Gage pressure at levels A, B, C, D, E, and F
Patm

0.7 A

B Water

1.8

E
C
0.9

0.4 D F

Figure E2.1

Solution:

(a) Absolute pressure

From equation 2.1, it can be written as

Point A: PA= Patm + γhA, where hA= 0

= 101.3(103) + 9810(0)
= 101.3kPa

Point B: PB= Patm + γhB, where hB= 0.7m

 = 101.3(103) + 9810(0.7)
= 108.2kPa

Point C: PC= Patm + γhC, where hC= 2.5m

= 101.3(103) + 9810(2.5)
= 125.8kPa

Point D: PD= Patm + γhD, where hD= 3.4m

= 101.3(103) + 9810(3.4)
= 134.7kPa

Point E: PE= PC since hE = hC

Thus, PE= 125.8kPa

Point F: PF= Patm + γhF, where hF= 3.8m

= 101.3(103) + 9810(3.8)
= 138.6kPa

(b) Gage pressure

PgA= PA - Patm = 0kPa

PgB= PB - Patm = 6.87kPa=9810*0.7

PgC= PC - Patm = 24.5kPa = ρgh

PgD= PD - Patm = 33.4kPa

PgE= PE - Patm = 24.5kPa

PgF= PF - Patm = 37.3kPa

Now consider a simple hydraulic jack in Figure 2.3:

 Plunger or
F1 F2 piston

1 2 A2
A1

Hydraulic fluid, γ

Figure 2.3 Hydraulic Jack

Using equilibrium principle, the pressure exerted by the fluid on a plunger or a piston is
written as
F
P=
A (2.6)

F1 F2
P1= P2 =
From which it follows that A1 and A2

Since the pressure at points 1 and 2 is equal (i.e. same level), we have

F1 F 2
=
A1 A 2 (2.7)

which can be used to solve for F2 if F1, A1 and A2 are given, or vice versa.

Example 2.2:
For a hydraulic jack as shown in Figure E2.2, determine the weight that could be lifted if
the 400N input force F1 is applied to the plunger. The diameters of the plunger and the
piston are10mm and 75mm, respectively
 Plunger or
F1 F2 piston

1 2 A2
A1

Hydraulic fluid, γ

Figure E2.2

Solution:

From equation 2.7 above;

A2
F2 =F 1
A1

2 −5 2
where A 1 =π (0.01 ) /4=7 .855×10 m
2 −5 2
A 2 =π (0 .075 ) /4=4 .42×10 m

Therefore, F2 = 22.5kN

2.2 Pressure and head

There are several types of pressure-measuring devices available. Devices such as a
barometer, Bourdon gage, and manometer are among commonly used instruments to
measure, either a gage, vacuum or absolute pressure. A pressure gage measures a
pressure relative to the local atmospheric pressure when the pressure is above the
atmospheric pressure whereas a vacuum gage is used when the pressure is below the
atmospheric pressure.
 Level 1

Pgage

Level atm
P absolute
Pvacuum

Patm
Level 2
P absolute

P absolute = 0

Figure 2.4 Type of pressure

P|¿|= P atm + Pgage ¿ Level 1

P|¿|= P atm −Pvacuum ¿ Level 2

2.3 Mercury Barometer
A typical mercury barometer is shown in Figure 2.5 and used to measure atmospheric
pressure. It consists of a vertical closed glass tube with a column of mercury inside. The
barometer is constructed so as to avoid having any trapped air at the end of the tube. It can
be assumed that the space between the mercury and the end of the tube contains a vacuum
with zero pressure.
At the bottom of the column, mercury is contained in a small reservoir in a small
reservoir. The pressure acting on the surface of the reservoir is atmospheric pressure P atm.
Thus, the atmospheric pressure can be calculated as

Patm = gh (2.8)

P=0

P atm
h

Figure 2.5

2.4 The Bourdon Gauge

This is most common type of pressure gauge which is compact, reasonably robust and
simple to use. A curved tube of elliptical cross-section is closed at one end is free to move,
but the other end-through which the fluid enters is rigidly fixed to the frame as shown in
Figure 2.6.
 X

Section at X-X Pointer

Flattened
phosphor-bronze
tube

Figure 2.6

When the pressure inside the tube exceeds outside pressure (usually atmospheric),
the cross-section tends to become circular, thus causing the tube uncurve slightly. The
movement of the free end of the tube is transmitted by a suitable mechanical linkage to
a pointer moving over a scale. Zero reading is of course obtained when the pressure inside
the tube equals the local atmospheric pressure. By using tubes of appropriate stiffness,
gauges for a wide range of pressure may be made.

2.5 Manometric Pressure

The barometer analysis shows that vertical columns of liquid can be used to measure
pressure. The science of this measurement is called manometer.
There are different types of manometers with varying degrees of sensitivity which embody
the principle already derived and used for pressure measurement.

2.5.1 Simple U-tube Manometer

 Patm

P
A
h2

h1

1 C

2
Figure 2.7

Consider the U-tube manometer connected via a small hole to a pipe (Figure 2.7)
carrying a fluid of density 1 at pressure PA (which is to be measured). Let the open
end of the U-tube be subjected to atmospheric pressure, Patm.

At the common surface B-C with the configuration as shown in the diagram we have :

PA + 1gh1 = PB = PC = PD + 2gh2,

or
PA + 1gh1 = PD + 2gh2 (2.9)

Now PA is the pressure to be measured (P) and PD = Patm.

Thus P – Patm = (2h2 - 1h1)g (2.10)

2.5.2 Differential Manometer

This is used to measure the pressure differential between two fluid reservoirs as
shown in Figure 2.8.

PA + 1gh1 = PD + 3gh3 + 2gh2,

Or differential pressure is given by

 PA – PD = (3h3 + 2h2 - 1h1)g (2.11)

ρ
h3 3
C

A h2

h1
2
B
1

Figure 2.8

2.5.3 Inverted U-tube Manometer

Another type of differential manometer as shown in Figure 2.9

PB + 1gh1 = PA
PB + 2gh2 = PC
PC + 3gh3 = PD

or PD – 3gh3 – 2gh2 + 1gh1 = PA (2.12)

or PA – PD = (1h1 – 2h2 – 3h3)g (2.13)

 2

B h2

C
h3
1
h1
D

ρ
3
A

Figure 2.9

2.5.4 An Inclined Manometer

An inclined manometer as shown in Figure 4 is used to achieve a greater accuracy and

sensitivity in pressure measurement. This is because the slight pressure change could
cause a noticeable change in L.

P1 Diameter, D
P2
L
AIR θ h
Zero
y level
Fluid density
Diameter of tube, d
Figure 2.10 Inclined Manometer

Applying the equal level-equal pressure principle, we have

P1 = PGas

But P1 = P2 + γh and h= L sinθ. The above equation then becomes,

 P1= P 2 +γ ( L sin θ ) (2.14)

Example 2.3
U-tube manometer containing a mercury (sg= 13.6) as a working fluid is connected to a tank
that contains air as shown in Figure E2.3. The other end of the manometer is exposed to the
atmosphere. Determine the absolute pressure in the tank if h= 0.4m.
Patm

Pair

h1 h
air, γair

A B
Mercury, sg = 13.6

Figure E2.3

Solution:

Since the density of air is neglected, the pressure at point A will correspond to the
pressure of air in the tank.

PA = PAir (1)

Applying equal level-equal pressure principle, we have

PA = PB (2)

But
 Pair −Patm =g ( ρ hg h−ρair h1 )
PB = Patm + γHg h (3)
Where γHg= sg (γHg at 4deg.) = 13.6 (9810) = 133416N/m2

Substitute (3) and (2) into (1) will give

P|air|=Patm +γ Hg h=100(1 03)+13341(0.4 )

∴ P|air|=153.4 kPa

Example 2.4
The manometer is used to measure the pressure in the pipe and is connected to the
pressurized tank containing gas and water as shown Figure E2.4. Pressure gage attached to
the tank reads 80 kPa, determine the gage pressure in the pipe. (Given h 1= 40cm, h2= 84cm,
h3= 57cm, h4= 45cm)

h1 = 40 cm

Gas
pipe h2 = 84 cm
h1 h3 = 57 cm
h4 = 45 cm
F
` h2

E
Water `
h3
Oil , sg = 0.8

D C B
Mercury , ` h4
sg = 13 .6
A

Figure E2.4
From equal level-equal pressure,

PB=PC =P D

But,
PD =P E+γ Hg h3

Where
PE =PF +γ w (h 2 )
 And
PF =P gas=80kPa

And also
P A=P B+γ oil h 4

Substitute (2), (3) and (4) into (1);

P A=P gas +γ water (h2 )+γ Hg h3+γ oil h4

PA = 80(103) + 9810(0.84) +13.6(9810)(0.57)+ 0.8(9810)(0.45)

= 167kPa.

Example 2.5
Figure E2.5 show a three-fluid manometer containing oil (sg= 0.82), mercury (sg= 13.6) and
water used to measure large pressure differences. Determine the pressure difference between
A and B. Given h1= 45cm, h2= 70cm, h3= 25cm and h4= 20cm. Neglect the air density.

Oil,
Water
sg = 0.82

h4

h3
B

h2
h1 Gas
Gasoline,
Sg = 0.7 Mercury, D C
Sg = 13.6
A

Figure E2.5

Solution:

P A=PC =P D
 but
PE =PD +γ W h 1=P A +γ W h1

and
PF =P E=P A +γ W h1

Also
PF =PG +γ Hg h2

but
PH =P G

Also
PB=P H +γ gasolin h3+γ oil h4

Substituting 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 give

P A−P B=γ Hg h2−γ W h−γ gasolin h3−γ oil h4

or
P A−P B=γ W ( sg Hg h2 −h−sg gasolin h3 −sg oil h 4 )
= (9810)[(13.6)(0.7)-(0.45)-0.7(0.25)-0.82(0.2)]
= 85.7kPa.

Problems

1 The Crosby gage tester shown in the figure is used to calibrate or to test pressure
gages. When the weights and the piston together weigh 89.0 N, the gage being tested
indicates 179kPa. If the piston diameter is 20mm, what is the percentage error exists
in the gage?
Weight

Piston

Air

Oil
 Figure Q1

2. Two hemispheric shells are perfectly sealed together and the internal pressure is
reduced to 10% of atmospheric pressure. The inner radius is 15 cm, and the outer
radius is 15.5 cm. The seal is located half way between the inner and other radius. If
the atmospheric pressure is 100kPa, what force is required to pull the shells apart?

3. If exactly 20 bolts of 2.5-cm diameter are needed to hold the air chamber together at
A-A as a result of the high pressure within, how many bolts will be needed at B-B?
Here D = 50 cm and d = 25 cm.

Figure Q3

4. The reservoir shown in the figure contains two immiscible liquids of specific weights
γA and γB, respectively, one above the other where γA > γB. Which graph depicts the
correct distribution of gage pressure along a vertical line through the liquids?

Liquid B

Liquid A

p p p p
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure Q4

5. This manometer contains water at room temperature. The glass tube on the left has an
inside diameter of 1 mm (d = 1.0 mm). The glass tube on the right is three times as
large. For these conditions, the water surface level in the left tube will be a) higher
 than the water surface level in the right tube, b) equal to the water surface level in the
right tube, c) less than the water surface level in the right tube. State your main reason
or assumption for making your choice.
d 3d

Figure Q5

6. A tank is fitted with a manometer on the side, as shown. The liquid in the bottom of
the tank and in the manometer has a specific gravity (s) of 3.0, the depth of this
bottom liquid is 20 cm. A 10-cm layer of water lies on top bottom liquid. Find the
position of the liquid surface in the manometer.

10 cm
Water h = ?

Liquid
20 cm

Figure Q6

7. Determine the gage pressure in pipe A.

 Oil (SG = 0.90)

0.5 m

1.3 m

Mercury
1.0 m
A

Water

Figure Q7

8. Considering the effects of surface tension, estimate the gage pressure at the center of
pipe A.
Glass tube ( 1mm ID. 4 mm OD)

Water level in tube

10 cm

Figure Q8

9. What is the pressure at the center of pipe B?

 B

γ = 10 kN/m3
50 cm γ = 20 kN/m3

3
50 cm
10 cm

Figure Q9

10. Find the pressure at the center of pipe A.

Oil
(SG=0.8)

Water Water
150 cm
90 cm

Mercury 30 cm
(SG =13.6)
30 cm A

Figure Q10

11. A vacuum gage connected to a tank reads 30kPa at a location where the barometric
reading is 755mmHg. Determine the absolute pressure in the tank.
 (70.7kPa)

12. A mercury manometer is connected to an air duct to measure the pressure inside (Figure
Q12) and the atmospheric pressure is 100kPa. Judging from the figure, determine if the
pressure in the duct is below or above the atmospheric pressure and determine also the
absolute pressure in the duct.
(Above, 102kPa)

Figure Q12