70

CHAPTER 5

POTENTIAL FLOWS

5.1 Introduction

The potential flows are related to the ideal fluid flows where the viscosity of the fluid
is neglected. In this chapter, the flow field will be analyzed by the mathematical
equations or model either using the Lagrangian or Eulerian flow concepts. The
governing equations i.e. continuity and momentum; in partial differential will be
developed for two dimensional flow analysis. The streamlines and streamtubes,
stream function, vorticity, velocity potential and Kutta-Joukowski theorem also will
be included in this chapter. These concepts are very important for analyzing the flow
fields in various conditions by using theoretical and numerical methods.

5.2 Lagrangian and Eulerian Flow Concepts

Lagrangian flows concept is about analyzing the individual fluid particles as they
move about and determining how the fluid properties associated with these particles
change as a function of time as shown in Figure 5.1.

Dye or smoke
VA
Injected fluid particle
Streakline
1
2
VB VC
A 3

xA 5
4
B 8 7 6
Object
C V
xB
xC

Figure 5.1 Particle Tracing

Eulerian flows concept is about analyzing the fluid flow through a domain or control
volume is defined, through which fluid flows in or out (Figure 5.2).
 71

Control volume

z
Patm
p ( x, y , z , t ) FRZ x 2
2
mV
 FRX
V ( x, y , z , t )
( x, y , z ) 30 cm
o

1 1
mV 30

P1, gage

Figure 5.2 Control Volume

In the control volume the detailed molecular structure of the fluid can be ignored and
the fluid is regarded as a continuum (a macroscopic viewpoint). This means that the
smallest element considered must contain a very large number of molecules so that
the properties of the element are in average values. The continuum approach only
applicable where the characteristic dimension of element is very large compared with
the distance between molecules. To satisfy the continuum postulate, the distance
molecule travel before collisions (molecule mean free path)  must be small
compared to an element characteristic length, L. Thus, the continuum is valid if:


Knudsen number, kn   0.01
L

For general unsteady three-dimensional fluid flow in Cartesian coordinates:

Pressure field (scalar): P= P (x, y, z, t)

Velocity field (vector): V= V (x, y, z, t)

Acceleration field (vector): a= a (x, y, z, t)

These variables are known as the flow field variables.

For the velocity field variable can be expanded in Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) in
terms of (i, j, k) as
 72

V= (u, v, w) = u (x, y, z, t) i + v (x, y, z, t) j + w (x, y, z, t) k

Example 5.1

Given the eulerian velocity vector field as

V= 3ti + xzj + ty2k

Find unsteady three components velocity, u, v and w.

Solution:

u = 3t, v = xz and w = ty2

5.2.1 Acceleration Field of The Flow

Consider the second law of Newton applied to the fluid particle,

F = ma

Where m = the mass of particle, a = acceleration of particle.

The acceleration is a vector and also can be written as,

dV
a
dt

However, V= (u, v, w)= u (x, y, z, t) i + v (x, y, z, t) j + w (x, y, z, t) k

Therefore,

dV du dv dw
a  i j k
dt dt dt dt

du ( x, y, z , t ) u u dx u dy u dz
and    
dt t x dt y dt z dt
 73

But,

dx dy dz
u,  v , and w
dt dt dt

Thus,

du u u u u
  (u v w )
dt t x y z

Summing all the vectors, the total acceleration can be written as:

dV V V V V V
a   (u v w )  (V  )V
dt t x y z t

V
The acceleration of fluid particle, a also to be known as is a local acceleration
t

V V V
and u x  v y  w z is a convection acceleration.

Example 5.2

Given the eulerian velocity vector field as

V= 3ti + xzj + ty2k

Find the total acceleration of a particle.

Solution:

As we know, the acceleration a is given by:

V V V V
a  (u v w )
t x y z
 74

V
Step 1: Find
t

V
 3i  y 2 k
t

V V V
Step 2: Find u ,v ,w
x y z

V
u  (3t )( zj )  3tzj
x

V
v  ( xz )( 2tyk )  2txyzk
y

V
w  (ty 2 )( xj )  txy 2 j
z

Therefore:

V
a  3i  (txy 2  3tz ) j  ( y 2  2txyz )k
t

5.3 Two-dimensional Flow Analysis

For the analyzing of inviscid fluid flows, the governing equations are used as
follows:

( i ) Continuity equation

Using a control volume, the conservation of mass can be written in differential

equations below:
 75

v
v   y
y y

y  u
u x u  x
x

v
O x
Figure 5.3 Two Dimensional Control Volume

For steady incompressible fluid flow, the flow rate in to the element is same
with the flow rate comes out from the element;

 u v
 t
xy  uy  vx  ( u 
x
.x)y  ( v 
y
.y )x

 u v
Oleh itu ;   0
t x y

( ii ) Momentum Equation

Using a control volume as in Figure 5.4 and using the second law of Newton:

y 
 
 
ds  dA
 s 
V
ds Streamline
z
dz ds
dA s
 dA

S R (radius of curvature)
 g ds dA
n

Particle moving along a streamline

 76

Figure 5.4 Control Volume at Different Elevation

Where V 2  u 2  v 2 and s 2  x 2  y 2

P
Py  ( P  s )y  gsy  sy  a
s

dV V V V
and a  dt  t  (u x  v y )

If the equation above will be resolve in two components; i.e. x and y

directions, the momentum equation can be written as;

u u u 1 P
u v   gx
t x y  x

v v v 1 P
u v   gy
t x y  x

For steady fluid flow and without the body force, the momentum equation
can written as;

1 p u u
u v 0
 x x y

1 p v v
u v 0
 y x y

The equations above are also known as Euler equations for inviscid flows.

5.5 Rotational and Irrotational Flows

 77

Rotational flows relate to the elements move and rotate at their axis as in Figure 5.5.
However, if the elements do not rotate at their axis (Figure 5.6) the flows are called
the irrotational flows.

y
x y

y x

y  x
y y
x x
x

Figure 5.5 Rotational Flows

y y
y y 
x
y x y x

x x
x

Figure 5.6 Irrotational Flows

 u 
u  y  y   t
u y  
B y B B'


y y
v
v v x A'  v 
u x    x  t
A  x 
O x A O x
(a) (b)
 78

Figure 5.7 Rotation of Element

An angle of  between AB and A’B’ is expressed by

v
[( .x).t ]
AA' x v
    .t
x x x

The rate of rotation at an initial edge of element parallel to AB is

  x  t 
v
x
 u 
[ .y ]t
and BB '  y  u
    .t
y y y

The rate of an initial edge of element parallel to AC is

 u
y  
t y

The rate of rotation for the element at z-axis or normally referred to  z . The
average of the angular velocity  x and  y for two mutually perpendicular
lines OA and OB. Thus, if the counter clockwise rotation is considered to be
positive;

1  v u 
 z    
2  x y 

For the irrotational flows;

x   y  z  0

For further understanding on the flow field concepts, flow circulation needs to
be considered.
 79

5.6 Circulation and Vorticity

b  3

C V


2

ds
x
a


1

Figure 5.8 Circulation

 Circulation is defined as the velocity integration line on a closed loop

or can be written in mathematic equation as

   Vds   V cos  ds
s s

Where ds= length of element for the closed loop.

V
y Q R

P S
U
x
Figure 5.9 Combination of Circulations

Circulation of PQRS= Circulation of PQR + Circulation of PRS

 80

 For 2-dimensional flow field, the circulation can be determined by

taking the line integration around the element as follows:

V
y V V
U dx
U
A B

dy

U D C
U
V V
U
O x
Figure 5.10 Velocity Circulation Around The Element

u A  uB v v u  uD v  vA
 d  dx  B C dy  C dx  D dy
2 2 2 2

 v u 
d    dxdy
 x y 

 Thus, the vortecity is defined as the circulation per closed area;

d v u
   
dxdy x y

 For the polar coordinate system,

 81

O x
U

Ur
Figure 5.11 Polar Coordinate System

Tangential velocity = r
Length of element = ds = rd
2

 Circulation   rds
0

2
  r d
2

 2r 2

2r 2
Vorticity    2
r 2

5.7 Stream Function Concept

 This concept exists a function to replace the flow field, V.

 Continuity and momentum equations depend on two flow variables,
u(x,y) and v(x,y).
 82

Streamline past through a cylinder measured by PIV system

 Stream function is used to replace these variables (u and v) and the

stream function is written as (x,y).

v V

u
Streamlines
y

x
A streamline and velocity vector

P P'
P ''

P
R

A
A

Streamlines
 83

 For incompressible flow, the flow rate across ARP is same for the flow
rate across AQP.
 Its depend on points A and P. If point A is constant, flow rate across
ARP is a position function of P that known as stream function .
 For the curves of AP’ and PP’, if AP’ and PP’ along the streamline,
value of  is constant, whether at P or P’.
 Consider the figure below:

  d
C 2
dq
 q
udy

y A B
1
vdx
x
(a) (b)

Consider a triangular element of fluid and continuity equation:

d  vdx  udy

Total differential d also can be expressed as

 
d  .dx  .dy
x y

From both equations above, it is found that

 
v dan u  y
x

Using the continuity equation,

u v
 0
x y

 
However, u  y and v   . Thus,
x
 84

       
     0
x  y  y  x 

 2  2
Or 
xy xy

The equation above has shown  = f (x , y ) is comply the continuity

law.

Example 5.3:

The velocity distribution between two flat surafces with a distance t = 2m as:
 t2 
u  10  y 2  m/s.
4 

Where u is the velocity at distance y from the central axis for both plates. Determine
the expression of stream function and draw the stream lines.

Solution:

Stream function,    udy

 t2 
  10  y 2 dy
4 
t 2
y 
2
 10 y  c
4 3 

For   0 when y  0 ,  c  0
 1 
  10 y1  y 2 
 3 
 85

ψ7
ψ6

ψ5

ψ3

ψ1

Streamlines

5.8 Simple Flow Fields

 Three types of simple flow fields

(a) Straight streamline flow
(b) Source and sink
(c) Vortex flow

(a)Straight streamline flow

Uo

(b)Source and sink

 86

Ur

Where q is the strength of source/sink or the flow rate of source or sink

q q
(  for source and    for sink).
2 2
 87

(c)Free vortex flow

 Free vortex flows are characterized by a flow field that rotate
around a point.
y

O x
U

Ur

 For a free vortex,


u  dan ur  0
2r
 
 U dan U r 
r r

    dr
2r

 ln r  f  
2
However, ur  0 ;  f    0

   ln r
2
 88

Summary of Simple Flows

Type of Flows Stream Function (x,y) Stream Function

(r,)

(1) Simple   Uy   ur sin 

q y q
  tan 1  
2 x 2
(2) Souce
q y q
  tan 1  
2 x 2
(3) Sink
 
 
2
ln x 2
 y2   
2
ln r
(4) Vortex

(d) Combination of Simple Flow Fields

(i) Streamline and source flows will give

Asymptote

S O
x

m

2
Asymptote

At r =  , u = U and v = 0

 A combined flow stream function is given by:

q
 G  Ur sin  
2

 For the stagnation stream  0 that made a partial Rankine body if

0 G  0

This is called as stagnation stream

 89

q
Thus, r  
2U sin 
q
 If    , thus U s  U  2r
o

q
 ro  
2U

(ii) Straight streamline, sink and source flows

(iii) Straight streamline flow and doublet

 If the distance between source and sink will be reduced until its closed

qa
each others, the product of tend to becomes a finite value,  and this

will illustrate the flow past through a circular sylinder.
 This combination of stream function equation is

 G  Ur sin   sin 
r

  
 1  2 Ur sin 
 rU

For  o   G  0

r2 
U


r
U
 90


Assume r  a 
U

 a2 
 G  1  2 Ur sin 
 r 
 

that illustrates the flow past a cylinder;

 0

a
S S

(iv) Sink and vortex flows

y y'

ro  0

b=d

O
x'

x
a=c

This is called as a spiral Archimedes shape. This stream function is

important in designing the turbine or impeller pump housings.

Example 5.4
 91

A flow is defined by u= 2x and v= -2y. Find the stream function for this flow and plot
it.

Solution:
Check continuity:

u v
   22 0
x y

Hence contnuity is satisfied and it is possible for a stream function to exist.

   vdx  udy  2 ydx  2 xdy

  2 xy  C ; Assume C= 0


Thus, y ; for x > 0 and y > 0
x

ψ3
ψ2
ψ1

Streamfunction

5.9 Potential Velocity

 92

Equipotential line
  constant
d1  d
d V

V1  V
V1
d V
V2

d2  d
Streamline
V2  V
  constant

 Velocity potential is defined as the integration product between two points

along the stream function or can be expressed in mathematic as

    q s ds

or    qs ds

or qs  
s

 The function of  is the velocity potential. If the line of element for a

length of s, perpendicular to the stream function,

 qs  0 dan   0

Therefore, the potential velocity lines are contant or are known as potential
equal lines (equipotential line).
 Potential velocity also can be expressed in u and v velocity components for
irrotaional flow;

 
u 
y x Cartesian
  coordinate
v 
x y
 93

or
1  
ur  
r  r
Polar
 
u    coordinate
r r

 If the expression of u and v above are replaced into the

continuity equation;

u v
 0
x y

 2  2
  0
x 2 y 2

( These are known as Laplace equation)

 If the expression of u and v are replaced in the expression of vorticity;

v u        
       
x y x  y  y  x 

 2  2
 
xy xy
0

 That meant if the potential velocity is developed, the flow is irrotational.

Example 5.5
A flow is defined by u= 2x and v= -2y. Find the potential velocity for this flow and
plot the flow net which is combination of stream function in Example 5.4.

Solution:
Check to see if the flow is irrotational:
v u
   00  0
x y

Hence the flow is irrotational and the a potentional velocity exists;

 94

   udx  vdy  2 xdx  2 ydy

  ( x 2  y 2 )  C ; Assume C= 0

Thus, y2  x2   ; for x > 0 and y > 0

F3
F2
F1

ψ3
ψ2
ψ1

Flow Net

Example 5.6
An inviscid, incompressible fluid flows between wedge-shaped walls into a small
opening as shown in Figure E5.6. The potential velocity (in m 2/s), which
approximately describes this flow is

  2 ln r

Determine the volume flow rate (per unit length) into the opening.

π/4

Figure E5.6
 95

Solution:

Using the potential function and velocity relationship;

 2
ur     V
r r

 /4
2   
Thus, the flow rate; Q  
0

r
 rd   2  0  1.57m 2 / s
 4 

5.10 Kutta-Jouskowki Theorem

 The Kutta-Jouskowki theorem is an important theorem in the ideal fluid flow

and this theorem also shows the weakness of ideal fluid flow theory.
 In actual flow fields, the drag force FD developed when the flow past a body
is given by:

FD  FDg  FDp (1)

Where FDg  Drag force due to friction forces

FDp  Drag force due to pressure changes

 For the theory of ideal fluid flows, the viscosity is zero. Therefore, the drag

force due to friction is zero  FDg  0 and the contribution of drag force only
from the pressure variations.
 Consider :
 96

Stagnation streamline
Stagnation point

Stagnation point
(a) (b)

From the Bernoulli equation;

1 1
U   Ps  u s
2
P  (2)
2 2

Where P  Pressure of free stream pressure

Ps  Pressure on the solid surface

U   Free stream velocity

U s  Velocity on the body surface

1   u 
2

 P  Ps  P  U 2 1   s  
2   U   

Ps  P   us  
2

or C p  1 
 1   
  (3)
U 2   U   
2

Where C p  pressure coefficient

 The force is defined as the product of pressure and area;

 dF  Pds

1   u 
2

or dF  U 2 1   s   ds
2   U   

Thus, the lift and drag forces are expressed as;

 97

1   u 2 
dFL  U  1   s   sin ds
2

2   U   
(4)
1   u 2 
dFD  U 2 1   s   cos ds
2   U   

 For the case of rotating cylinder in the straight streamline U ;

y y y

1  2  1 3   2

S x x
S1 S2 x

The stream function for this case can be visualized by combining the straight
streamline with doublet and vortex flows or can be expressed in the mathematical
equation as:

 
 G  U  r sin   sin   ln r  c
r 2

if a  cylinder radius,    2a 2


and r  a  U


 a 
2
 r
 G  1    U  r sin   ln  (5)
 r
   2 a

 The velocities of ur and u can be written as:

 G  a2 
ur   1  2 U  cos  (6)
r  r 

 G  a2  
u    1  2 U  sin   (7)
r  r  2r

At the cylinder surface, r  a

 98

 From equation (6) ; ur  0


and equation (7) ; u  2U  sin   (8)
2a

Where u  us is velocity at the cylinder surface

 From equations (3) and (8);

2
  
C p  1    2 sin   
 2aU  
2
 2a 2 
or C p  1    2 sin   
 2aU  
2
 a 
 C p  1    2 sin  
U
 (9)
  

 For a static cylinder,   0 ;

 C p  1  4 sin  (10)

Thus, the distribution of C p dan pressure can be drawn as follows:

3

U

2

ps  po
0
2 U
1 2

experimental

-1

-2

Theoretical
(inviscid)
-3
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
 (deg)
 99

 From equation (8), ratio of velcoity can be expressed as:

us 
 2 sin  
U 2U  a

 The lift equation FL and drag forces FD can be written as:

1
2    
2

FL 
2
U 2 0 1    2 sin   2aU  

 sin ad

(11)


1
2    
2

FD  U 2
2 0 1    2 sin   2aU  

 cos ad

(12)


Products of intergration above are;

FL  U   (13)

and FD  0 (14)

Equation (13) is known as Kutta-Joukowski theorem and equation (14) is a

d’Alembert paradox.

 If   0 which is when   0 will provide FL  0

 From equations (11) and (12);

FL   2
  
2

  1    2 sin     sin d

1
U  a
2   2aU  
0  
2

FL 2
CL  
Or 1 aU 
U 2 a
2

FD   2
  
2

  1    2 sin     cos d

And 1
U 2 a 0   2aU   

2
 100

FD
CD  0
Or 1
U 2 a
2

Problems

1. Given the eulerian velocity-vector field

V = ti + 2xzj + ty2k
Find the acceleration of a particle

2. Under what conditions does the velocity field

V   a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  i   a 2 x  b2 y  c 2 z  j   a3 x  b3 y  c3 z  k
Where, a1, b1, etc. = const, represent an incompressible flow which conserves
mass?

3. A steady, incompressible, two dimensional velocity field in x-y plane is given

by:
u  1.1  2.8 x  0.65 y and v  0.98  2.1x  2.8 y
Calculate the acceleration field (ax and ay) and calculate also the acceleration
at the point (-2, 3).
(ax= -9.23, ay= 14.37)

4. In this two-dimensional conduit, which discharges water into the atmosphere,

the discharge is given by q = q0t/t0, where q0 and t0, are 0.2m3/s per meter and 1
s, respectively. Also, B = 30 cm, b = 20 cm, L = 1 m, and T = 10ºC. What is
the rate of change of pressure with respect to x at point A when t = 2 s?
B
b

A x

Figure Q2
 101

5. The flow rate in cubic meters per second for the nozzle shown is given by the
following equation: Q = 0.03t. Here the time t is given in seconds, the fluid is
an inviscid liquid with a specific gravity of 1.6, D0 = 10 cm, dn = 4 cm, L1 = 60
cm and L2 = 30 cm.

(a) If the simplifying assumption is made that the velocity is uniform across
any given section, what will be the convective acceleration of a fluid
particle at point A when t = 2 s?

(b) With the same conditions as given above, what will be the local
acceleration at point A?

(c) With the same conditions as above, what is the pressure gradient in the z
direction at point A?

(d) What is the pressure at point A if the pressure surrounding the free jet is
atmospheric?

Vo

Do

A
L1 Z
(vertical)

L2

dn

Figure Q3

6. For a certain two-dimensional flow field the velocity is given the equation
 
V  4 xyi  2 x 2  y 2 j
 102

Is this flow irrotational?

7. If a stream function exists for the velocity field


u  a x2  y2  v  2axy w0

Find it, plot it, and interpret it.

8. Investigate the stream function in polar coordinates

 R2 
  U sin   r  
 r 

Where U and R are constants, a velocity and a length, respectively. Plot the
streamlines. What does the flow represent? Is it a realistic solution to the basic
equations?
9. If a velocity potential exists for the velocity field of

u  a x2  y2  v  2axy w0
Find the velocity potential, plot and interpret it.