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Novel approach
Emission assessment of to consider in
alternative dam structure types, a new dam
projects
novel approach to consider in new
dam projects
Amin Alvanchi, Zahra Bajalan and Pooya Iravani Received 7 August 2019
Revised 29 April 2020
Department of Civil Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran Accepted 8 June 2020

Abstract
Purpose – Dams require high-volume of construction materials and operations over the life cycle. This
paper aims to select a proper type of dam structure that can significantly contribute to the sustainability of
dam projects.
Design/methodology/approach – This research proposes a complementary fuel consumption and
carbon dioxide (CO2) emission assessment method for the alternate dam structure types to assist decision-
makers in selecting sustainable choices. Related equations are developed for two common earthen and rock-
fill dam structures types in Iran. These equations are then successfully applied to two real dam project cases
where the significance of the achieved results are assessed and discussed.
Findings – The achieved results of the case studies demonstrate a high deviation of up to 41.3% in CO2
emissions comparing alternate dam structure scenarios of earthen and rock-fill dam structures. This high
deviation represents an important potential for CO2 emission reduction considering the high volume of the
emission in large dam projects.
Originality/value – The life cycle emission assessment of the alternate dam structures, proposed in this
research as a novel complementary factor, can be used in the decision-making process of dam projects. The
results in this research identify high potential sustainability improvement of dam projects as a result of the
proposed method.
Keywords Dam structure, Life cycle assessment, Energy consumption, Carbon dioxide emission,
Dam construction, Sustainability, Energy, Infrastructure, Construction management, Materials,
Sustainability and green buildings, Life-cycle analysis
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
The expected benefits of many new dam construction projects have been challenged as s
result of their adverse impacts on sustainability. Environmental impacts of dam projects on
air, land and water are subjects of many past studies. There is an extensive history of
analyzing heavy metals concentration increase in different dams in Turkey (Karadede and
Unlü, 2000; Öztürk et al., 2008; Özdemir et al., 2010; Uysal et al., 2010; Çiçek et al., 2013). Wei
(2009) investigated the adverse impacts of dam construction on the purification capacity of
the water stream. Bako et al. (2014) reported soil degradation as a result of the dams’ water
penetration and heavy metal containment in areas around the Zobe dam in Nigeria. Air
pollution as a result of green gas emission of decomposable materials in the reservoir was

The authors would like to express our appreciation to Dr Hesam Fouladfar from Iran water and Construction Innovation
power resources development Co., who supported us in collecting data on the case studies. They also © Emerald Publishing Limited
1471-4175
thank Mr Mohammad Bisadi, who helped us during the initial data collection. DOI 10.1108/CI-08-2019-0074
CI investigated in several research efforts conducted in past several years (Tremblay et al.,
2004; IRN, 2007; Mendonça et al., 2012; Deemer et al., 2016; Fearnside, 2016; Song et al., 2018).
In another perspective to the environmental sustainability caused by dam projects,
the dam structure type is an important component that can affect the sustainability
over different phases of its life cycle. Various types of materials, including concrete,
soil, masonry, wood and steel, have been used in the dam structures. The use of
masonry, wood and steel materials in dam structures returns to the past centuries
(Jansen, 1983; Reynolds, 1989; Yang et al., 1999). Currently, dams are commonly made
of concrete and soil materials (Youdeowei et al., 2019; ASDSO, 2020; TBDS, 2020).
According to the Association of State Dam Safety Officials (ASDSO, 2020), at the first
level, dam structures can be categorized into the embankment dams and the concrete
dams. At the second level, the embankment dams are divided into the earthen dams and
rockfill dams and the concrete dams are divided into gravity, buttress and arch dams.
Figure 1 illustrates the classification of different dam structures and their typical
schematic shapes. Only two studies were found on the sustainability of dam structures
and both are performed in China. In a case study, Liu et al. (2013) investigated life cycle
emissions of rock-fill concrete and conventional concrete arch dam types. The results
indicated 55% of energy consumption and 64% of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission
reduction in the rock-fill concrete arch dam type compared to the conventional arch
concrete dam type. Additionally, Zhang et al. (2015) investigated CO2 emissions of rock-
fill and concrete gravity dam types in the Nuozhadu hydroelectric dam, China. The
rock-fill dam resulted in a 24% less CO2 emission than the concrete gravity dam.

Earthen
Sandy gravel Core Sandy gravel

Embankment

Rockfill
Rock-fill Core Rock-fill
Concrete

Gravity
Dam
Structure
Types

Concrete Buttress

Figure 1.
Classification of the
dam structures types Arch
and their schematic
views
These case studies identified the dam structure type as the main contributor to the CO2 Novel approach
emission and energy consumption over the life cycle. The achieved results put forward the to consider in
importance of the selection of the proper dam structure type as a contributor to the
new dam
sustainable development of the dam projects. In many dam project cases, project owners
have choices for the dam structure type, while volume and types of materials used in each projects
dam structure type can significantly change. Therefore, different levels of sustainability are
expected during the life cycle when different types of dam structures are selected.
Traditionally, dam structure alternates are compared according to their financial, economic,
technical and environmental assessments. Past research has identified the significant impact
of the adopted dam structure type on the resulting emissions. This significant impact,
however, motivates this research to propose emission assessment of the alternate dam
structures as a new complementary factor in the dam project decision-making process.
Complementary information received from this assessment becomes an important
determinant especially when achieved values of the conventionally evaluated factors are
relatively close. Applicability and validity of the proposed approach are investigated in two
dam project cases in Iran, where emissions from two commonly used dam structure types are
assessed. First, the widely used dam structure types are identified in Iran. Then, life cycle
energy consumption and CO2 emission evaluation equations are developed for the defined
dam structure types. Next, the developed equations are used for the life cycle emission
assessment of the dam project cases. Finally, the significance of the results achieved is
discussed in the research and their correspondence is demonstrated with past research.

2. Common dam structures types in Iran

The semi-arid climate and the limited available water resources have triggered the
construction of many new dam projects in Iran. According to Iran Water Resource
Management Co. (IWRMC, 2018), currently, more than 100 large dams are under
construction and more than 500 new dam projects are under-study in Iran. Embankment
dams are the most common dam structures in these projects. Two embankment dam
structures types of earthen dams with a clay core and rock-fill dams with a clay core are the
main alternate dam structures. Therefore, the focus of this investigation was set on the
emission assessment of these two alternate dam types.

3. Life cycle emission evaluation of embankment dam structures

Emissions from embankment dam structures are mainly results of various material
handling and mechanical operations performed on the dam materials over the life cycles. An
overall emission of a dam structure can be estimated as a summation of the emissions
separately estimated in production, construction, maintenance and removal phases. Diesel
fuel is the main source of energy used in various equipment involved in processing
embankment dam materials in different phases of the dam projects. Therefore, equivalent
diesel fuel consumption can be used for representing energy consumption. This equivalency,
however, is subject to the diesel fuel properties and the performance of the equipment used
for processing dam materials. Staffell (2011) presents nine different sources that report on
different energy density for diesel fuel with a limited deviation of 2%. The average diesel
energy density value of 35.94 Megajoule per liter (or MJ/L) (Staffell, 2011) was accounted for
the development of the emission estimation equations. In cases that other fossil fuel types
are also consumed, an equivalent energy density value of those fuel types can be used instead.
For example, according to Staffell (2011), the average equivalent energy density value for
natural gas is 35.22 Megajoule per cubic meter (or MJ/m3), for gasoline is 32.70 (MJ/L) and for
coal is 25.75 Megajoule per kilogram (or MJ/kg).
CI It is assumed that the adopted dam structure type has a negligible impact on the
formation of other parts of the dam project, including the dam reservoir and the hydro-
power plant. Therefore, the developed equations in this study only target the life cycle
assessment (LCA) of the emissions created directly from the dam structure. Emissions from
other parts of the dam project are assumed equal and non-determinant in the decision
regarding the proper type of dam structure. Figure 2 represents the overall picture of the
research method. Further explanations about the emission estimation of the dam structure
in different phases of a dam project are provided in the rest of the section.

3.1 Emission estimation in the production phase

Clay, sand and crushed rock are the main materials used in different types of embankment
dams. Past research efforts have estimated the emissions from the production of these
materials according to the regional conditions, as presented in Table 1. Emission coefficients
of the construction materials, representing the rate of emissions for the production of 1 kg of
the material, is an output of these research efforts. Table 1 presents energy consumption and
CO2 emission coefficients estimated in these research efforts conducted in different parts of
the world. The energy consumption coefficients are presented in the Megajoule of energy
consumed per kilogram of materials produced (or MJ/kg). The CO2 emission coefficients are
represented in kilograms of CO2 emission per kilogram of the materials produced (or kg
CO2/kg). Expectedly, regional conditions such as quarry material properties and production
methods, have contributed to the values achieved in the energy consumption coefficients.
Value ranges are seen for emission coefficients of similar construction materials as presented in
Table 1. Here, especially high deviation is seen between production emission coefficients of the
naturally extracted aggregates and mechanically produced aggregates. For example, Reddy
and Jagadish (2003) reported zero energy consumption for natural sand. However, the energy
consumption coefficient of mechanically produced sand material was reported up to 0.10 MJ/kg
(Ndiaye, 2001). Limited deviations are, though, observed for the emission coefficients of the
aggregates produced by similar methods, e.g. the mechanical operations.
Earthmoving equipment such as shovels, loaders and dozers, are involved in the material
production process of embankment dams. Currently, the prevalent fuel consumed in the
earthmoving equipment is diesel. However, other types of fuels might be consumed such as
natural gas and gasoline. Furthermore, electrical equipment is also involved in the production
processes of materials such as electric motors and pumps used in conveyors and crushers. It
should be noted that electricity is not a primary source of energy. According to IEA (2019), the

Removal Production

Fuel
Consumption

Figure 2.
Fossil fuel CO2
consumption and CO2 Emission
emission over the Maintenance Construction
dam structure
life cycle
 Novel approach
CO2 emission
Energy consumption coefficient to consider in
Source Soil material coefficient (MJ/kg) (kg CO2/kg) Production method new dam
projects
Alcorn, 2003 Clay 0.070 0.0023 Mechanical production
sand 0.1000 0.0076 operations used in New
General aggregate 0.0400 0.0017 Zealand
River aggregate 0.0300 0.0011
Virgin rock 0.0600 0.0022
Reddy and Sand 0.000 – Use of natural sand and
Jagadish, 2003 Crushed rock 0.010 – crushed rock in India
Ndiaye et al., Sand 0.060 0.004 Mechanical production
2005 operations used in
Senegal
Hammond and Sand 0.081 0.0048–0.0051 According to the fuel
Jones, 2011 Crushed rock 0.083 0.0048–0.0052 consumption data in
material production
plants in the UK
Magwood, Clay and sand 0.083 0.0052 General mechanical
2014 (general aggregate) production operation in Table 1.
North America Energy consumption
Miljan and Clay 0.087 – Mechanical production and CO2 emission
Miljan, 2015 operations used in Estonia coefficients of soil
Ghanbari et al., Sand and gravel 0.056 0.0045 Mechanical production materials reported in
2017 operations used in Iran the literature

majority source of electricity generation comes from fossil fuel, including coal, natural gas and
oil. As many mines are located in remote areas, far from main electricity lines, many of them
directly use diesel-generators on-site for generating electricity. In such cases, the consumed
diesel need to be estimated and added to the diesel fuel consumed in the other equipment. If
electricity is generated from other sources of energy, they also need to be accounted for.
Equations 1 estimates diesel consumption in the production phase according to the material
weight, energy consumption coefficient for the material production and the diesel energy
density value of 35.94 MJ/L (Staffell, 2011). Similar equations need to be used in cases that other
fossil fuel types are consumed by replacing diesel energy density value of 35.94 MJ/L with the
related fuel energy density values. Equation (2) estimates the CO2 emission of the material
production based on the weight of the material and its CO2 emission coefficient in the
production phase. Adopting emission coefficients of each construction material from the
coefficients estimated based on the prevalent material production techniques in the region
increases the accuracy of the result. Average values need to be adopted in case emission
coefficients are not available for the specific region.

Diesel ðLÞ ¼ Material weight ðkgÞ

 
MJ
Energy consumption coefficient of the material kg of material
  
35:94 L ofMJdiesel
(1)
CI CO2 ðkgÞ ¼ Material weight ðkgÞ
 
kg of CO2
 CO2 emission coefficient of the material (2)
kg of material

3.2 Emission estimation in the construction phase

The massive material movement is the main source of emission in the construction
phase. Various operations done in this phase can be divided into three different parts,
including:
(1) land preparation;
(2) material transportation; and
(3) material placement.

In the land preparation operation, land clearing and excavation is done by different
earthmoving equipment to reach the required depth. Then, loaders load different dam
materials on the hauling trucks and haul materials from material quarry sites to the dam
site. Spreading, watering and compacting are major activities done by different construction
equipment during material placement operation. In this operation, various layers of earthen
and rock-fill dam structures are built such as core, shell, filter and drain. The majority of the
emission in the construction phase is the result of diesel fuel combustion in the mobile
earthmoving equipment engines. Therefore, first, the volume of diesel fuel consumption in
the construction equipment engines is estimated for estimating emission in the construction
phase. The resulting CO2 emission is then estimated based on the volume of the consumed
diesel fuel.
In regards to the fuel consumption estimation method, construction equipment can be
divided into two groups as follows: material hauling trucks and on-site material handling
equipment (RazaviAlavi, 2010). While for the hauling trucks rate of the diesel fuel
consumption is estimated per kilometer of the hauling distance, the rate of diesel fuel
consumption for the on-site equipment is estimated based on the hours of operation.
Equation (3) presents the diesel consumption of the hauling trucks traveling between the
dam construction site and a specific source of the material. Here, diesel consumption is
estimated based on the number and distance of round trips between the material source and
the dam site and the average diesel consumption rate of the hauling trucks. Overall, the
diesel fuel consumption of the hauling trucks is estimated as the summation of the estimated
fuel consumption for different materials supplied from various sources. Equation (4)
presents the diesel consumption of on-site equipment, performing a specific type of material
handling activity. The total operating hours of specific equipment is estimated by dividing
the volume of the handled material over the hourly rate of the material handling operation of
the equipment. Furthermore, according to USEPA (2015), every liter of diesel fuel
combustion in construction equipment emits 2.697 kg of CO2. This factor is used in
equation (5) for estimating equivalent CO2 emission of the diesel fuel consumed in different
on-site mobile construction equipment.
Diesel Constumption of the Hauling Trucks ðLÞ ¼
 
L
Number of Trips  Round Trip Distance ðkmÞ  Average Diesel consumption rate
km
(3)
 Diesel Constumption ofthe Onsite Material Handling Equipment ðLÞ ¼ Novel approach
  to consider in
Volume of soilðm3 Þ L
   Diesel consumption rate (4) new dam
Equipment operation rate h m3 h
projects

 
kg of CO2
CO2 ðkgÞ ¼ Diesel consumption in equipment ðLÞ  2:697 (5)
liter of diesel

3.3 Emission estimation in the operation and maintenance phase

Various operation and maintenance activities are performed during the long life span of the
dams. However, the focus of this research is on the dam structure and only related operation
and maintenance activities to the dam structure are of concern. The majority of the
operation and maintenance activities such as the reservoir’s dredging, the reservoir’s
vegetation control and the hydroelectric generator operation, are done regardless of the dam
structure type. Concerning the studied dam structure types, i.e. the embankment dam types,
control of vegetation is an activity required during the operation and maintenance phase.
Control of the vegetation requires special attention for the dams located on the humid
climates with high annual rainfall and dense vegetation coverage. In general, different
techniques such as bowing and the use of herbicides are used for controlling the vegetation.
The volume of materials used and handled during these activities, however, are quite low
compared to the construction phase. Furthermore, the majority parts of Iran lies in the semi-
arid regions with low vegetation coverage. Therefore, limited care is expected to control the
vegetation coverage of the dams in the country. In another perspective, errors that occurred
during the design and construction can cause problems in the dam structure during the
operation and maintenance phase. Here, crack, erosion and seepage issues are sample
problems. In such cases, maintenance activities might get quite extensive. This study,
however, does not capture the risk of possible mistakes made during the design and
construction of dams. No corrective maintenance activities are considered in the research.
Therefore, the resulting emissions from the dam structure were considered relatively
minimal in the operation and maintenance phase compared to the production and
construction phases.

3.4 Emission estimation in the removal phase

Various dam removal strategies might be considered depending on the dam-site condition.
Recycling materials, using them in other construction projects (Mulder, 2007) and using a
portion of them for the restoration of the dam area (USSD, 2015) are among the options.
Different removal strategies can create a different volume of emissions. For embankment
dams, however, if original borrow areas of dam materials are available, they are usually the
best choices to place dam removal materials (Hepler, 2013; USSD, 2015). For the emission
estimation, unless other strategies are indicated, it can be considered that materials removed
from a dam structure are placed into their original borrow locations. In such a case, dam
materials are excavated from the dam structure and loaded on the hauling trucks to be
hauled to their original quarries. Equations 3, 4 and 5 can be, respectively, used for
estimating diesel fuel consumption of the hauling trucks, the diesel fuel consumption of the
on-site earthmoving equipment and the resulting CO2 emissions.
CI 4. Case study 1: Roudbar dam
Roudbar dam is located on the Roudbar River in Lorestan province, Iran, with a reservoir
capacity of 228m m3. Its crest has a length of 185 m, a width of 720 m and a height of 155 m.
Construction of this rock-fill dam started in 2003, its partial operation commenced in 2016
and it became fully operational in mid-2017. The high level of river sedimentation in this
dam has limited its predicted service life to 50 years. In this case study, life cycle emissions
of the actual scenario of the rock-fill dam with a clay core and the alternate scenario of the
earthen dam with a clay core were studied. Information required in the actual scenario of the
rock-fill dam were collected from the project owner, Iran Water and Power Resources
Development Company. The alternate dam structure was analyzed and designed by the
research team based on the information received from the project owner. Figure 3 represents
schematic views of the actual scenario of the rock-fill dam and the alternate dam scenario of
the earthen dam of the Roudbar dam case.
According to the field study from material sources in the region, regular mechanical
operations, including excavation, crushing and screening operations were performed in the
production of the dam materials. The energy consumption coefficient of 0.056 MJ/kg and the
CO2 emission coefficient of 0.0045 kg CO2/kg estimated by Ghanbari et al. (2017) in Iran was
adopted for the mechanical production of the sand materials. However, no direct estimation
was found for the embodied energy of the clay and the crushed rock materials in the county.
According to the field survey from the material production sources in the region, crushing
and screening were the main mechanical activities performed during the production phase
of the consumed aggregates. The average values of the identified emission coefficients for
mechanically produced clays and crushed rock (presented in Table 1) were accounted for
estimating emission values of clay and crushed rock. Energy consumption coefficients of
155 m

Rock-fill Rock-fill
Clay Core

720 m

(a)

15 m
155 m

Sandy gravel
Figure 3. Clay Core Sandy gravel

Schematic views of 1020 m

the actual and
(b)
alternate dam
scenarios of Roudbar Notes: (a) The actual scenario (rock-fill dam with clay core); (b) the alternative
dam case
scenario (earthen dam with a clay core)
0.08 MJ/kg for the clay and 0.04 MJ/kg for the crushed rock and CO2 emission coefficients of Novel approach
0.0064 kg CO2/kg for the clay and 0.0032 kg CO2/kg for the crushed rock were assumed. to consider in
The dam’s site distance to different material production plants and the weight of new dam
materials were collected from the project documents according to Table 2. Almost all the
materials were hauled by 20-ton hauling trucks. The construction operation details of both
projects
dam structure types were obtained from direct field observations and interviews with
the experts in the dam construction company. Operation rates of different construction
equipment in dams were extracted from the survey done on the embankment
dam’s equipment in Iran by RazaviAlavi (2010). The diesel consumption rates of the
construction equipment were estimated based on the field survey conducted on the
construction site. Table 3 represents the main assumptions related to the equipment used in
the dam project. Figure 4 summarizes the estimation results.
The achieved results suggest 34.3% fewer emissions in the actual scenario of the rock-fill
dam than the earthen dam. In both scenarios, material production is responsible for the
majority of emissions followed by the construction and removal phases.

5. Case study 2: Karkheh dam

Karkheh dam is located on the Karkheh River in Khuzestan province, Iran. It is the largest
dam in the country with a reservoir capacity of more than 7bn m3. Its crest has a length of
3,030 m, a width of 1,100 m and a height of 127 m. The construction of this earthen dam
started in 1992 and finished in 2006. The service life of this dam is estimated to more than
130 years. Here again, the sedimentation rate in the reservoir is the main contributor to the
dam’s service life. The research team analyzed and designed the alternate dam structure of
the rock-fill dam with clay based on the project’s information. Figure 5 represents schematic
views of the actual scenario of the earthen dam and the alternate dam scenario of the rock-
fill dam for the case.

Dam type Material Source Weight (m tons) Distance (km)

Rock-fill dam Clay Source 1 2.13 8

Sand Source 2 1.45 6
Crushed rock Source 3 12.7 4.5
Total 16.3 Table 2.
Earthen dam Clay Source 1 2.13 8 Roudbar dam site
Sand Source 2 18.8 6 distance to different
Total 21.0 material sources

Equipment operation rate Equipment fuel

Equipment specification (m3/h) consumption rate

Dozer (crawl, 105 HP, bucket 2 m3) 85 40 (L/h)

Table 3.
Grader (180 HP, blade 3.66  0.61 m) 280 25 (L/h)
Roller compactor (155 HP, 10 ton) 120 15 (L/h) Main assumption
Sheep foot roller compactor (155 HP, 12 ton) 100 15 (L/h) used in the
Water truck (19,000 L) 95 25 (L/h) calculation of
Truck (20 ton) 0.4 (L/km) construction phase
CI 60.8(million litres)
170 (million kg)
Removal 19% Removal 18%

39.9(million litres) Construction 25% 111 (million kg) Construction 24%

Removal 20% Removal 20%

Construction 27% Construction 26%

Production 56% Production 58%

Production 53% Production 54%

Rock-fill Earthen Rock-fill Earthen

Figure 4. (a) (b)
Life cycle* emission
results of alternate Notes: (a) Diesel consumption; (b)CO2 emission; *Resulting emissions from the operation and
scenarios in maintenance phase of the studied alternative dam structure types were found minimal compared
Roudbar dam
to other phases and were not reported consequently

12 m
127 m

Clay
Sandy gravel Sandy gravel
Core

1100 m
(a)

12 m
127 m

Clay
Rock-fill Rock-fill
Figure 5. Core
Schematic views of
the actual and
alternate dam (b)
scenarios of Karkheh Notes: (a) The actual scenario (earthen dam with a clay core); (b) the alternative scenario
dam case
(rock-fill dam with clay core)

The material production method and construction equipment were fairly similar to ones
used in the Roudbar project; similar assumptions were considered for the material
production and the productivity of various equipment. Table 4 presents the distances of
different material sources and the amount of material supplied from each source. Figure 6
presents a summary of the estimated emissions in different phases of the project’s life cycle.
Although in this case, the earthen dam was the actual dam type, the rock-fill dam
scenario resulted in 41.3% fewer emissions than the earthen dam. Figure 6 presents the total
emissions and the emission portion of different dam project phases. Achieved results
reasonably followed a similar trend to the Roudbar dam.
 Novel approach
Dam type Material Source Weight (m ton) Distance (km)
to consider in
Rock-fill dam Clay Source 1 5.25 12 new dam
Sand Source 2 2.59 1.5
Crushed rock Source 2 1.81 1.5 projects
Source 3 2.94 2.5
Source 4 10.1 6
Source 5 8.19 7
Source 6 5.48 9
Total 36.3
Earthen dam Clay Source 1 5.25 12
Sand Source 2 4.41 1.5
Source 3 7.18 2.5 Table 4.
Source 4 35.7 6 Karkheh dam site
Source 5 3.31 7 distance to different
Total 55.8 material sources

491 (million litres)

176 (million litres)
Removal 18.5%
Removal 19%

Construction 28%
104(million litres) Construction 29% 288 (million litres)

Removal 23%
Removal 23%

Construction 31% Construction 30%

Production 52% Production 53.5%
47%
n 46%
Production Production

Rock-fill Earthen Rock-fill Earthen

(a) (b) Figure 6.

Life cycle* emission
Notes: (a) Diesel consumption; (b) CO2 emission; *Resulting emissions from the operation and results of alternate
maintenance phase of the studied alternative dam structure types were found minimal compared scenarios in of
Karkheh dam
to other phases and were not reported consequently

6. Discussion and findings

Investigations conducted in this research represented considerable deviations in the
emissions of the alternate embankment dam structure type over the life cycle. The rock-fill
dam resulted in 34.5% fewer emissions in the Roudbar case and 41.3% fewer emissions in
the Karkheh dam compared to the earthen dam type. A main contributing factor to this
saving can return to the less volume of materials used in the rock-fill dam than the earthen
dam. The high emission deviation in different dam structure types achieved in this research
conforms with the high emission deviations achieved for different dam type alternates in the
past research (Liu et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2015). Figure 7 presents emission reduction in the
rock-fill dam type compared to the earthen over the life cycle in both cases. Every life cycle
phase of the dam projects contributes to emission saving. In both cases, additional emission
savings were observed in the production phase. This additional reduction was due to the
low mechanical activities involved in the production of crushed rock, as the main material
CI used in the rock-fill dam type, compared to the sand material, the main material in the
earthen dam type.
In both conducted case studies, emission in the production phase was relatively higher
than the construction phase (Figures 4 and 6). This trend was also seen in the results
reported in the past. Figure 8 presents the relative CO2 emission shares of the production
and construction phases reported in the past research efforts and the current research. It was
seen that the emission share of the production phase was higher in the concrete-based dam
types than the embankment dams because of the high embodied energy of the concrete
material. Emissions achieved in the production phase of the rock-fill dams in the current
research, with 68% and 61% shares, represented a relatively lower share than the case
studied by Zhang et al. (2015), with 83% share. The majority of emissions in the production
phase of the case studied by Zhang et al. (2015) was also returned to the concrete materials
used in the electro-power generation facilities. However, as dam structure types had a
limited impact on the specifications of other components such as the reservoir and the
electro-power generator, emissions from these components were not accounted for in the
current research. The achieved result highlighted the determinant role of material
production in the overall emission.

Life cycle, 41.3%

Life cycle, 34.5%

Figure 7.
Emission reduction of
different phases in
the rock-fill dam
compared to the
earthen dam

Reference/ Dam case type Production share Construction share

Current research/ Roudbar, rock-fill 68% 32%

Current research/ Roudbar, earthen 70% 30%

Current research/ Karkheh, rock-fill 61% 39%

Current research/ Karkheh, earthen 65% 35%

Figure 8. Liu et al., 2013/ Conventional concrete arch 91% 9%

Relative CO2
emission shares of the Liu et al., 2013/ Rock-fill concrete arch 85% 15%
production and
Zhang et al., 2015/ Concrete gravity* 90% 10%
construction phases
achieved for dam Zhang et al., 2015/ Rock-fill* 83% 17%
projects in different
research efforts
Note: *The case is a hydroelectric dam
7. Summary and conclusion Novel approach
Regardless of the significant impacts of dam structure types, emission assessment of dam to consider in
structures is not normally performed during the feasibility and initial planning stages of
new dam
dam construction projects. This research proposed the incorporation of the emission
assessment of alternate dam structures in the feasibility and planning stages of dam projects
construction projects. Implementation of emission assessment for two dam cases in Iran
represented high deviations in the life cycle emission of alternate dam structures types with
the possible emission saving up to 41.3%.
This research introduced life cycle emissions of the dam structure type as a
complementary decision factor to the traditionally accounted factors such as financial,
economic, technical and environmental factors. Extensive studies are performed in different
aspects of the dams before the implementation of every large dam project. The adopted dam
structure type is one of the main outputs of these studies. High emission deviations between
alternate dam types can justify additional efforts required for the dam structure emission
assessments in cases that the alternate dam structure types are available. In this
perspective, this investigation aimed to raise awareness regarding how emission
assessments of dam projects can improve the dam’s sustainability without compromising
the project objectives. The emission assessment results can be analyzed in conjunction with
the results of the technical and financial assessments to decide about the most viable dam
structure. In this research, only evaluation equations for earthen and rock-fill dam structure
types were developed. However, similar steps taken for these two dam types can be
expanded to other applicable dam structure types such as conventional concrete, roller
compacted concrete and earth rock-fill. Although the proposed LCA method in the research
was applied for dam construction projects in Iran, no reservations were assumed in the
developed evaluation method. Similar steps taken in this research can be followed for the life
cycle emission assessment of dam structure cases in other parts of the world.

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Beach, FL, May 8-11, pp. 143-150, available at: http://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/84802

Corresponding author
Amin Alvanchi can be contacted at: alvanchi@sharif.edu

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