SDO Navotas EarthLifeScience SHS 1st2ndsem - FV

DIVISION OF NAVOTAS CITY
Earth and Life

Science
(Quarter 1 and 2)
1st or 2nd Semester
S.Y. 2021-2022
NAVOTAS CITY PHILIPPINES
Earth and Life Science for Senior High School
Alternative Delivery Mode
1st or 2nd Semester
Second Edition, 2021
Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work of
the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or office
wherein the work is created shall be necessary for exploitation of such work for profit. Such
agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.
Borrowed materials (i.e., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names,
trademarks, etc.) included in this module are owned by their respective copyright holders.
Every effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from their
respective copyright owners. The publisher and authors do not represent nor claim ownership
over them.
Published by the Department of Education

Secretary: Leonor Magtolis Briones
Undersecretary: Diosdado M. San Antonio
Development Team of the Module
Writers: Joseph Gabriel G. Cruz, Debbie Mae Kristine S. Joseph, Maria Fe T. Moraca,
Jasmin B. Tiongson, Russell P. Samson
Editors: Maria Fe T. Moraca and Ernesto Sibayan
Reviewer: Rachel V. Ocampo
Illustrator: Rodel R. Rimando, SDO La Union, Region I
Layout Artist: Russell P. Samson
Management Team: Alejandro G. Ibañez, OIC- Schools Division Superintendent
Isabelle S. Sibayan, OIC- Asst. Schools Division Superintendent
Loida O. Balasa, Chief, Curriculum Implementation Division
Russell P. Samson, EPS in Science
Grace R. Nieves, EPS In Charge of LRMS
Lorena J. Mutas, ADM Coordinator
Vergel Junior C. Eusebio, PDO II LRMS
Inilimbag sa Pilipinas ng ________________________
Department of Education – Navotas City

Office Address: BES Compound M. Naval St. Sipac-Almacen Navotas City
____________________________________________
Telefax: 02-8332-77-64
____________________________________________
E-mail Address: Navotas.city@deped.gov.ph
____________________________________________
Table of Contents
QUARTER 1 OR QUARTER 3
What I Know (Quarter 1) ...............................................................1
Module 1......................................................................................2
Module 2......................................................................................9
Module 3......................................................................................17
Module 4......................................................................................21
Module 5......................................................................................26
Module 6......................................................................................31
Module 7......................................................................................35
Module 8......................................................................................40
Assessment (Quarter 1) ................................................................47
QUARTER 2 OR QUARTER 4
What I Know ................................................................................49
Module 9......................................................................................50
Module 10 ....................................................................................53
Module 11 ....................................................................................56
Module 12 ....................................................................................62
Module 13 ....................................................................................68
Module 14 ....................................................................................76
Assessment (Quarter 2) ................................................................84
Answer Key ..................................................................................86
References ...................................................................................96
Quarter I
Directions: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet
of paper.
Earth Science
1. The Earth assumed an oblate spheroid shape due to its rotation. What is the other factor
that caused the planet to assume this shape?
A. Gravity B. Pressure C. Magnetic Field D. Planetary Debris
2. The earth is a closed system. Which of the following statements is true?

A. Earth allows matter but not energy to enter it
B. Earth does not allow both energy and matter to escape
C. Earth allows all matter and energy to escape and enter it
D. Earth allows energy to enter it but negligible matter to escape
3. Physical properties are used to classify minerals. In an experiment, the mineral is said to
break but not produce smooth planes. What physical property is being tested in the
experiment?
A. Color B. Fracture C. Tenacity D. Streak
4. Rocks can be classified into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic based on their
observable characteristics. A rock sample was collected and was observed to be produced
by cemented particles such as small pebbles and sand. What kind of rock is the sample?
A. Extrusive Igneous Rock C. Metamorphic Rock
B. Intrusive Igneous Rock D. Sedimentary Rock
5. What process does the Earth’s internal heat come from?

A. the heat comes from the decay of substances in the core and the convection in the
mantle.
B. the heat comes from the decay of substance in the core and the convection in the crust.
C. the heat comes from the convection in the mantle and conduction in the crust.
D. the heat comes from convection in the mantle and conduction in the core.
6. What is caused by the movement of crust plates during mantle convection?

A. biomass burning C. radioactive decay
B. burning of fossil fuels D. volcanic eruption
7. Which government agency is responsible for monitoring volcanic activities and earthquakes
in the country?
A. PHIVOLCS C. DOST
B. PAGASA D. MMDA
8. Which of the following is NOT an engineering solution to mitigate landslide?

A. Grouting C. Reforestation
B. Geotextile D. Rock fall protection
9. PAG-ASA stands for Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical ____________ Services

Administration.
A. Association C. Astronomical
B. Academics D. Astrophysics
10. Which of the following is NOT a coastal mitigation process?

A. Building Sea dikes and sea wall
B. Proper waste disposal
C. Beach Nourishment
D. Drainage Cleaning
1
MODULE 1
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you master
the Earth’s capacity to support life and the subsystems that make it possible. The scope of
this module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language used
recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the
standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to
correspond with the textbook you are now using.
The module is divided into three lessons, namely:
● Lesson 1.1 – Earth: A Life Sustaining System
● Lesson 1.2 – Subsystems of the Earth
● Lesson 1.3 – Interactions of the Earth’s Subsystems
After going through this module, you are expected to:
● Recognize the uniqueness of Earth, being the only planet in the solar system with
properties necessary to support life.
● Explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose boundaries matter
and energy flow.
Lesson
Earth: A Life Sustaining System
1.1
The History of the Earth

The Earth is a terrestrial planet together with its companions, Mercury, Venus, and
Mars, with the rest of the family of planets are Jovian planets which are Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune.
From the perspective of the astronauts and the man-made satellites sent to space, the
Earth is a blue planet not short of beauty, as seen from the photos of the Apollo 17 in
December of 1972 by the astronaut William Anders which in turned dubbed our home planet
as a “blue marble”, because it is relatively small to the other planets, self-contained and can
even be considered delicate.
In this planet exists a complex system of interacting physical, chemical, and biological
processes, which in a certain point of view, illustrates a natural laboratory whose experiments
have been running since the beginning of time. The earth was deemed to be existing around
one third of the age of the universe, and the age of the planet is said to be more than 4.6
billion years.
During its formative years, the earth was said to be in a chaotic state, with meteorites,
comets and other planetary bodies constantly colliding with it. It made our planet mostly in
a molten state due to the tremendous amounts of heat generated by the collisions, leading to
numerous thunderstorms and volcanic eruptions. During these times, the earth has no
protective atmosphere that prevents other planetary objects from crashing to the earth’s
surface.
2
It was believed that water came from the ice from the meteorites that melted due to
the earth’s heat during that time. The denser metals sunk deeper and deeper into the earth
and what comprised the core of the earth and in turn established its gravitational pull. As
time went by, and as the earth spins on its own axis, and with its gravity, the fumes and
other gases from the natural disasters forms an envelope of gases that shielded the falling
meteorites and eventually caused the earth to cool down. The water from the meteorites
flooded the low-lying areas and then formed our ocean basins. And because of the existed of
water, the primordial organisms began to thrive and continues to change the planet up to
this day.
Shape of the Earth
The current shape of the planet earth is not a perfect sphere, but an oblate spheroid.
Earth obtained this shape specifically because of its gravity and rotation. Same with the other
planets, gravity pulls the mass closer to its core, which in the Earth’s case, the core is the
center of its gravity. However, since earth is also rotating, the centrifugal force (a force pulling
away from the center) distorts the sphere, which in effect causes the area near the equator to
be bulging outward compared to the other portions of the sphere, and almost flattened at its
poles.
Activity 1: Fill me
Directions: Fill in the flow chart below with the events that take place in the early Earth.
Formation of
the Earth
Primordial
Organisms
begin to thrive
Lesson
Earth’s Subsystems
1.2
To support life, the earth is a closed system, with a dynamic body with many
separate, but highly interacting parts or spheres. Earth system science studies Earth as a
system composed of numerous parts, or subsystems. These subsystems interact to carry out
many different natural processes. These various processes are happening due to the
composition and the nature of these subsystems
3
The Geosphere
The geosphere is the part of the earth which includes the internal structure, rocks
and minerals, landforms and all the corresponding physical processes on the land that
dynamically move and shape the surface of the earth. Both continental land and ocean floor
are also a part of the geosphere. And to sum it up, the solid ground of the Earth. The term
Geosphere covers all the solid part of the Earth, from its surface up to the deeper depth of
the core, as opposed to the term Lithosphere which only covers the crust.
The Internal Structure of the Earth

The interior structure of the Earth is composed of different layers, with each layer can
be differentiated by its density, thickness, and overall properties. (Figure 2.0) Based on your
grade 10 earth and space lessons, we can recall that the geosphere has 3 main layers, namely
the crust, the mantle, and the core.
The crust varies from 5 to 70 km thick, composed of both the oceanic and the continental
crust. Most of the crust is composed of eight elements, namely oxygen, silicon, aluminum,
iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium.
The layer that separates the crust to the next layer and is still part of the crust is the
Mohorovicic discontinuity, or simply referred to as the Moho. It was discovered by the
Croatian seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic (1857 – 1936) in 1909. The Moho is now recognized
as the transitional boundary between the crust and the mantle
Below the crust is the mantle. It is the thickest portion of the
geosphere and is discovered to be 84% of the earth’s total volume. Things to ponder:
Majority of the mantle is solid rock, however seismologists discovered What is the property of
that there is a weak viscous sublayer known as the Asthenosphere. waves that led Andrija
This fluid layer explains the occurrence of earthquakes and seismic Mohorovicic to discover the
activities for it drives the motion of the continental and oceanic plates discontinuity between the
crust and the mantle?
due to the convection currents (movement of molten rock due to heat
and pressure). The extreme temperature and pressure in the
asthenosphere cause the rocks in it to break and melt and eventually
move like a fluid. The rocks above it in the rigid portion of the crust move about on top of this
fluid like layer, which enables tectonic plates to move.
The mantle is mostly made of silicate rocks. There are limited
discoveries regarding the mantle but because of volcanic eruptions,
some rocks beneath the earth called Xenoliths give clues to what the Things to ponder:
inside of the earth is like. When volcanoes erupt some rocks are mixed How did scientists
in the pyroclastic materials and these rocks originate beneath the discover the inside of the
earth surface and go outside with lava. earth without traveling
Like between the crust and the mantle, the lower mantle and outer there?
core also have a boundary. This is called the Gutenberg
Discontinuity which was named by its discoverer, Beno Gutenberg
(1889-1960) in 1913.
The core is the last layer of the earth, and it is composed mostly of iron and nickel.
The iron in the outer core is in a liquid form while it is theorized that the inner core is solid.
This layer that is composed of iron is responsible for the magnetic field of the earth, that
deflects the solar winds and cosmic radiation that could make life on earth impossible.
There is also a transitional boundary between the outer and the inner core. It is called the
Lehmann Discontinuity and it was discovered in the year 1929 by the Danish seismologist
Inge Lehmann while studying an earthquake from New Zealand as she studied shockwaves
that reached to the core and then bounced off to boundary. The Geosphere continues to move
as we thrive on it and the process in this subsystem directly affects the planet as we know it.
The Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere contains all the water found in planet earth such as
• Water found on the surface of our planet includes the ocean as well as water from
lakes and rivers, streams, and creeks.
• Water found under the surface of our planet includes water trapped in the soil and
groundwater.
• Water found in our atmosphere includes water vapor.
• Frozen water on our planet includes ice caps and glaciers.
4
The Importance of Water
1. Water could be in solid, liquid and gas. Because of its ability to flow, water can travel to
different environments and reach different organisms. As it travels it can be a factor to
distribute different nutrients and other materials for organisms to survive
2. Water, in its pure form, has a neutral pH. Since pure water is apotheric (both an acid and
a base) and has neutral pH (neither basic nor acidic) it can be readily available to different
organisms without harming their body chemistry.
3. Water is a good conductor of energy. Water can absorb and transfer heat, and water is
the major contributor in the heat regulation of the planet.
4. Water has a high specific heat. The high specific heat of water enables organisms to adapt
to the changes in the atmospheric heat.
5. Water is the universal solvent. Many of the known solutes in the environment essential to
life are mostly dissolved in water.
The Water Cycle

Water travels and circulates around Earth in different ways. The processes that allow
water to circulate around the world is dependent on the interaction of matter and energy that
allows it to transform from one phase to another. Due to this cycle, life is possible since all
organisms are dependent on water.
Water in the hydrosphere moves in a Hydrologic cycle. The movement can be in the form of
water evaporating to form clouds, clouds that form precipitation, water on ice caps that freeze
and melt, and even groundwater that seeps into the cracks and crevices of the ground. Again,
when the water reaches the atmosphere, it can go back to the ground and the cycle continues.
Distribution of water on Earth

● Water on earth can be divided into two groups, surface water and groundwater, which
is determined by their types and amount of minerals in them.
● Surface water may either be freshwater or marine water
● Marine has high salinity (salt content) and can be found in seas, oceans, bays, and
gulfs.
● Freshwater has low salinity, and can be found in lakes, rivers and springs, and
because of its slow salinity, it is the best source of drinking water.
● Only 2% of the world’s water is freshwater, but 70% of freshwaters are frozen in
glaciers.
● Groundwater is water found below the ground where they are stored in spaces and
crevices within the soil. The underground layer of rocks containing water is called an
aquifer.
The Atmosphere
Once upon a time in Earth’s history, the planet’s
atmosphere was once like the gases of the solar nebula from
Things to ponder: What if the
which the earth was from. But as time went on, the earth’s amount of oxygen is greater
atmosphere eventually changed its primitive characteristics, and than its present percentage?
now as we know it, the atmosphere is composed of gases that
were released from the earth’s surface and traces of comets and
other planetary objects that were captured in this envelope of air.
The composition of the atmosphere changes, as the earth evolves. The present
atmosphere of the earth is composed of 78% Nitrogen, 20% oxygen, 1% water vapor and 1%
other gases such as CO2, argon, and neon.
Layers of the Atmosphere

The EXOSPHERE
It is the area beyond the atmosphere of the earth
5
The THERMOSPHERE
It is the outermost and the hottest layer of the atmosphere due to its
absorption of high energy solar heat.
There is a location in it called the ionosphere where gas particles are charged
by the solar wind. ‘
Charged gas molecules allow radio waves to travel beyond horizon.
Auroras, a spectacular display of colorful lights, are effects of refracted solar
wind in this layer.
The MESOSPHERE
The layer below the thermosphere which is also the coldest part of the
atmosphere.
This layer is important in protecting the earth from planetary debris
The STRATOSHERE
The air in this layer has strong steady horizontal wings advantageous for
long distance flights
The Ozone layer is found in this atmosphere layer and is vital to all living
things because it absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun
The TROPOSPHERE
The densest layer of the atmosphere

The movement of the air and the influence of temperature determines our
weather based on the movement of water vapor and the cycle of air due to the
temperature of the surface
The Biosphere is the “life zone” of the Earth and includes

all living organisms (including humans), and all organic matter Things to ponder:
that has not yet decomposed.
What will the earth be
The Biosphere is where certain organisms function to
without Decomposers?
consume other organisms to allow energy to flow from one group
of organisms to another and to allow certain organic molecules to
be recycled.
Producers such as plants can harvest radiant energy to convert it to a chemical form,
and certain consumer animals consume them. Decomposers eventually decompose or break
down dead organisms to return their organic molecules allowing it to be reabsorbed into the
earth.
Energy is transferred from one organism to another in a food chain. A food web is
composed of interconnected food chains that involve different organisms. However, the more
organisms are inside this food web, the less energy could be obtained by the last consumer.
The energy pyramid illustrates how energy is reduced as an organism consumes another
organism. Specifically, only 10% of the energy can be obtained by the organisms and is
divided further by as the trophic level advances to another level.
Ecosystems are where food webs exist and where both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-
living) things interact to drive the system. Ultimately, the Biosphere can be considered a
macro-ecosystem interacting with the rest of the subsystems on earth.
6
Activity 2: Locate Me
Directions: Label all the layers of the earth and in the space provided below, provide a
description for each layer.
Layer Description
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Lesson The Interactions of the Earth’s

1.2 Subsystems
Earth: A Closed System

The earth can be considered a closed system because the earth may release energy
but there is negligible mass leaving the system.
EARTH IS A DYNAMIC BODY

If you study the earth, you can say that the planet is a dynamic body with separate
parts, yet the parts are interacting with each other. The subsystems mentioned in the
previous lesson have definite features, yet they are not isolated from each other, and they
move in a complex and perpetually interaction that make the earth an Earth System.
EARTH IS ALSO PART OF A SYSTEM

A system is a group of interdependent/interacting parts that form a complex whole.
We may consider the earth to be part of the solar system, which in turn can be a subsystem
in reference to the Milky Way Galaxy.
ALL SUBSYSTEMS ARE INTERCONNECTED

The parts of the earth’s system are linked in such a way that an abrupt change in one
part produces a change in another part, or in all other parts. A Volcanic eruption can change
a body of water, cause change in the atmospheric condition and the biological activity in an
area.
EARTH’S PROCESSES COVER DIFFERENT TIME AND SPACE SCALES

The span covered by the Earth system’s processes vary from microscopic distances to
thousands of kilometers, and these processes can even range from a split of a second to
7
billions of years. All the systemic processes of the Earth are very much connected despite
significant differences in distance and time, wherein ultimately a change in a single
component can influence change.
THE EARTH SYSTEM IS POWERED BY ITSELF AND THE SUN

The Earth system is powered by an external energy source which is the sun, and an
internal source from the Earth’s internal heat. The sun directly influences the processes in
the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and the earth’s surface. Processes such as weather and
climate, ocean currents and even exogenous processes such as erosion are driven by energy
from the Sun. On the other hand, heat remaining from the formation of the planet, and the
continuous radioactive decay, power the internal processes such as volcanic movement and
endogenous processes such as movements of the earth’s tectonic plates.
HUMANS ARE PART OF THE EARTH SYSTEM

Humans are an integral part of the system, wherein both living and nonliving
processes are intertwined and interdependent. Therefore, our actions as humans produce
changes in the environment. The way we burn fossil fuels and dispose of our garbage have
critical consequences to the planet itself. Humans must continue to be stewards of
preservation and sustainability of the Earth.
Activity 3: Know Me
Directions: Write TRUE if the statement is True or False if otherwise.
1. The earth is a closed system

2. Matter moves freely between the Earth and outer space
3. The Earth System is isolated from the rest of the galaxy
4. All processes of the Earth System is short term
5. The sun is the lone source of energy of the Earth
6. Internal Processes of the earth is dependent on the earth’s internal heat
7. Geological processes vary in span of distance
8. Radioactive decay underground contribute to earth’s internal heat
9. The earth maintained its appearance ever since its formation
10. There is leftover heat from the earth’s formation up to this day
Social media can be a platform to spread awareness for different advocacies. In this task, you
will be asked to play the role of a social media influencer to spread awareness about
preserving clean water. You can either create an INFOGRAPHIC, a one - minute advocacy
video or a 1-minute jingle showcasing your stand in the matter. You must post your work in
your social media accounts and tag the Facebook page of our science class. You may also
post your work through a WIX website portfolio. (Note: teachers will use rubric for assessing
you output)
8
MODULE 2
the knowledge about Minerals and Rocks. The scope of this module permits it to be used in
many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level
of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the
order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now
using.
The module is divided into four lessons, namely:
● Lesson 2.1 – Minerals and their Physical and Chemical Properties
● Lesson 2.2 – Igneous Rocks: Rocks formed by Fire
● Lesson 2.3 – Sedimentary Rocks and the Rocks Under Stress
● Lesson 2.4 – Metamorphic Rocks and the Changes they undergo
● Identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical
properties.
● Classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
● Describe the changes in mineral components and texture of rocks due to changes in
pressure and temperature (metamorphism)
Lesson Minerals and their Physical and

2.1 Chemical Properties
Earth has naturally occurring materials we can consider essential to supporting life
and existence. Earth’s minerals that make up the soil, water, air, and organic matter are
important to the proliferation and survival of living organisms, as it influences the structure
of the landscape, and eventually the human civilization.
If Geology was a language
● Minerals = Letters of the Alphabet
● Rocks = Words
● Mineralogy – the study of minerals
● Mineralogist – Someone who studies minerals, their composition, uses and
properties
Physical Properties of Minerals

1. Color – The usual and most generic way to identify minerals easily. It is a result of
how the minerals absorb or reflect light. However, this property may not be used in
identifying minerals that are translucent to transparent minerals, because there may
be trace amounts of other minerals in them. Because of similarities and varieties of
minerals, color is the least reliable property to identify minerals.
9
MINERAL MINERAL MINERAL MINERAL COLOR
COLOR
Augite Brown, green, Black or Biotite Black, Brown or green
Purple
Calcite Pearlescent and Pale Colors Dolomite Colorless, pale pink, brown or
gray
Feldspar Yellow, White, Pink, Green Hematite Metallic Gray or Black

or Gray
Hornblende Green, yellow, brown and Limonite Black, brown or yellow

black
Sulfur Pale Gold
2. Streak – it is the color of the mineral in its pulverized form. For mineralogists to further
identify a mineral in circumstances in which there are trace particles inside them, they would
pulverize the mineral to get their true color. In this case, the color of the mineral becomes
more apparent and clearer. However, pulverizing minerals is a tedious process and the
minerals themselves may lose their integrity.
3. Hardness – this refers to the measure of a mineral’s resistance to scratching. To measure
the relative hardness of minerals, the Moh’s scale is used. It is said that the harder the
mineral is, the more resistant it is to scratch.
4. Cleavage and Fracture are used to describe how minerals break into smaller pieces.
Cleavage is the tendency to break along planes of weakness and it produces flat, shiny
surfaces. It is a break along a plane of weakness in the crystal lattice.
Fracture is when the mineral breaks in no consistent manner. This is because of equal bond
strength in all directions. A mineral exhibits fractures when it breaks in a certain direction
that has no cleavage.
5. Crystalline Structure or the Crystal Lattice determines how the crystal of a mineral is
arranged. A crystal solid is said to form a regular repeating 3-dimensional crystal lattice,
while an amorphous solid forms an aggregate that has no order or arrangement.
6. Transparency or Diaphaneity indicates the extent how much light can pass through the
mineral. It can be said that the transparency is dependent on the thickness of the mineral.
7.Magnetism indicates the ability of a mineral to attract or repel another mineral. (e,g.
Magnetite).
8. Tenacity is the level or resistance of minerals to stress such as crushing, bending, breaking,
or tearing.
9. Luster refers to the reaction of the mineral when a light strikes. It determines how brilliant
or dull the mineral is. The mineral can have a metallic, a pearly, glassy, or dull luster.
10. Odor is a distinct smell by a mineral that is usually released through a chemical reaction
when subject to different conditions such as water, heat, air or even friction. Sulfur for
example may smell like a lit-match and sometimes smell like rotten eggs when it is heated.
11. Specific Gravity is a measure of the density of a mineral. It is a ratio of how heavy the
mineral is by its weight to water. Specific gravity is used specifically when two minerals have
the same size or same color. The specific gravity of each mineral can distinguish them apart
from other minerals.
Chemical Properties of Materials

Another way of Identifying and classifying minerals is according to their chemical
composition. Minerals are divided into 8 basic classes
1. Silicate class – The largest and the most abundant group containing silicon and oxygen
with some aluminum, magnesium, iron, and calcium. Some minerals are feldspar, quartz,
pyroxene, mica, garnet, olivine, and amphibole.
2. Carbonate class – is mostly found deposited in marine environments Minerals belonging to
this group are from remains of shells of dead plankton or marine life. Other places in which
10
carbonates can be found are areas where there is dissolution of soluble rocks such as caves
where stalagmites and stalactites are formed. This class also includes nitrate and borate
minerals
3. Sulphate Class – the minerals that form in areas with high evaporation rates and where
salty waters slowly evaporate. During the process of evaporation, once the salty water
evaporates, what is left are minerals such as sulphates and halides. Some of the most
common sulphate minerals are anhydrite, Celestine, barite, and gypsum.
4. Halide class contains natural salts and includes fluorite, halite, sylvite and sal-ammoniac
components. These minerals usually form in landlocked bodies of water such as the Dead
Sea or the Great Salt Lake. Minerals in this class usually have low hardness, may be
transparent, have good cleavage, have low specific gravities and usually poor conductors of
electricity (when not dissolved in water).
5. Oxide Class - A diverse mineral group that contains minerals such as hematite and
gemstones such as chrysoberyl and spinel. These minerals are relevant to dating because
they contain clues about the history of the Earth’s magnetic Field. These minerals are formed
as precipitates close to the surface of the Earth or as products of oxidations of other minerals
due to weathering.
6.Sulphide Class contains economically significant metals such as copper, lead, and silver.
These minerals are mined for electrical wiring, industrial materials, and other construction
materials.
7. Phosphate class contains minerals that have phosphorus in them. The phosphates are
considered as an important biological mineral that is found in both teeth and bones of many
animals.
8. Native element class – Contains metals and intermetallic elements (gold, silver and
copper), semimetals, non-metals (e.g., antimony, bismuth, graphite, Sulphur) or natural
alloys and some components of few rare meteorites.
Activity 1.1: Physical Properties of Mineral

Directions: Look for the terms regarding Physical Properties of minerals in the word search
below and define them using your own words in a separate sheet of paper. Look for the terms
regarding Physical Properties of minerals in the word search below and define them using
your own words in a separate sheet of paper.
11
1. 2. 3.
4. 5. 6.
7. 8. 9.
10. 11. 12.
13. 14. 15.
Activity 1.2: Chemical Properties of Mineral

Directions: Solve the crossword puzzle with the knowledge based on the Chemical Properties
of Minerals.
12
Lesson Igneous Rocks: Rocks formed by
2.2 Fire
Rocks are natural resources that are formed from the aggregation of minerals due to
natural processes. Rocks are formed through a cyclic process in nature.
EARTH AS A SYSTEM: The Rock Cycle

Magma, molten rock primarily below the earth’s crust or upper mantle is formed due
to the internal heat of the earth. Once it is formed, the magma rises because it is less dense
than solid rock around it, and sometimes magma reaches the earth’s surface to become lava.
Since this molten rock on the earth’s surface undergoes a process known as crystallization
or solidification. This solidification may occur beneath the ground or following a volcanic
activity, on the surface of the earth, as a result, this gives rise to igneous rocks.
Once igneous rocks are exposed to the surface, they may undergo processes such as
weathering in which daily natural phenomena cause rocks to disintegrate or to decompose,
to form sediment. The sediment is carried by different erosional agents such as air or running
water to different places and may rest in an area. The rested particles are compacted and
begin to be converted in the process of lithification to form sedimentary rocks.
If the sedimentary rock becomes deeply buried or becomes involved in the mountain
formation, it undergoes change due to the intense pressure and heat, resulting in the third
form of rock known as metamorphic rocks.
If these rocks melt, the cycle begins once more, it is important to take note that these
processes do not occur overnight, these processes take thousands if not, millions of years.
Another thing, it is important to point out that the processes mentioned above are not
strictly a cycle and sometimes rocks and sediments may skip steps in the rock cycle to be
changed from one rock classification to another. Sedimentary rocks may immediately become
Igneous rocks if lithified sediments melt due to exposure to earth’s internal heat or
metamorphic Rocks may disintegrate and become sedimentary rocks. The rock cycle truly is
a dynamic natural phenomenon.
IGNEOUS ROCKS: FORMED BY FIRE

In the previous discussion of the rock cycle, we
learned that igneous rocks are formed from magma or
lava that cooled and solidified. Molten rock beneath the
ground is called magma, but once it reaches the
surface, it is considered lava. Magma and lava have
different chemical composition due to the exposure of
the latter to the air, enabling it to release some of the
gases and may have undergone some chemical changes
in the process
EXTRUSIVE VS INTRUSIVE Igneous Rocks

When molten rocks on a surface or lava per se, solidify
and crystallize, it is classified as extrusive or volcanic
(after the Roman Fire god, Vulcan) igneous rock.
Extrusive igneous rocks are abundant in areas that are
near to craters and volcanic side vents wherein lava may flow out and solidify it is exposed to
the air. On the other hand, solidified magma, or molten rock from beneath the surface
produces intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks.
13
Intrusive rocks are denser compared to Extrusive rocks which are more porous due
to presence of air packets due to exposure to air such as in the case of Pumice (A) which
makes it porous and less dense, Intrusive rocks such as granite (B) are more dense, coarse
grained and have large interlocking crystals due to being cooled beneath the ground.
RATE OF COOLING AND CRYSTAL FORMATION

As magma cools and solidifies, the once-mobile particles of the mineral arrange
themselves into orderly lattices or patterns in the process called crystallization. As the
cooling continues, bigger crystals form as small crystals meet and form bigger ones,
eventually turning into a solid mass of interlocking crystals. However, if the cooling process
is relatively fast, the crystals won’t have enough time to interlock, hence smaller crystals,
To summarize, slow cooling results in the formation of fewer, larger crystals. On the
other hand, if cooling occurs rapidly, less ions of minerals move. Therefore, rapid cooling
results in the formation of a solid mass of small intergrown crystals.
Activity 1: Explain me
Directions: Complete the diagram using the five words below. Explain the diagram in your
own words in another sheet of paper.
Explanation
14
Lesson Sedimentary Rocks and the
2.3 Rocks under Stress
Sedimentary rocks begin in the process of weathering of sediments and these

sediments are carried by erosional agents such as running water, wind, waves and glacial
ice to other locations where they may be deposited in different areas, and these sediments
undergo lithification or the process of compaction, compression and cementation of
sediments to turn them into rocks.
Geologists claim that even though the layers of sedimentary rocks are relatively thin
and discontinuous in the crust, most common rocks that we encounter are oftentimes
sedimentary since they form on the surface of the earth.
Sedimentary rocks give clues to previous forms of life and settings to ancient times.
The sediments exhibit characteristics that allow scientists to analyze the composition of the
sediments and its transport, giving clues to the past. Furthermore, because of these,
sedimentary rocks sometimes contain fossils which are vital in the study of the geological
past.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Clastic / Detrital sedimentary rocks – these rocks are formed due to mechanical
cementation of weathered sediments and debris. They are classified based on the particle size
of their sediments such as mud for siltstone and shale, sand for sandstone and bigger
sediments for conglomerate and breccia.
Chemical sedimentary rocks – are formed from sediments left behind by the process of
evaporation or when dissolved minerals precipitate from a solution. Some examples are rock
salt chert and some limestones.
Organic sedimentary rocks are sedimentary rocks that contain remains of prehistoric life
and is formed by sediments make of organic matter. Coal is an example of organic
sedimentary rock. Coal and Coquina are examples of organic sedimentary rocks
Activity 1: Analyze me
Directions: Analyze the situation below and answer the questions that follow.
“A student classified the rock below as sedimentary. What are the observations
about the rock that will best support this classification?”
15
Lesson Metamorphic Rocks and the
2.4 Changes they undergo
Metamorphic rocks (“meta” meaning “change” and “morph” meaning “form”) are
rocks that are derived from either Igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks, that are exposed to
tremendous pressure or high Temperature or combination of these two. Because of these
extreme conditions, these rocks’ minerals undergo certain chemical and physical changes;
however, these rocks do not melt and retain their solid shape.
Metamorphism is a process that changes the materials in a rock. The chemical
changes and geologic characteristics of the rock changed due to either its exposure to heat
or pressure or both. The minerals in the rock can change even if the rock does not melt. It
must also be noted that changes caused by weathering and sedimentation does not count as
metamorphism.
Metamorphism can range from slight changes known as low-grade metamorphism to
substantial changes known as High-grade metamorphism. Example of low-grade
metamorphism is the sedimentary rock, shale, is transformed into a more compact rock
known as slate. This shows that effects of metamorphism are GRADUAL, and changes can
be very subtle. While on the other hand, the metamorphism can be so extreme that the parent
rock, or the original rock cannot be determined because fossils imprints, vesicles, layers of
bedding planes are all drastically changed.
In the most extreme metamorphic settings, the temperatures approach melting points
for the rocks, but it is important to point out that, in the occurrence of metamorphism, the
rock remains in its entirety in solid form. If the rock melts, it can be considered as igneous
rock formation, or magmatism.
Metamorphism is said to be classified into two settings.
1. Contact Metamorphism or Thermal Metamorphism occurs when a rock is intruded by
magma, and in such circumstances, the change is caused by the increase in temperature
within the rock that is near the magma.
2. Regional Metamorphism occurs when great quantities of rocks are subjected to pressures
and high temperatures during a large-scale deformation during mountain formation.
16
Activity 1: Know me well
Directions: MODIFIED TRUE OR FALSE, Write True if the statement is true or if it is false,
change the bold word/s.
1. Metamorphic came from two root words meta meaning “change” and morph
meaning “color”.
2. Metamorphic rocks usually happen in the interior of the earth.
3. The effects of metamorphism in rocks are fast and drastic.
4. An example of high-grade metamorphism is the sedimentary rock, shale to
a compact slate.
5. In metamorphism, the rock must remain in solid form while undergoing
changes.
6. In rocks in the bottom of the crust, metamorphism produces folds due to
high temperature and extreme pressure.
7. Regional metamorphism is characterized by close exposure to magma
8. Magmatism occurs to produce igneous rocks.
9. Slate is an example of metamorphic rock.
10. Weathering is not considered as a form of metamorphism.
Only 27 out of 50 mining sites are practicing regulations when it comes to the
environmental standards set by the Department of Natural Resources. Indiscriminate mining
exposes minerals that may have adverse effects to the environment and may pose health
problems to people living in the vicinity and to the wildlife in the area. As your response to
these issues, you will write an expository speech about your stand in keeping the mining
industry in the Philippines. You may take a video of yourself delivering your speech or post
your speech to different social media to promote awareness and persuade the others to voice
out their concerns regarding environmental issues in the country today. (Note: Your teacher
will use rubric in assessing your output).
MODULE 3
the nature of Earth and Life Science. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many
different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of
students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the
using.
The module is divided into two lessons, namely:
● Lesson 3.1 – Earth’s Internal Heat
● Lesson 3.2 – Formation of Magma
17
● Identify where the internal heat of the earth is coming from
● Explain how heat is distributed on Earth
● Describe the formation of magma
● Cite the effects of magmatism
● Demonstrate appreciation on the different landscapes that the magma formation
creates.
Lesson
Earth’s Internal Heat
3.1
Internal Heat of the Earth

The three main layers of the Earth with its composition
1. Crust is made of solid rocks and minerals that hold the structure of the Earth’s surface.
2. Mantle is made up of solid rocks, minerals and semi-solid magma found in the
asthenosphere.
3. Core is made up of radioactive nickel and iron. It is considered as the hottest part of the
Earth due to the decay of these substances.
Mantle convection is the movement of the mantle as heat from the core is transferred to the
crust of the Earth. This movement drives most of the geological processes.
The thermal heat from mantle convection is not felt on the Earth’s surface because it is
counteracted by the solar radiation from the sun.
Activity 1: What’s Hot

Materials: Ice cube, glass and salt
Procedure:
1. Put 2 ice cubes inside the glass.
2. Put a teaspoon of salt on top of the ice cubes
3. Leave the set-up for 2 hours.
4. Observe what happens to the ice cubes.
Questions:
1. What have you observed after 2 hours? Give a detailed description of the before and
after state of the ice cubes.
2. How does the experiment relate to the heat from the mantle and the core?
3. If the core and mantle is hot, why is the heat from these layers not felt in the Earth’s
surface?
18
Lesson
Magmatism
3.2
The formation of magma is said to be responsible for the formation of the Earth’s
surface. Below is the picture that depicts the uplifting or rising of magma. What are the
possible structures or landforms that can be produced in the following points?
Magma is formed from the partial melting of silicate rock on the lower portion of the
crust and upper portion of the mantle due to extremely high temperature and pressure of
these layers.
Magmatism is the motion of magma that is responsible for production of additional
mass and volume forming the Earth’s surface.
Plutonism is the formation of intrusive igneous or plutonic rocks that rise in the Earth’s
surface due to the force that pulls the crust apart called uplifting. These intrusive rocks are
made from solidification of magma beneath the Earth’s surface.
Volcanism is the process of uplifting of hot molten magma in an opening in the earth’s
crust called volcano. The magma reaches the surface of the Earth it will be called lava, as it
cools and solidifies it form extrusive igneous rocks.
Example of a landform as an effect of magma formation
Mt. Banahaw is located in Sta. Lucia Dolores Quezon is one of the highest, complex
stratovolcanoes located in south and east of Manila. Mt. Banahaw has been considered an
inactive volcano since the 1700's.
Photo taken by the author of Mt. Banahaw last June 1, 2020
The picture above was taken by the author as an example of Intrusive and Extrusive igneous rock that
can be found in the trail of Mt. Banahaw.
19
Activity 2: Follow me
Materials: Big transparent plastic food container (22.5 cm Length x 15.0 cm Width), mug or
cup, hot water, food coloring, irregular shaped cardboards, and books.
Procedures:
1. Put the food container in between piles of books for support. Fill the food container
with ¾ of water. (Shown in the illustration below)
food container with Books or anything

water to support the food
container
2. Put hot water in the mug and place it under the food container. Keep in mind the
precautionary methods in handling hot substances, adult supervision is advised.
(shown in the illustration below)
3. Place a drop (if the liquid) or a pinch (if solid) of food color in the water in the container.
Make sure that the food color will drop where the hot temperature is or on top of the
mug. (Shown by the illustration below)
4. Observe what happens and draw the movement of the food coloring using arrows in
the box below.
20
5. Put the irregular shaped cardboards on top of the water. Observe what will happen.
Questions:
1. What have you observed in the movement of the food coloring in the water? Give a
detailed observation of the direction of the food color as it moves in the container.
2. What do you think is the reason behind the movement of the food color in the water?
Hint: you can discuss it by its density and water temperature.
3. How is the experiment connected with the formation of magma inside the Earth?)
4. What do you observe when you put the cardboards on top of the water?
5. What do you think are the effects of the continuous heat transfers from the core to
the crust? (Suppose that the heat transfer is the movement of the food coloring, and
the crust is the cardboards).
Directions: The picture above is the map of the distribution of volcanoes in the Philippines.
Guide questions:
1. What do you observe with the distribution of

volcanoes in the Philippines?
2. How can the distribution of volcanoes affect the

landforms in the Philippines?
3. The Philippines is known to have a good

landscape according to the Travel and Tourism
Competitiveness Report. Do you think this
tourism comment has a connection with the
distribution of volcanoes in the country?
MODULE 4
the nature of Earth and Life Science. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many
using.
● Lesson 4.1 – Metamorphism of Rocks
21
● Lesson 4.2 – Formation of different type of Igneous Rocks
● Differentiate the formation of igneous rocks.
● Identify the changes in mineral component and texture of rocks due to pressure and
temperature.
● Create a simulation of the different stress on the Earth’s crust.
● Describe how rocks behave under different stress.
● Identify the effects of these stresses on the Earth's crust.
Lesson
Metamorphism of Rocks
4.1
Metamorphism of Rocks
Rocks can be classified as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks
form when rocks are heated to the melting point which forms magma. Sedimentary rocks are
formed from the cementing together of sediments, or from the compaction (squeezing
together) of sediments, or from the recrystallization of new mineral grains. Metamorphic rocks
form from heat and pressure changing the original or parent rock into a completely new rock.
The parent rock can be either sedimentary, igneous, or even another metamorphic rock. The
word "metamorphic" comes from Greek and means "To Change Form" or “To Transform in”.
Sedimentary rocks
The Rock Cycle
Heat and Pressure
Igneous rocks Metamorphic rocks
Melting Lava
Types of Metamorphism
1. Contact metamorphism- a process where the country rocks (rocks surrounding
igneous intrusion) adjacent to the igneous intrusion (formed when molten magma
moves and seeps through fracture and in between crystals of rocks.) is altered by high
heat coming from the intrusion. Example is the marble mostly found in Mindoro.
2. Dynamic metamorphism- rocks along the fault zones are altered due to high pressure.
An Example is mylonites in Five finger Beach in Bataan.
3. Regional metamorphism- most common form occurs in broad areas. This caused by
high temperature and pressure resulted from thickening of the crust and tectonic
plates.
22
Activity 1: All About Rocks
Part I.
Directions: Complete the table below to compare the three categories of rocks.
Name of rock Definition Drawing or picture
Igneous rock
Sedimentary rock
Metamorphic rock
Part II.
Directions: Complete the Graphic organizer below to compare and contrast the types of rock
metamorphisms.
Regional
Contact Dynamic
Types of
Metamorphism
Differences
process where the country rocks Differences
(rocks surrounding igneous Differences
intrusion) adjacent to the rocks along the fault zones
igneous intrusion (formed when most common from occurs in are altered due to high
molten magma moves and seeps broad areas. This caused by pressure
through fracture and in between high temperature and
crystals of rocks.) is altered by pressure resulted from
high heat coming from the thickening of the crust and
intrusion. tectonic plates.
Lesson Formation of different Types of

4.2 Igneous Rocks
Igneous comes from the Latin word “ignis” which means heat or fire. It is formed from
magma or lava that solidifies.
Two types of Igneous Rocks
1. Plutonic igneous rocks
23
● intrusive igneous rocks that are
formed below the Earth’s surface.
● It is the magma or lava that is harden
before an eruption occurs
● Example of this is granite used for
floors, tiles or monuments. It is coarse
and has rock materials embedded as
its cools.
2. Volcanic igneous rocks

● Extrusive igneous rocks that are
formed above the Earth’s surface.
● It is the lava that cools and solidifies
on the Earth’s surface after a volcanic
eruption.
● Example of this is basalt used in
construction, pavements, railroads, or
road base. It is finer as large crystals
formed on rocks.
How igneous rocks are formed. Credit:
Wikipedia Commons/Jasmin Ros
Types of Stress in the Earth’s Crust
1. Compression- caused rocks to push or collide with each other. Rocks come together
or plate rises. This can create mountains and hills.
Picture 1.1 shows the movements of igneous rocks under compression stress. Picture 1.2 shows
one of the dried Set-up A, that depicts a rise of each stack of papers were push together. Picture
1.3 shows the Chocolate Hills in Bohol that is an example manifestation of compression stress.
2. Tension- force pulls the rocks away from each other. These forces created continents
to drift and formed ocean mid ranges. Moved oceanic plates away from each other
resulted in the rising of less dense rocks coming from the mantle.
Picture 2.1 shows the movements of igneous rocks under tension stress. Picture 2.2 shows the
result of Set-up b, that depicts the stretch of papers where pressed in the middle.
3. Shear Force- pushes the crust in different directions. Resulted in breaking of large
parts into smaller sizes. The force happens along plate boundaries (location where two
plates meet). Plates that move opposite to each other create friction that will lead to
the shaking of the Earth’s crust or earthquakes.
24
Picture 3.1 shows the movements of igneous rocks under shear stress. Picture 3.2 shows
the result of Set-up c, that depicts the different layers of the paper when you push the
upper and lower portion of the stack. Picture 3.3 shows the destruction of houses as an
effect in the Bohol earthquake.
Activity 1: Compare Me!

Directions: Using a Venn diagram gives the comparison and contrast between intrusive
igneous rocks and extrusive igneous rocks.
Intrusive Igneous Rocks Extrusive Igneous Rocks
Artwork Time!
Materials: Strips of used paper, coloring materials (highlighters, crayons, pentel pens etc.),
glue, rubber bands, paper clips and sequence used in fabrics.
Procedures:
1. Cut the used papers into strips (1-inch strips).
2. Color the sides of the strips with your coloring materials that can form different
layers. (see picture below as your guide).
25
3. Three set-ups with these stacks of strip papers.
a. First stack of paper
a.1. Put a sequence in between paper and glue each strip of paper.
a.2. While drying, push each end of the paper, put rubber bands on the
structure that it will create.
a.3. Dry the structure for 2 hours or at least all glue is dried up.
(See the picture below as your guide)
a.4. observe what happens and answer the questions after the set-up.
b. Second stack of paper

b.1. glue the strips of paper together.
b.2. put paper clips to press the middle of the papers
b.3. dry the stack of paper for 2 hours or at least the whole glue is dried up. (see
the picture below as your guide)
b.4. observe what happens and answer the questions after the set-up.
c. Third stack of paper

c.1. pull the first colored stack of papers and push the last-colored stack of
papers
c.3. put glue on each stack of papers.
c.4. dry for 2 hours of at least all the glue dried up (see the picture as your guide
below)
c.5. observe what happens and answer the questions after the set-up.
26
Observation
Complete the table by giving your observation to the dried art form
Set-up Picture What is the What is the If this happens to
description of direction of the rocks on Earth,
the finished force? what do you
paper think is its
structure manifestation?
created?
a. First stack of papers
b. Second stack of
papers
c. Third stack of papers
MODULE 5
This module introduces the concept of Earth’s geologic processes that occur within
the Earth, folding and faulting, plate tectonics and how the planet Earth evolved in the last
4.6 billion years. The students are expected to demonstrate knowledge on plate movement
that leads to the formation of folds and faults, formation of stratified rocks, method of relative
and absolute to determine the age of stratified rocks. Each activity is given with exercises to
allow the students to have the grasp of the discussion with a range of knowledge-based
questions to process their higher-order thinking skills and constructively make them get
meaning about the lessons learned.
● Explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds and faults.
● Describe how layers of stratified rocks are formed.
● Describe the different methods to determine the age of stratified rocks.
Lesson
Faults, Folds and Rocks
5
Diastrophism
The Earth surface is in constant motion because of the forces acting on its surface
and within it that can be both direct and indirect. Evidence of crustal movement comes in
many forms in earth’s crust. It can be a large-scale deformation of Earth’s crust by natural
processes, which leads to the formation of continents and ocean basins, mountain systems,
plateaus, rift valleys, and other features by mechanisms such as lithospheric plate
movement, volcanic loading or folding.
The plates are moving in slow, continuous motion with respect to each other. Currents
within the hot, molten interior of the earth, produced thermal convection and earth’s rotation.
In some areas, the plates are being driven apart as new molten materials are upward between
the plates. In other regions, the plates slide past each other. In other situations, the plates
27
are pushed directly into each other in the subduction zone. Causing one plate to slide beneath
the other. The movement of the plates causes earthquakes and fractures called faults.
Faults
A planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock across wherein there has been
significant displacement because of rock-mass movement.
Types of Faults
1. Strike-slip faults are vertical fractures where the blocks have mostly moved horizontally.
If the block opposite an observer looking across the fault moves to the right, the slip style is
termed right lateral; if the block moves to the left, the motion is termed left lateral.
2. Dip-slip faults are inclined fractures where the blocks have mostly shifted vertically. If the
rock mass above an inclined fault moves down, the fault is termed normal, whereas if the
rock above the fault moves up, the fault is termed reverse.
3. A transform fault is a special variety of strike-slip fault that accommodates relative
horizontal slip between other tectonic elements, such as oceanic crustal plates. Often extend
from oceanic ridges. The San Andreas fault is an example of this type.
Folds
When one or more originally bent surfaces are bent or curved as the result of
permanent deformation. A fold is when one or more originally bent surfaces are bent or
curved as the result of permanent deformation.
Types of Folds
1. Anticline: Linear with dip away from the center
2. Syncline: Linear with dip towards the center
3. Monocline: Linear with dip in one direction between horizontal layers on each side.
Types of Faults and Folds

Stratification of Rocks
The layers can be found in most sedimentary rocks and in those igneous rocks formed
at the Earth’s surface, as from lava flows and volcanic fragmental deposits. The layers range
from several millimeters to many meters in thickness and vary greatly in shape. Strata may
range from thin sheets that cover many square kilometers to thick lens-like bodies that
extend only a few meters laterally. Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic tends to occur in
different characteristics and structures. Some rocks have definite layers or beds called strata
are called stratified rocks. On the other hand, rocks that show no apparent strata are said to
be massive or unstratified.
Most sedimentary rocks are stratified. The strata appear along the surfaces or bending
planes. Stratification in sedimentary rocks may result from changes in texture or composition
28
during deposition; it also may result from pauses in deposition that allow the older deposits
to undergo changes before additional sediments cover them. A sequence of strata, therefore,
may appear as alternations of coarse and fine particles, as a series of color changes resulting
from differences in mineral composition, or merely as layers of similar aspect separated by
distinct planes of parting. Igneous rocks are massive or unstratified. But in some instances,
the lava flows may show stratification within the beds of volcanic dust laying between the
layers of the lava. Metamorphic may either be stratified or unstratified depending on the
composition and environmental conditions which it formed.
The most common cause of stratification is variation in the transporting ability of the
depositing agent. Water and wind sort sediments according to size, weight, and shape of
particles, and these sediments settle in layers of relative homogeneity. Differences in sediment
composition resulting from different sources, and variation in sediment brought about by
change in agents of deposition
Rock Age Determination

Age determination of rocks and minerals are based on radioactivity of certain chemical
elements that occur within them. Measurements of rock ages have enabled geologists to
reconstruct the geologic history of the earth from the time of formation ago to the present.
Relative dating and absolute dating are the methods to determine the age of a rock.
Relative dating is used to arrange geological events, and the rocks they leave behind,
in a sequence. Relative dating determined rock age in a temporal sequence by noting their
position in the layers called strata. By studying and comparing strata. Relative dating does
not provide actual numerical dates for the rocks.
Absolute dating methods, sometimes called numerical dating, give rocks an actual
date, or date range, in the number of years. This is different to relative dating, which only
puts geological events in time order. Most absolute dates for rocks are obtained with
radiometric methods. These use radioactive minerals in rocks as geological clocks. The atoms
of some chemical elements have different forms, called isotopes. These break down over time
in a process which is called radioactive decay. Each original isotope, called the parent,
gradually decays to form a new isotope, called the daughter. Each isotope is identified with
what is called a ‘mass number’. When ‘parent’ uranium-238 decays, for example, it produces
subatomic particles, energy, and ‘daughter’ lead-206.
Relative Dating and Geological Time Scales

Relative dating can be used to reconstruct the geologic history of an area. Law of
Superposition states that in any undisturbed sequence of rocks deposited in layers, the
youngest layer is on top and the oldest on bottom, each layer being younger than the one
beneath it and older than the one above it.
Subdivisions of the Geologic Time Scale
• Eons: fundamental stages in the planet’s evolution
• Archean, Proterozoic, Phanerozoic, Precambrian
● Eras: long intervals separated by major extinction events
• Paleozoic (“ancient life”), Mesozoic (“middle life”), Cenozoic (“recent life”)
• Periods
• Shorter intervals of time subdividing eras
• Examples: Devonian Period of the Paleozoic Era, Jurassic Period of the Mesozoic Era
• Epochs
• Index fossils subdivide periods
Geologic Time Scale can also be determined by absolute dating and provide dates for
the beginning of each time division. In absolute dating the unstable parent isotopes break
down spontaneously to stable daughter isotopes for example U238 -Pb206; K40- Ar40; C14-
N14. The Decay Rate determined from the ratio of daughter isotope produced to remaining
parent isotope.
29
Activity 1: It’s a Match
Direction: Identify which of the following faults is being described in the statements below.
Write the CAPITAL letter on the space provided. Then write the correct name of fault in each
illustration below.
A. Normal Fault B. Reverse Fault C. Strike-slip fault D. Transform
_____________1. A vertical fracture where the blocks have mostly moved
horizontally.
_____________2. In this type of fault, rocks slide past each other in opposite
direction.
_____________3. In this type of fault, rock generally moves down. (normal)
_____________4. This type of fault generally moves up. (reverse)
_____________5. The San Andreas fault is an example of this type
6 7
8 9
Activity: Make your own folds and faults

This activity shows how folded and faulted rocks can provide evidence of the size and
direction of the forces which produced the deformation.
Materials: Board, Plastic Box, Sand and Flour

Procedure:
1. Place the board vertically inside one end of the box.
2. Build up several thin layers of flour and sand. Do not fill it more than half-full. Only thin
layers of flour are needed, sprinkled along the front of the box alone, in order to save flour
and to allow the materials to be reused several times.
3. Very carefully, push the vertical board across the box, so that it begins to compress the
layers.
30
4. When you notice the layers beginning to bend, stop pushing the board.
5. Continue pushing the layers with the board until the sand is about to overflow the box.
Guide Questions:
1. After pushing, are the layers still horizontal, or are they folded?
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. Did one set of layers slide over the rest?

__________________________________________________________________________________
3. What causes the sliding and folding of the layers?

__________________________________________________________________________________
4. Describe the deformation of the layers after pushing?

__________________________________________________________________________________
5. How are rocks folded?

__________________________________________________________________________________
6. What happens when rocks don't fold?

__________________________________________________________________________________
Adapted from: The science education unit. (2012). Make your own folds and faults. Earth
Science Educator. https://www.earthscienceeducation.com/taster/Deformation.pdf.
MODULE 6
the concept of the different hazards caused by geological processes such as earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, and landslides. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many
using. The students are expected to explain the various hazards that may happen in the event
of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.
● Define earthquakes, volcanic eruption, and landslides.
● Describe the various hazards that may happen in the event of earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and landslides.
31
Lesson
Geological Hazards
6
Earthquakes
Earthquake is any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic
waves through Earth’s rock. Seismic waves are produced when some form of energy stored
in Earth’s crust is suddenly released, usually when masses of rock straining against one
another suddenly fracture and “slip.” Earthquakes occur most often along geologic faults,
narrow zones where rock masses move in relation to one another. The major fault lines of the
world are located at the fringes of the huge tectonic plates that make up Earth’s crust.
Causes of Earthquakes
1. Crustal plates
The plates are moving in slow and continual motion with respect to each other.
Currents within the hot, molten interior of the earth produced by thermal convection and
earth’s rotation underlie the plate movement. The different motion of the plates causes rocks
to fracture along faults creating earthquakes. Almost 95% of earthquakes occur on the edges
of interacting plates.
2. Man-made quakes
Seismologists believed that both man-made reservoirs and deep wells lead to an
increase in the pore-water pressure of underlying rocks, lessening their tensile strength. An
increase in water content may lubricate already existing zones and fractures that may lead
to active faulting.
Hazards of Earthquakes
1. Ground shaking is a result of the passage of seismic waves through the ground, and ranges
from quite gentle in small earthquakes to incredibly violent in large earthquakes.
2. Liquefaction is the mixing of sand or soil and groundwater during the shaking of a
moderate or strong earthquake. When the water and soil are mixed, the ground becomes very
soft and acts like quicksand. If liquefaction occurs under a building, it may start to lean, tip
over, or sink several feet. The ground firms up again after the earthquake has passed and the
water has settled back down to its usual place deeper in the ground. Liquefaction is a hazard
in areas that have groundwater near the surface and sandy soil.
3. Seiches are long-period oscillations of the water due to large and generally far distant
earthquakes.
4. Surface rupture- is the visible offset of the ground surface when an earthquake rupture
along a fault affects the Earth's surface.
5. Tsunami- a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume
of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake.
Intensity Vs. Magnitude

There are two easy ways to describe the strength of an earthquake. One method is by
observing and documenting the behaviors and reactions of people, damages to structures and
land surfaces This is the intensity of the earthquakes. In the Philippines we use a modified
Rossi-Forel Earthquake intensity scale. Using a scale of 9. Intensity I is the weakest while
intensity IX is the strongest.
The other method of describing the strength of an earthquake is through magnitude.

It is based on an instrument that gives information and correlates the strength with the
32
amount of total energy released at the earthquake's point of origin. Magnitude is calculated
mathematically using the amount and duration of movements that ground vibration causes
on the needle of a standard seismograph.
Here are some identified earthquake generators in the Philippines
a. Philippine Trench
b. East Luzon trench
c. Manila Trench
d. Collisional Zone between Palawan and Mindoro
e. Negros Trench
f. Collisional Zone between Zamboanga peninsula and Western Mindanao
g. Sulu Trench
h. Cotabato Trench
Earthquake generators in the Philippines
Volcanic Eruptions
Volcano is ventured in the crust of the Earth from which eruptions of molten rock,
hot rock fragments, and hot gases are released. A volcanic eruption can cause disaster. A
volcanic eruption begins with an accumulation of gas-rich magma in reservoirs near the
surface of the Earth; they can be preceded by emissions of steam and gas from small vents
in the ground. Swarms of small earthquakes, which may be caused by a rising plug of dense,
viscous magma oscillating against a sheath of more-permeable magma, may also signal
volcanic eruptions, especially explosive ones. In some cases, magma rises to the surface as a
thin and fluid lava, either flowing out continuously or shooting straight up in glowing
fountains or curtains. In other cases, entrapped gases tear the magma into shreds and hurl
viscous clots of lava into the air. In more violent eruptions, the magma conduit is cored out
by an explosive blast, and solid fragments are ejected in a great cloud of ash-laden gas that
rises tens of thousands of meters into the air.
Hazards of Volcanic Eruptions

1. Lava Flows
Lava is molten rock that flows out of a volcano or volcanic vent. Depending on its
composition and temperature, lava can be very fluid or very viscous. Fluid flows are hotter
and move the fastest; they can form streams or rivers or spread out across the landscape in
lobes. Most lava flows can be easily avoided by a person on foot, since they don't move much
faster than walking speed, but a lava flow usually cannot be stopped or diverted. Because
lava flows are extremely hot - between 1,000-2,000°C (1,800 - 3,600° F) - they can cause
severe burns and often burn down vegetation and structures. Lava flowing from a vent also
creates enormous amounts of pressure, which can crush or bury whatever survives being
burned.
33
2. Pyroclastic Density Currents
Pyroclastic density currents are explosive eruptive phenomena. They are mixtures of
pulverized rock, ash, and hot gases, and can move at speeds of hundreds of miles per hour.
These currents can be diluted, as in pyroclastic surges, or concentrated, as in pyroclastic
flows. They are gravity-driven, which means that they flow down slopes. A pyroclastic surge
is a dilute, turbulent density current that usually forms when magma interacts explosively
with water. A pyroclastic flow is a concentrated avalanche of material, often from a collapse
of a lava dome or eruption column, which creates massive deposits that range in size from
ash to boulders.
4. Lahars
Lahars are a specific kind of mudflow made up of volcanic debris. They can form in
several situations: when small slope collapses gather water on their way down a volcano,
through rapid melting of snow and ice during an
eruption, from heavy rainfall on loose volcanic debris,
when a volcano erupts through a crater lake, or when
a crater lake drains because of overflow or wall
collapse.
5. Gases
Volcanic gases are probably the least showy
part of a volcanic eruption, but they can be one of an
eruption's most deadly effects. Most of the gas
released in an eruption is water vapor (H2O), and
relatively harmless, but volcanoes also produce
carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen
sulfide (H2S), fluorine gas (F2), hydrogen fluoride (HF),
and other gases.
Distribution of Active and Inactive

Volcanoes in the Philippines
LANDSLIDES
Landslide, also called landslip, is the movement of a mass of rock, debris, earth, or
soil (soil being a mixture of earth and debris). Landslides occur when gravitational and other
types of shear stresses within a slope exceed the shear strength of the materials that form
the slope.
Types of Landslides
Landslides are generally classified by type of movement such as slides, flows, spreads,
topples, or falls. The type of material can be rock or debris. Sometimes more than one type
of movement occurs within a single landslide, and, because the temporal and spatial
relationships of these movements are often complex, their analysis often requires detailed
interpretation of both landforms and geological sections, or cores. Steep slope, lack
of vegetation, weakening of previously strong rock by weathering, presence of relict
structures, open fractures and overloading of slope are the contributing factors that cause
landslides.
There are common forms of landslide, and it includes the following:

• translation slide- bedding, fractures and foliation of planes
• rotational slide- the soil slumped on the surface.
• Fall- The soil or rocks fall from the higher to lower ground.
• Flow- Rapid movement of mixture of rock/soil with a significant component
of water or air.
• Complex- Landslide that started out as a slump and develop into debris flow
near the base.
• Creep- Layered bedrock bend down the slope hazards involving landslides.
34
Activity— Geological Disaster study
Create a case study of a Geographical Disaster. You may choose ONE geological
disaster in the option. Supply the case form with needed information. You may use books or
the internet to complete this task.
Options
• Mt. Pinatubo 1991 eruption
• Cherry Hills Subdivision landslide incidents
• Luzon quake, 1990
• Bohol earthquake, 2014
• Guinsaugon landslide, 2006
Geological Disaster: ________________________________________________
Date of Occurrence: _______________________________________________
Background of the Disaster:
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Effects of the Disaster:
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Mitigation Measures:
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Activity: Be Alert, Stay Safe!

Directions: Staying alert could save lives. In this activity you will make an infographic about
disaster preparedness and print it or draw it on short bond paper. Then, discuss your
infographic with your family. Take a photo while doing it and send the output (infographic
and pictures) to your teacher. An example of an infographic from
https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php/2-uncategorised/7871-infographic is provided
below.
35
MODULE 7
identifying areas prone to hazards caused by Geologic processes. The scope of this module
permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the
diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence
of the course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with the
textbook you are now using.
● Lesson 7.1 Areas prone to earthquake, volcanic activity and landslides using hazard
maps
● Lesson 7.2 Human activities that triggers landslides
● Using hazard maps, identify areas prone to hazards brought by earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and landslides
● Create earthquake, volcanic eruption, and landslide preparedness plan
● Determine human activities that speed up or trigger landslides; and
● Cite practical solutions on how to lessen or prevent landslides
Lesson Areas prone to earthquake,

volcanic activity and landslides
7.1
using hazard maps
Geologic processes such as earthquakes, volcanic eruption and landslides may cause
different hazards both to humans and the environment.
Using hazard maps, let us identify the areas in the country prone to earthquake, volcanic
eruption and landslides.
In which part of the Philippines do you think are prone to earthquakes? a volcanic
eruption? landslides?
A. Earthquake Hazard Map and Earthquake Preparedness
Can you locate Metro Manila? Is it prone
to earthquake?
According to a study conducted by
PHIVOLCS the top ten provinces that are
prone to earthquake are the following:
Surigao Del Sur La Union
Benguet Pangasinan
Pampanga Tarlac
Ifugao Davao Oriental
Nueva Vizcaya Nueva Ecija
Picture source: Mapping Philippine Vulnerability to Hazards. (n.d)
36
Risk To Earthquake. Retrieved from http://vm.observatory.ph/geophys_maps.html
Metro Manila is not on the list, however; according to DOST-PHIVOLCS a 7.2
magnitude earthquake from the West Valley Fault, a 100-kilometer fault that runs through
six cities in Metro Manila and nearby provinces may put Metro Manila vulnerable to
earthquakes. Residents of Metro Manila and nearby provinces are expected to prepare for the
“The Big One”
EARTHQUAKE PREPAREDNESS
What to Do Before an Earthquake
1. Learn first aid.
2. Develop a Family Disaster Plan
3. Follow structural design of homes and buildings.
4. Anchor heavy objects inside the house to prevent it from falling.
5. Know the earthquake plan at your school, workplace and community.
What to Do During an Earthquake
1. Drop, cover and hold. Keep yourself safe.
2. Stay calm. If you are indoors, stay inside. If you are outside, stay at your place.
3. Move into an open space away from anything that might fall on you if you are
outside
What to Do After an Earthquake
1. Be prepared for aftershocks.
2. If you need to evacuate your place, do so.
3. Check yourself. Check everything around you.
4. Keep updated on disaster instructions in your community.
B. Active Volcano Hazard Map and Volcanic Eruption Preparedness

The Philippines is home to 24 active volcanoes. Volcanic eruptions can cause
different hazards that may affect lives and the environment.
Which places in the Philippines are prone to volcanic eruptions? Let’s take a look.
Can you locate active volcanoes near Metro

Manila? What are these volcanoes?
Mt. Pinatubo and Taal are two active volcanoes

that are near and within Metro Manila.
Residents near volcano should always be

prepared on any eruptions that may take place.
Picture source: Volcanoes of the Philippines (2016). Retrieved from

https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph
What to Do During a Volcanic Eruption

1. Use a mask to cover your mouth and nose.
2. Avoid low lying areas due to possible lava or mud flows.
3. Follow any evacuation orders by authorities in your area.
4. Close windows, doors and dampers to keep volcanic ash from entering.
What to Do After a Volcanic Eruption
1. Continue listening to news for latest information about the eruption.
2. Inspect and clean your home. Clear roofs of ash fall.
3. If evacuated, return to your home when it is already safe to do so.
37
C. LANDSLIDES Hazard Map and Landslide Preparedness
Landslide happens when there is a movement of rocks, soil or debris down a slope. Which
places in the Philippines are prone to landslides? What is common in those places?
TOP TEN LANDSLIDE PRONE AREAS IN THE

PHILIPPINES
Benguet (90.3%)
Mt. Province (87.1%)
Nueva Viscaya (86.7%)
Kalinga Apayao (84.7%)
Southern Leyte (82.7%)
Abra (82.1%)
Marinduque (78.6%)
Cebu (77.8%)
Catanduanes (77.4%)
Ifugao (77.3%)
Landslides are common to high elevated places
such as mountains. Places where there are
denuded forest and are prone to flash floods.
Picture source: Top 10 Most Landslide Prone Provinces. (August 13, 2013) . Retrieved from
http://philippinegeographic.blogspot.com/
LANDSLIDE PREPAREDNESS
What to Do Before a Landslide
1. Get a ground assessment of your property.
2. Learn about emergency response and family evacuation plans.
3. Avoid building houses or any infrastructures near steep slopes.
What to do During a Landslide
1. Evacuate if needed.
2. Be aware of possible earthquakes.
3. Stay alert. Be cautious of your surroundings.
4. Listen to any unusual sound that might indicate moving debris.
What to Do After a Landslide
1. Stay away from the landslide area.
2. Check for any injured or trapped person near the slide.
3. Listen to local news and information about the landslide.
4. Check the building or house foundation and your surroundings for any land
damage.
Activity 1: Be Safe, Be Alert!

Directions: Identify if the practice is for earthquake preparedness, volcanic eruption,
landslide or applied to all. Write A for earthquake preparedness, B for volcanic eruption, C
for landslide and D if applied to all.
___ 1. Wear a mask to cover your nose and mouth against ashfall.
___ 2. Check the building or house foundation for any land damage.
___ 3. Avoid building houses on steep slopes.
___ 4. Drop, cover and hold.
___ 5. Develop a family disaster plan.
___ 6. Anchor heavy objects inside the house to avoid falling.
___ 7. Evacuate if necessary.
38
___ 8. Listen to any unusual sound that might indicate movement of debris.
___ 9. Avoid low lying areas for possible mudflow.
___ 10. Always listen to news and updates on possible hazards.
Lesson Human Activities that Trigger

7.2 Landslide
A landslide is the movement of rock, earth, or debris down a sloped section of land.
Landslides are caused by rain, earthquakes, volcanoes, or other factors that make the slope
unstable.
Landslides occur in a variety of environments, characterized by either steep or gentle
slope gradients, from mountain ranges to coastal cliffs or even underwater, in which case
they are called submarine landslides. Gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to
occur, but there are other factors affecting slope stability that produce specific conditions
that make a slope prone to failure. In many cases, the landslide is triggered by a specific
event such as a heavy rainfall, just like what happened in Cherry Hills Subdivision, an
earthquake, a slope cut to build a road, and many more, although this is not always
identifiable.
Some human activities that trigger landslides are the following:
1. Cutting of trees.
2. Mining and quarrying
3. Removal of vegetation.
4. Excavation or displacement of rocks
5. Modification of slopes through building of roads and infrastructures.
How can humans help mitigate landslides? Here are some ways.
1. Proper land use
2. Hazard mapping
3. Increase vegetation
4. Flattening of the slope
5. Engineering solutions like grouting, debris basin, retaining walls, geotextile, and rock fall
protection.
Activity 2: Mitigates or Trigger

Part I.
Directions: Write M if the human activity mitigates landslide or T if it triggers landslide.
___ 1. Mining and Quarrying
___ 2. Flattening of the slope
___ 3. Engineering solutions
___ 4. Increase vegetation
___ 5. Deforestation
Part II.
Directions: List down 3 possible causes of a landslide.
1. ________________________________________
2. ________________________________________
3. ________________________________________
Part III.
Directions: List down 2 ways to mitigate landslide
39
4. _______________________________________
5. _______________________________________
PHIVOLCS has awakened awareness of “The Big One”. The magnitude 7.2 earthquake
that may trigger within Metro Manila due to the West Valley Fault movement. Oplan Metro
Yakal was introduced wherein Metro Manila was divided into four quadrants namely North,
East, South and West. Each city is assigned to respective quadrants that will serve as the
evacuation site if “The Big One '' will happen. Caloocan, Mandaluyong, Quezon City, San
Juan, Valenzuela belong to the North Quadrant. Marikina and Pasig to the east quadrant.
Las Piñas, Makati, Parañaque, Pasay, Pateros and Taguig to the South quadrant and Manila,
Malabon and Navotas to the West quadrant with the evacuation site at Intramuros.
Read more about the Oplan Metro Yakal and create an Infographic Campaign to
promote awareness about earthquake preparedness. Post the infographic Campaign in your
respective Facebook page with the #EarthquakeAwarenes101
MODULE 8
the hazard maps brought about by different geologic processes such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and landslides. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different
learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students.
The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in
which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.
The module is divided into three lessons, namely:
● Lesson 8.1 Areas prone to hazards brought about by tropical cyclones, monsoons and
floods using hazard maps
● Lesson 8.2 How coastal processes result in coastal erosion, submersion, and saltwater
intrusion
● Lesson 8.3 Prevention and Mitigation of the impact of land development, waste
disposal, and construction of structures on control of coastal processes
● Using hazard maps, identify areas prone to hazards brought about by tropical
cyclones, monsoons, and floods
● Identify hazards brought by tropical cyclones, monsoons, and floods
● Understand concepts related to tropical cyclones, monsoons, and floods
● Create a preparedness plan for tropical cyclones, monsoons, and floods.
● Describe how coastal processes result in coastal erosion, submersion, and saltwater
intrusion; and
● Cite ways on preventing and mitigating the impact of land development, waste
disposal, and construction of structures on control of coastal processes
Lesson Areas Prone to

8.1 Hydrometeorological Hazards
40
The Philippines is prone to tropical cyclones because of its geographical location. Our
country is located near the equator that causes the bodies of water to be warm which is one
consideration for typhoon formation. The Philippine archipelago is along the usual pathway
of tropical cyclones that form in the Pacific Ocean.
Hydrometeorological phenomena like floods, tropical cyclones and monsoon bring
different hazards that cause damage to life and properties. Tropical cyclones, hurricanes and
typhoons are the same. They only differ on where they are formed. Tropical cyclones are
formed over the South Pacific and Indian Ocean. Hurricanes are tropical storms that are
formed over the North Atlantic Ocean and Northeast Pacific while Typhoon are formed over
the Northwest Pacific Ocean
So, which places in the country are prone to different hydrometeorological hazards? Let
us find it out!
Tropical Cyclone Hazard Prone Areas
Tropical cyclones or commonly called as

typhoon in the Philippines are warm-core
low pressure systems associated with a
spiral inflow of mass at the bottom level and
spiral outflow at the top level. Tropical
cyclones are formed with the following
requirements: (1) sufficiently warm sea
surface temperatures, (2) atmospheric
instability, (3) high humidity in the lower to
middle levels of the troposphere, (4)
enough Coriolis effect to develop a low
pressure center, (5) a pre-existing low level
focus or disturbance, and (6) a low
vertical wind shear.
Image source: http://vm.observatory.ph/cw_maps.html

Top 20 Provinces that are prone to tropical cyclone hazards in the Philippines
1. Cagayan 11. Northern Samar
2. Albay 12. Catanduanes
3. Ifugao 13. Apayao
4. Sorsogon 14. Pampanga
5. Kalinga 15. La Union
6. Ilocos Sur 16. Nueva Ecija
7. Ilocos Norte 17. Pangasinan
8. Camarines Norte 18. Masbate
9. Mountain Province 19. Tarlac
10. Camarines Sur 20. Western Samar
In a tropical cyclone, common hazards are strong winds, heavy rains, floods, storm surges,
landslides and tornadoes which may result in damage to property and loss of lives.
41
MONSOON HAZARD PRONE AREAS
Have you ever wondered why there is heavy rain even though there is no tropical cyclone
present? The reason; monsoon.
Monsoon is a seasonal wind shift over a region. This shift may result in heavy rains
or dry spells in summer.
Tropical Monsoon which we experience in the Philippines is characterized by a

monthly mean temperature of 180C, has wet and dry seasons and with greater than 1000
mm annual rainfall. Tropical monsoons are affected by monsoon winds. Philippine monsoon
winds are categorized based on their origin and direction. Southwest Monsoon or Hanging
Habagat, blows in from May to September and brings warm seasons yet having heavy rains
to the country. Northeast Monsoon or Hanging Amihan from December to March which
brings cool and dry seasons.
The map of risk to projected rainfall

change incorporates both rainfall
decrease during the dry season and
rainfall increase during the wet
season. The area most at risk to
projected rainfall changes are
Central, South and Southeast
Luzon and Eastern Visayas
Monsoon hazards includes heavy

rainfall, strong winds,
thunderstorms, floods and
landslides.
Image source: http://vm.observatory.ph/cw_maps.html
Tropical Cyclone and Monsoon Preparedness

What to do before a tropical cyclone or a monsoon
1. Ready and review your family preparedness plan.
2. Assemble a tropical cyclone or monsoon survival kit.
3. Check your home if it needs some repair and keep all important documents.
4. Secure food and clean water supply.
What to do during a tropical cyclone or a monsoon
1. Listen to weather updates.
2. Be prepared to evacuate and do so immediately if necessary.
3. Stay away from low lying areas.
4. Turn off electric lines if needed.
5. Keep flashlights, candles and battery powered radios within reach.
6. Keep calm.
What to do after a tropical cyclone or a monsoon
1. Continue listening to weather updates and local news for updated information.
2. Avoid damaged areas, stay off road. Avoid flood waters.
3. If evacuated, do not return home until advised by the authority.
4. Inspect your home for any damage. Watch out for live wires.
5. Clean and disinfect everything that got wet.
FLOOD HAZARD PRONE AREAS
42
Have you experienced being stranded in a flooded area? Or your community is
surrounded with flood due to heavy rain or a typhoon? Is your place in the list of flood hazard
prone areas in the country? Let us find out!
Flood is an overflow of water that submerges land. It is the most common and widespread
natural severe weather event hazard. Floods are of five types: inland flood, river flood, coastal
flood, flash flood and storm surge. River flood occurs when water level rises over the top of
riverbanks. This happens because of excessive rain and persistent thunderstorms. Coastal
flood is the inundation of normally dry land areas along the coast with seawater. This
happens when there is a combination of sea tidal surges, high winds, and barometric
pressure. Storm surge is an abnormal rise in water level in coastal areas over and above the
regular astronomical tide. It is caused by meteorological storms that cause higher than
normal tides on the coast. It is a dome of water with a width of 65-80km and hits the coast
near the point where the eye of the storm makes landfall.
There are three parts of a storm that create this surge: wind, waves, and low atmospheric
pressure. Inland flood also known as urban flooding. It happens when there is severe rainfall.
Inland flooding is affected by dense buildings, low-capacity drainage systems and low amounts
of green space. Flash flood on the other hand is flooding that begins within 6 hours and often
within 3 hours of heavy rainfall. Rainfall rate and duration are two factors that contribute to
flash floods.
Floods are hazards that can destroy properties, including farms, houses, and commercial
establishments. Floods can cause loss of lives and can isolate communities that are cut off
from basic and emergency services when flood water rises from uncontrollable level.
Flood Preparedness
What To Do Before a Flood
1. Make a family preparedness plan.
2. Find out if you live in a flood prone area.
3. Have emergency supplies on hand
4. Move valuable household possessions to the upper floors
What To Do During a Flood

1. Keep informed by listening to the news.
2. Do not wade, drive or walk in flooded areas.
3. Evacuate if needed.
What To Do After a Flood

1. If evacuated, don’t return home until advised by authority.
2. Check your house for any damage, especially the electric lines.
3. Clean and disinfect all areas of the house submerged in flood.
4. Make sure that your drinking water is clean. Check water lines from any
damage.
España – Antipolo-Maceda in Manila
Burgos – Manila City Hall vicinity
Osmeña – Skyway Northbound &
Southbound,Makati
EDSA – NorthAvenue, Quezon City
Don Bosco, Makati
Buendia – South Superhighway (South
bound)
Buendia – South Superhighway (North
bound)
C-5 – Bagong Ilog
Metro Manila Flood Prone Hazard Area West Service Road, Merville, Paranaque
East Service Road, Sales Street
43
Activity 1:
Directions: Complete the following sentence by choosing the word/words on the box below.
Tropical cyclone Hanging Habagat Northwest Pacific Ocean Flood
Storm surge PAG-ASA December-March Monsoon
Hanging Amihan cool & dry May – September Hurricane
1. Southwest monsoon is locally known as _______________.

2. The government agency task to track Philippine typhoons is ___________.
3. Typhoons are formed over the _______________.
4. _________ a dome of water with a width of 65-80km and hits the coast near the point
where the eye of the storm makes landfall.
5. Northwest monsoon takes place in the months of ______________.
6. Northwest monsoon brings ________________ season.
7. _________ is an overflow of water that submerges the land.
hu
8. _________ it is the seasonal wind shift over a region.
9. _________ tropical storms that are formed over the North Atlantic Ocean.
10. ________ are formed over the South Pacific and Indian Ocean.
Lesson HAZARDS DUE TO COASTAL

8.2 PROCESSES
The Philippines ranked 4th in the world for having the longest coastline because our
country is composed of islands with irregular coastlines.
COASTAL PROCESSES
1. Coastal Erosion - the wearing away of land and the removal of beach or dune sediments
by wave action, tidal currents, wave currents or high winds.
Five common processes that cause coastal erosion:
a. Corrasion is when waves pick up beach materials and hurl them at the base of a cliff
b. Abrasion happens when breaking waves containing sediment fragments erode the
shoreline, particularly headland.
c. Hydraulic action. The effect of waves as they hit cliff faces, the air is compressed into cracks
and is released as waves rushes back seaward.
d. Attrition is the process when waves bump rocks and pebbles against each other leading to
the eventual breaking of the materials.
e. Corrosion/solution involves dissolution by weak acids such as when the carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere is dissolved into water turning it into a weak carbonic acid.
2. Sediment movement along coasts
3. Coastal deposition - Deposition happens when the swash (or the waves that rushes inland)
is stronger than the backwash (waves rushing back to sea).
EFFECTS OF COASTAL PROCESSES

1. Coastal Erosion – weakens the foundation of coastal areas, may cause shallowing of water
level and breakdown of rock materials
44
2. Submersion - phenomenon where coasts are submerged as a result of sea level rise or
subsidence of the coast
3. Saltwater Intrusion - the movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers, which can
lead to contamination of drinking water sources and other consequences. Improper land use
and climate may also affect saltwater intrusion.
HAZARDS CAUSED BY COASTAL PROCESSES

1. Storm Surge - Storm surge is the temporary elevation (or depression) of the sea surface
caused by changing atmospheric pressure and strong winds. The threat of coastal flooding
and erosion is greatest when a storm surge is superimposed.
2. Sea Level Rise - The combined effects of coastal sinking and global warming may cause sea
level to rise which may greatly affect the water level and may cause flooding.
3. Waves
4. Tides
Activity 2
Directions: Match the word/words in column A with the description in Column B. Write the
letter of the correct answer on your answer sheet.
A B
1. Saltwater intrusion A. temporary elevation of the sea surface caused by changing
atmospheric pressure and strong winds
B. Coastal Erosion B. process when waves bump rocks and pebbles against each
other leading to the eventual breaking of the materials
C. Storm surge C. movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers, which
can lead to contamination of drinking water
4. Corrosion D. happens when the swash (or the waves that rushes inland)
is stronger than the backwash
1. Hydraulic Action E. dissolution by weak acids such as when the carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere is dissolved into water
6. Attrition F. combined effects of coastal sinking and global warming
7. Sea level rise G. wearing away of land and the removal of beach or dune
sediments by wave action
8.Coastal Deposition H. happens when breaking waves containing sediment
fragments erode the shoreline
9. Abrasion I. coasts are submerged because of sea level rise
10.Submersion J. effect of waves as they hit cliff faces, the air is compressed
into cracks and is released as waves rushes back seaward
Lesson MITIGATION ON THE EFFECTS

8.3 OF COASTAL PROCESSES
MITIGATION OF COASTAL PROCESSES

1. Construction of Structures
- Sea dikes, sea walls, groins, detached breakwaters or jetties are built along the
coastline.
45
a. Sea dikes are onshore structures with the principal function of protecting low-
lying areas against flooding
b. Sea walls are onshore structures with the principal function of preventing or
alleviating overtopping and flooding of the land and the structures behind due
to storm surges and waves
c. Detached breakwaters are small, relatively short, non-shore-connected
nearshore breakwaters with the principal function of reducing beach erosion.
d. Jetties are used for stabilization of navigation channels at river mouths and
tidal inlets.
e. Proper land use and development.
2. Beach Nourishment
- The addition of sand and sediments to the beach to replace sand and sediments
that has been eroded away.
3. Proper Waste Disposal
4. Coastal Vegetation
Activity 3
Directions: Write the word FACT if the statement is correct and BLUFF if not.
1. Beach nourishment is a process of adding sand or other materials on the beach to
replace eroded beach components.
2. Mitigation is a process of lessening the hazard caused by a process or phenomena.
3. Breakwater is used for stabilization of navigation channels at river mouths and tidal
inlets.
4. Sea dikes are onshore structures with the principal function of preventing floods from
reaching inland.
5. Breakwaters are used to reduce beach erosion
Prepare an emergency kit in times of hydrometeorological processes like typhoons, monsoon,

or flood. Take a picture of the emergency kit. Describe what is in the kit and post it your
social media account with the #beprepared101 (The output will be assessed using a rubric)
46
of paper.
Earth Science
1. The core is made of both iron and nickel. The outer core is liquid while the inner core is
solid. What is most likely to happen if there is no core?
A. The earth will be extremely cold
B. The earth will remain the same
C. The atmosphere will be made of oxygen only
D. No magnetic field to shield the earth from solar wind
2. The layers of the earth are identified based on their thickness. What is the thinnest layer
of the Earth that is only 5 to 70 kilometers thick that is composed mostly of oxygen and
silicon?
A. Core B. Crust C. Mantle D. Mesosphere
3. Two rock samples, X and Y were collected near a location that used to be a body of water.
Rock sample X and Y both contain amounts of carbonate minerals, however, Y appears to
have undergone compression due to the flattened minerals and changes in color. What is
the classification of Rock sample X and Y?
A. Sample X is Metamorphic, Sample Y is Sedimentary
B. Sample X is Sedimentary, Sample Y is metamorphic
C. Both samples are Metamorphic
D. Both samples are Sedimentary
4. Metamorphism occurs because of the heat and pressure that a rock undergoes while still
maintaining its solid phase. What is the form of metamorphism in which the rock is
subjected to higher pressure and temperature due to its close location to the interior of a
volcano?
A. Contact metamorphism C. Distance Metamorphism
B. Regional Metamorphism D. Non-Contact Metamorphism
5. Igneous rocks are classified according to the environment where it solidifies. Which of the
following matched?
A. intrusive igneous rocks: on the Earth’s surface
B. plutonic igneous rocks: underneath the Earth’s surface
C. volcanic Igneous rocks: underneath the Earth’s surface
D. extrusive igneous rocks: underneath the Earth’s surface
6. What is the difference between magma and lava?
A. magma has a lower temperature as compared to the lava.
B. magma is brought from the underground to the Earth's surface through uplifting
while lava is already found on the Earth's surface.
C. magma and the lava are the same in composition and location.
D. magma can be found in the crust and mantle while lava is found on the Earth’s
surface.
7. Which of the following should be done during a volcanic eruption?
A. Clean the house from ashfall.
B. Create a family evacuation plan.
C. Wear a mask to cover your mouth and nose.
D. Evacuate to a safe place when necessary.
8. Which of the following is NOT a natural cause of landslide?
A. Earthquake occurrence
B. Mining and Quarrying
C. Volcanic activity
D. Heavy rains
47
9. How do hydrometeorological phenomena become a hazard?
A. When it lessens the environmental problems.
B. When it brings danger to humans and properties.
C. When it helps in promoting cleanliness of the environment.
C. When it exceeds the expected number of typhoons in a year.
10. How do tropical cyclones, typhoons and hurricanes differ?
A. Amount of rainfall it brings
B. Location where it was formed.
C. Direction of wind path.
D. None. It is all the same.
48
Quarter II
of paper.
Life Science
1. Which of the following sequences of organization is likely to be seen in a multicellular
organism, going from smallest to largest?
A. cell, organ, tissue, organism, system
B. cell, organ, system, tissue, organism
C. cell, tissue, organs, system, organism
D. organism, system, organ, tissue, cell
2. Organs are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells. This is an example of
which characteristic of life?
A. Living things grow and develop
B. Living things respond to stimuli
C. Living things maintain themselves by homeostasis
D. Living things have levels of organization
3. You drink a glass of lemonade, but your body's pH does not change. This is an example
of how organisms:
A. maintain homeostasis.
B. maintain organization.
C. adapt to their environment.
D. are immune to acid.
4. Humans born without sweat glands usually do not survive. Why NOT?
A. Sweating is an important mechanism for maintaining temperature homeostasis.
B Sweat glands create openings in the skin where gas exchange occurs.
C. Sweating is an important way of ridding the body of excess water.
D. Sweating is important for purging impurities from the body.
5. In which type of muscle can you find the intercalated discs?
A. cardiac muscle C. smooth muscle
B. skeletal muscle D. none of the above
6. Which statement is NOT true about cardiac muscles?
A. It is involuntary
B. It attaches to the rib cage
C. It is only found in the heart
D. It consists of heart muscle fibers that act together
7. Which of the following best describes the relationship of insulin and glucagon?
A. They are antagonistic hormones
B. Insulin stimulates the pancreas to secrete glucagon
C. They work together to prepare the body to deal with stress.
D. High levels of insulin promote pancreatic secretion of glucagon.
8. Who proposed that the primordial sea served as a vast chemical laboratory powered by
solar energy?
A. Aleksandr Oparin C. Harold Urey
B. John Haldane D. Stanley Miller
9.Genetic engineering is the alteration of an organism’s genotype using recombinant DNA
technology. Scientists follow a step-by-step process to alter the DNA of an organism. Which
of the following shows the correct sequence of genetic engineering?
A. Identify the trait of interest 🡪 Isolate the genetic trait of interest 🡪 Insert the desired
trait into the new genome 🡪 Growing the GMO
B. Identify the trait of interest 🡪 Insert the desired trait into the new genome 🡪 Growing
the GMO 🡪 Isolate the genetic trait of interest
C. Isolate the genetic trait of interest 🡪 Identify the trait of interest 🡪 Insert the desired
trait into the new genome 🡪 Growing the GMO
D. Growing the GMO 🡪 Isolate the genetic trait of interest 🡪 Identify the trait of interest
🡪 Insert the desired trait into the new genome
49
10. In regeneration, the parent organism divides into many pieces and each piece will
develop into a complete individual. Which organism demonstrates this kind of
reproduction?
A. Bread mold C. Paramecium
B. Hydra D. Planaria
MODULE 9
the historical development of the concept of life. The scope of this module permits it to be
used in many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse
vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the
course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook
you are now using.
The module is composed of one lesson, namely:
● Lesson 9 Emerging Evidences on the Concept of Evolution of Life
● Explain the evolving concept of life based on emerging pieces of evidence
Lesson Emerging Evidences on the

9 Concept of Evolution of Life
The Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis

In the early decades of the 20th century, Aleksandr Oparin (in 1924), and John
Haldane (in 1929, before Oparin's first book was translated into English), independently
suggested that if the primitive atmosphere was reducing (as opposed to oxygen-rich), and if
there was an appropriate supply of energy, such as lightning or ultraviolet light, then a wide
range of organic compounds might be synthesized.
Oparin suggested that the organic compounds could have undergone a series of
reactions leading to more and more complex molecules. He proposed that the molecules
formed colloid aggregates, or 'coacervates', in an aqueous environment. The coacervates were
able to absorb and assimilate organic compounds from the environment in a way reminiscent
of metabolism. They would have taken part in evolutionary processes, eventually leading to
the first lifeforms.
Haldane's ideas about the origin of life were very similar to Oparin's. Haldane
proposed that the primordial sea served as a vast chemical laboratory powered by solar
energy. The atmosphere was oxygen free, and the combination of carbon dioxide, ammonia
and ultraviolet radiation gave rise to a host of organic compounds. The sea became a 'hot
dilute soup' containing large populations of organic monomers and polymers. Haldane
envisaged that groups of monomers and polymers acquired lipid membranes, and that further
developments eventually led to the first living cells.
Haldane coined the term 'prebiotic soup', and this became a powerful symbol of the
Oparin-Haldane view of the origin of life.
50
The Miller-Urey Experiment
In 1952, Harold Urey tried to calculate the chemical constituents of the atmosphere
of the early Earth. He based his calculations on the (then) widely held view that the early
atmosphere was reducing and concluded that the main constituents were methane (CH4),
ammonia (NH3), hydrogen (H2), and water (H2O). He suggested that his student, Stanley
Miller, should do an experiment attempting to synthesize organic compounds in such an
atmosphere.
Miller carried out an experiment in 1953 in which he passed a continuous spark
discharge at 60,000 Volts through a flask containing the gases identified by Urey, along with
water. Miller found that after a week, most of the ammonia and much of the methane had
been consumed. The main gaseous products were carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen (N2).
In addition, there was an accumulation of dark material in the water. Few of the specific
constituents of this could not be identified, but it was clear that the material included a large
range of organic polymers.
Analysis of the aqueous solution showed that the following had also been synthesized:
25 amino acids (the main ones being glycine, alanine and aspartic acid), Several fatty acids,
Hydroxy acids, Amide products.
The Miller-Urey experiment was immediately recognized as an important
breakthrough in the study of the origin of life. It was received as confirmation that several of
the key molecules of life could have been synthesized on the primitive Earth in the kind of
conditions envisaged by Oparin and Haldane. These molecules would then have been able to
take part in 'prebiotic' chemical processes, leading to the origin of life.
Since the Miller-Urey experiment, a great deal of effort has been spent investigating
prebiotic chemistry. It has become apparent that organizing simple molecules into assemblies
capable of reproducing and evolving is a far greater task than was generally realized during
the excitement that followed the experiment. In addition, the view that the early atmosphere
was highly reducing was challenged towards the end of the twentieth century and is no longer
the consensus view.
Although the significance of specific details of the Miller-Urey for the origin of life may
now be in question, it began the new scientific discipline of prebiotic chemistry, and has been
enormously influential in the development of ideas about the origin of life.
The Discovery of the Structure of DNA

In 1953, the same year that the Miller-Urey experiment was conducted, James Watson
and Francis Crick produced the double helix model of structure of DNA. In 1962 they were
awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine for the discovery. The prize was shared
with Maurice Wilkins; Rosalind Franklin also played a crucial role in the discovery.
Watson and Crick recognized that DNA is the molecule of heredity; the molecule that
carries genetic information. The importance of the discovery of the double helix was
recognized as soon as it was published. As in the case of the Miller-Urey experiment, it
resulted in a new scientific discipline: molecular biology.
Along with prebiotic chemistry (which resulted from the Miller-Urey experiment),
molecular biology is one of the main disciplines on which the search for the origin of life has
been based.
51
Activity 1: Idea Wheel Graphic Organizer
Directions: Summarize the different ideas about the emerging evidences on the evolving
concept of life presented in the discussion part using the Idea Wheel Graphic Organizer.
Oparine- Miller-Urey
Haldane Experiment
Hypothesis Emerging
Evidences on the
Evolving
Concept of Life
Discovery of the
Structure of
DNA
Critical thinking questions:
1. Haldane coined the term 'prebiotic soup', and this became a powerful symbol of the
Oparin-Haldane view of the origin of life. In one to two sentences, explain the term
“prebiotic soup”.
2. The experiment conducted by Miller-Urey gave rise to new scientific discipline
prebiotic chemistry. Briefly discuss the importance of this new discipline in search
for the origin of life.
Activity: Life from nonliving things?

It was once believed that life could come from nonliving things, such as mice from corn, flies
from bovine manure, maggots from rotting meat, and fish from the mud of previously dry
lakes. Spontaneous generation is the incorrect hypothesis that non living things are capable
of producing life. Several experiments have been conducted to disprove spontaneous
generation.
Your task is to research or look on the internet for a different experiment that disproved
this theory. Write your answers in your science notebook.
52
MODULE 10
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you
master the themes and concepts in Biology. The scope of this module permits it to be used
in many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary
level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course.
But the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you
are now using.
The module is composed of one lesson, namely:
● Lesson 10 Unifying Themes and Concepts in Biology

● Describe how unifying themes (e.g., structure and function, evolution, and
ecosystems) in the study of life show the connections among living things and how
they interact with each other and with their environment
Lesson Unifying Themes and Concepts

10 in Biology
A. PROPERTIES OF LIFE
All living organisms share several key characteristics or functions: order, sensitivity
or response to the environment, reproduction, adaptation, growth and development,
regulation/homeostasis, energy processing, and evolution. When viewed together, these
eight characteristics serve to define life.
Order
Organisms are highly organized, coordinated structures
that consist of one or more cells. Even very simple, single-celled
organisms are remarkably complex: inside each cell, atoms
comprise molecules. These in turn comprise cell organelles and
other cellular inclusions. In multicellular organisms, similar cells
form tissues. Tissues, in turn, collaborate to create organs (body
structures with a distinct function). Organs work together to form A toad represents a highly
organ systems. organized structure consisting
of cells, tissues, organs, and
organ systems
Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli

Organisms respond to diverse stimuli. For example, plants can bend toward a source
of light, climb on fences and walls, or respond to touch. Even tiny bacteria can move toward
or away from chemicals (a process called chemotaxis) or light (phototaxis). Movement
53
toward a stimulus is a positive response, while movement away from a stimulus is a
negative response.
The leaves of this sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) will instantly droop and fold when
touched. After a few minutes, the plant returns to normal. (source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mimosa_pudica_9zz.jpg)
Reproduction
Single-celled organisms reproduce by first replicating their DNA, and then dividing it
equally as the cell prepares to divide to form two new cells. Multicellular organisms often
produce specialized reproductive germline, gamete, oocyte, and sperm cells. After fertilization
(the fusion of an oocyte and a sperm cell), a new individual develops. When reproduction
occurs, DNA containing genes are passed along to an organism’s offspring. These genes
ensure that the offspring will belong to the same species and will have similar characteristics,
such as size and shape.
Adaptation
All living organisms exhibit a “fit” to their environment. Biologists refer to this fit as
adaptation, and it is a consequence of evolution by natural selection, which operates in every
lineage of reproducing organisms. Examples of adaptations are diverse and unique, from
heat-resistant Archaea that live in boiling hot springs to the tongue length of a nectar-feeding
moth that matches the size of the flower from which it feeds. All adaptations enhance the
reproductive potential of the individuals exhibiting them, including their ability to survive to
reproduce. Adaptations are not constant. As an environment changes, natural selection
causes the characteristics of the individuals in a population to track those changes.
Growth and Development
Organisms grow and develop because of genes providing specific instructions that will
direct cellular growth and development. This ensures that a species’ young will grow up to
exhibit many of the same characteristics as its parents.
Regulation/Homeostasis
Even the smallest organisms are complex and require multiple regulatory
mechanisms to coordinate internal functions, respond to stimuli, and cope with
environmental stresses. Two examples of internal functions regulated in an organism are
nutrient transport and blood flow. Organs (groups of tissues working together) perform
specific functions, such as carrying oxygen throughout the body, removing wastes, delivering
nutrients to every cell, and cooling the body. In order to function properly, cells require
appropriate conditions such as proper temperature, pH, and appropriate concentration of
diverse chemicals. These conditions may, however, change from one moment to the next.
Organisms are able to maintain internal conditions within a narrow range almost constantly,
despite environmental changes, through homeostasis (literally, “steady state”). For example,
an organism needs to regulate body temperature through the thermoregulation process.
Organisms that live in cold climates, such as the polar bear, have body structures that help
them withstand low temperatures and conserve body heat. Structures that aid in this type of
insulation include fur, feathers, blubber, and fat. In hot climates, organisms have methods
(such as perspiration in humans or panting in dogs) that help them to shed excess body heat.
All organisms use a source of energy for their metabolic activities. Some organisms
capture energy from the sun and convert it into chemical energy in food. Others use chemical
energy in molecules they take in as food.
Evolution
The diversity of life on Earth is a result of mutations, or random changes in hereditary
material over time. These mutations allow the possibility for organisms to adapt to a changing
environment. An organism that evolves characteristics fit for the environment will have
greater reproductive success, subject to the forces of natural selection.
54
B. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF LIVING THINGS
Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy that we can
examine on a scale from small to large. The atom is the smallest and most fundamental unit
of matter. It consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. Atoms form molecules. A molecule
is a chemical structure consisting of at least two atoms held together by one or more chemical
bonds.
Many molecules that are biologically important are macromolecules, large molecules
that are typically formed by polymerization (a polymer is a large molecule that is made by
combining smaller units called monomers, which are simpler than macromolecules). An
example of a macromolecule is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which contains the instructions
for the structure and functioning of all living organisms.
Some cells contain aggregates of macromolecules surrounded by membranes. We call
these organelles. Organelles are small structures that exist within cells. Examples of
organelles include mitochondria and chloroplasts, which carry out indispensable functions:
mitochondria produce energy to power the cell, while chloroplasts enable green plants to
utilize the energy in sunlight to make sugars. All living things are made of cells. The cell itself
is the smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms. (This
requirement is why scientists do not consider viruses living: they are not made of cells. To
make new viruses, they have to invade and hijack the reproductive mechanism of a living
cell. Only then can they obtain the materials they need to reproduce.) Some organisms consist
of a single cell and others are multicellular. Scientists classify cells as prokaryotic or
eukaryotic. Prokaryotes are single-celled or colonial organisms that do not have membrane-
bound nuclei. In contrast, the cells of eukaryotes do have membrane-bound organelles and
a membrane-bound nucleus.
In larger organisms, cells combine to make tissues, which are groups of similar cells
carrying out similar or related functions. Organs are collections of tissues grouped together
performing a common function. Organs are present not only in animals but also in plants.
An organ system is a higher level of organization that consists of functionally related organs.
Mammals have many organ systems. For instance, the circulatory system transports blood
through the body and to and from the lungs. It includes organs such as the heart and blood
vessels. Organisms are individual living entities. For example, each tree in a forest is an
organism. Single-celled prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes are also organisms, which
biologists typically call microorganisms.
Activity 1: Which Comes First?

Directions: Study the illustrations of the different levels of biological organization then write
in your answer sheet the correct name of level from the simplest to the most complex level.
Which comes first?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
55
1. There are two types of organisms based on the number of cells – unicellular and
multicellular organisms. Humans, animals, and plants are examples of multicellular
organisms that are made of different levels of biological organization. Do you think
unicellular organisms such as bacteria are also composed of different levels of
organization?
2. In elementary school you have learned that all organs and organ systems in
organisms should work together. Why do you think these organs and organ systems
need to work harmoniously?
Directions: Complete the Graphic organizer below to summarize the characteristics of living
things.
produce
offspring
through ______
adapt and
change over are made up of
time ______
through_____
All Living
Things
maintain a respond to
stable internal environmental
environment signals called
called ______ _____
stores complex
hereditary
information
in____
MODULE 11
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help
you master the knowledge about ways of animal reproduction. The scope of this
module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language
used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged
to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them
can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.
● Lesson 11.1 –Asexual Reproduction
● Lesson 11.2 - Sexual Reproduction
● Describe the different ways of how representative animals reproduce.
● Differentiate asexual reproduction from sexual reproduction.
● Describe the different form of asexual reproduction in different organism.
56
Lesson
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
11.1
Reproduction is an essential biological process in which an organism produces a

new individual. Living things might be extinct when they can no longer reproduce. Asexual
reproduction is the formation of a species from a single parent without the use of sex cells
and does not undergo process such as meiosis. In asexual reproduction the genetic make
up and appearance of the offspring is identical to the parents.
Asexual reproduction occurs in prokaryotic microorganisms (bacteria and archaea)
and in many eukaryotic, single-celled and multi-celled organisms. There are several ways
that animals reproduce asexually, the details of which vary among individual species.
METHODS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1. Binary Fission
The cell divides to form two identical daughter cells. Each daughter cell continues
to grow until it becomes as large as the parent cell.
Example:
Amoeba, Bacteria, Paramecium
2. Budding
A new individual develops an outgrowth or bud from specialized areas of the body
of the parent organism. The bud will separate from the parent and become a new
individual.
Example:
Hydra, Yeast
3. Spore Formation
Spore is a reproductive cell capable of developing into a new individual without
fusion with another reproductive cell.
Example:
Bread mold, Mushroom
4. Regeneration/Fragmentation
The parent organism can be divided into many pieces and each piece will develop
into a complete individual.
Example
Planaria, Star fish, Spirogyra
METHODS OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

A. Natural Vegetative Propagation
Parts of Plant Description Example

Involve
1. Roots The roots produce Tuber – enlarged structures in some
adventitious buds from plant species used as storage organs
which new plants can for nutrients.
develop. Example:
Sweet Potato, turnips
57
2. Stem Some plants have a. Runners- grow horizontally above
underdeveloped shoots or the ground. The buds are formed
buds on them, while some at the nodes of the runners.
also have stems above the Example:
ground where new plants Strawberry
can be formed. b. Rhizome - are root-like stems
that grow horizontally under the
ground.
c. Corm – a swollen stem base that is
modified into a mass of storage
tissue.
Example:
Ginger, Taro
3. Leaves The leaves of a few plants Example:
can detach from the parent Leaf Buds
plant and develop into a Kataka-taka
new plant.
B. Artificial Vegetative Propagation
Example of Artificial Vegetative Description

Propagation
Stem or leaf is cut and planted in the soil.

1. Cutting
2. Grafting Typically involves joining together parts of

two plants to function as a single plant. The
tissues of the graft become integrated with the
tissues of the rooted plant and develop as a single
plant over time
3. Layering A portion of an above-ground stem grows roots

while still attached to the parent plant and then
detaches as an independent plant.
4. Tissue Culture The plant cells from different parts of a plant are
cultured in the laboratory to develop a new plant.
Activity 3: Asexual Reproduction

Directions: Determine the method of reproduction of the given organisms in each box. Write
your answer on the space provided
58
Bacteria Yeast
______________________________ _________________________________
Starfish
Mushroom
________________________________
_____________________________
II. Discuss how the following plants reproduce.
Plant Description of Plant Reproduction
59
Lesson
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
11.2
Sexual Reproduction is characterized by the union of two specialized cells from two
organisms of the same species forming a new individual with combined genetic materials from
both parents. Most animals reproduce sexually by the union of specialized cells. Sexual
reproduction involves fusion of spermatozoa and ova to form zygote which initially develops
into a hollow sphere called a blastula, which undergoes differentiation. The process of
differentiation leads to formation of tissues and organs.
Sexual Reproduction in plants involves different stages:
1. Gametogenesis the male gametophyte is developed inside the pollen grain while the female
gametophyte is developed inside the ovule.
2. Pollination. Pollen grains formed at the stamen must reach the pistil of the flower of the
same species. The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the flower of the
same plant is called self-pollination. The transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma
of the same species of different plant is called cross-pollination.
3. Pollen Germination. Once pollen grain reaches and lands on the stigma, it absorbs liquid
and germinates. The generative cell undergoes mitosis giving rise to two sperm cells.
4. Double Fertilization. One of the sperm fertilizes the egg forming a zygote. The zygote
undergoes a series of mitotic division, producing a mass of undifferentiated cells called the
embryo. The second sperm fuses with the two polar bodies producing the nutritive tissue that
will provide energy for the development of the embryo.
5. Fruit and Seed Development. Development of ovary into fruit and development of ovule
into seed.
6. Seed Germination. When seeds fall on the ground and conditions become favorable for
the seed it germinates. The seed may absorb water that causes rupturing of the seed coat.
This will lead to the formation of the hypocotyl of the embryo that grows towards the soil and
develops into the primary hypocotyl of the embryo that grows on the soil and develops the
primary root of the plant.
STRUCTURE OF A FLOWER
http://4.bp.blogspot.com/
60
I. Study the illustration below. Then answer the given questions.
https://elimufeynman.s3.amazonaws.com/
1. What happens when the male nucleus fuses the female nucleus in the ovary? What
will happen with ovules? What will happen with the ovary?
_______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. If the male nucleus will not reach the ovary, will there be fertilization? Why?
_______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Why do flowers have attractive and colorful petals?

_______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What do you think will happen if fertilization does not take place?
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Activity no. 4 #Plantito & Plantita
A. Directions: This time you will plant one of your favorite plants (use plants that are
easy to propagate/reproduce). Then identify the part you will use and describe the
type of vegetative propagation involved. Use the table below for your answer.
61
Plant Parts involve Types of Description Illustration/
in propagation Propagation photo
I have learned that:

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
MODULE 12
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you describe
the process of genetic engineering and evaluate the benefits and risks of genetic engineering.
The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The
language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged
to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be
changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.
• Lesson 1 – Process of Genetic Engineering
• Lesson 2- Risks and benefits of Genetic Engineering
● Define Genetic Engineering.
● Describe the process of Genetic Engineering.
● Explain the advantages and disadvantages of GMO.
Lesson
Process of Genetic Engineering
12.1
Genetic engineering is the alteration of an organism’s genotype using recombinant

DNA technology to modify an organism’s DNA to achieve desirable traits. The addition of
foreign DNA in the form of recombinant DNA vectors generated by molecular cloning is the
most common method of genetic engineering. The organism that receives the recombinant
DNA is called a genetically modified organism (GMO). If the foreign DNA that is introduced
comes from a different species, the host organism is called transgenic. Bacteria, plants, and
62
animals have been genetically modified since the early 1970s for academic, medical,
agricultural, and industrial purposes.
Gene targeting is the use of recombinant DNA vectors to alter the expression of a
particular gene, either by introducing mutations in a gene, or by eliminating the expression
of a certain gene by deleting a part or all of the gene sequence from the genome of an
organism.
There are several steps in the process of genetic engineering. Scientists follow a step-by-step
process to alter the DNA of an organism. In describing the process, the example of a soybean
will be used as a guide to each step.
1. Gene is picked that will be altered, added, or removed. This step requires that the wanted
gene is found and isolated. If a new breed of soybean were to be given a pesticide, the effective
bacteria in the pesticide would be isolated.
2. The isolated gene is copied several times. The DNA from the organism is then copied several
times. This is done by splitting the DNA down the center of the double helix and pairing it
with the appropriate chemical.
3. The gene is transferred to the new organism. It is transferred into the tissue of the
organism. Since it is impossible to insert the DNA into each cell of an organism, the DNA is
now injected into the tissue of the other organism. It will create a new plant/animal/trait
from the newly modified tissue.
4. Check the insertion produces desired results.
5. Check that the new gene can be found in the offspring (seeds) of the organism. This is the
most crucial step in genetic engineering. If the offspring of the genetically modified organism
does not manifest the traits given to the parent, the engineering has failed and must be done
again.
Cloning
In 1997, a 7-month-old sheep named Dolly became a

celebrity. Dolly is the first cloned animal. Cloning is a method
that scientists use to produce a genetic copy of another
individual. In other words. Dolly is a clone of her mother. Dolly
had three mothers. One mother gave Dolly her DNA, one
mother supplied an egg, and the third mother. Her surrogate
mother gave birth to her. Normally, an animal gets half of its
DNA from its mother and half from its father. Dolly is an
identical twin of the mother who gave her DNA. But Dolly is
six years younger. However, Dolly and her mother are not
identical in every way. Since Dolly and her “DNA mother” have
different experiences, they are different in many ways. Like
human twins, clones have unique personalities.
63
Dolly the sheep
http://s0.geograph.org.uk/
Activity 1: Be an Investigator
Directions: The story is about a crime solved through biotechnological techniques. The
techniques used are DNA fingerprinting and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). DNA
fingerprinting is a technique in which an individual’s DNA is analyzed to reveal the pattern
of particular short nucleotide sequences. This pattern is claimed to be unique to the
individual concerned and can thus be used for identification purposes. Polymerase chain
reaction, on the other hand, is a technique used to replicate a DNA fragment. Read the story
carefully and answer the questions that follow.
ON THE MORNING of November 23, 2009, a cyclist riding near Lake Charles,
Louisiana, discovered the body of a young woman lying near a country road. Her face
had been beaten beyond recognition, but an unusual tattoo led the police to identify her
as 19-year-old Sierra Bouzigard. Investigators from the Calcasieu Parish Sheriff’s Office,
headed by Sheriff Tony Mancuso, immediately set about reconstructing her final hours.
The people who last saw Bouzigard alive had let her use their phone. The number she
dialed gave police a lead.
Bouzigard’s assailant had also left behind a promising clue. From tissue caught
under her fingernails as she struggled for her life, the detectives were able to pick up a
clear DNA sample. To find the killer, all they needed was a match. The number she had
dialed led police to a crew of undocumented Mexican workers.
But none of the Mexicans’ DNA matched the sample from the crime scene. Nor
was there a hit in the FBI’s database of prior felons, missing persons, and arrestees, a
system known as CODIS—the Combined DNA Index System. The investigators continued
to issue calls for people with any information to come forward, and Bouzigard’s family
offered a $10,000 reward. But the case grew cold.
64
Then, in June 2015, Monica Quaal, a lead DNA analyst at the lab that works with
the sheriff’s office, learned about an intriguing new way of exploiting the information
contained in a DNA sample—one that would not require a suspect’s DNA or a match in
a database. Called DNA phenotyping, the technique conjures up a physical likeness of
the person who left the sample behind, including traits such as geographic ancestry, eye
and natural hair color, and even a possible shape for facial features. Quaal immediately
thought of the Bouzigard case, in which the DNA left at the scene was virtually the only
lead. She contacted Mancuso and Lt. Les Blanchard, a detective on the case, and they
sent their sample to Ellen Greytak, director of bioinformatics at ParabonNanoLabs, a
company specializing in DNA phenotyping.
Here the investigation took an unexpected turn. Based on the available evidence,
the detectives still believed her killer was likely Hispanic—perhaps a member of the
Mexican crew who had fled the area soon after committing the crime. But the person in
the DNA-generated portrait Parabon produced had pale skin and freckles. His hair was
brown, and his eyes were probably green or blue. His ancestry, the analysis said, was
northern European.
DNA phenotyping is a relatively recent arrival in forensic science, and some critics
question how useful it will be. The facial composites it produces are predictions from
genetics, not photographs. Many aspects of a person’s appearance are not encoded in
DNA and thus can never be unearthed from it, like whether someone has a beard, or
dyed hair. Nevertheless, Parabon, which calls its facial composite service Snapshot, has
had more than 40 law enforcement organizations as customers. Human genome pioneer
Craig Venter, as part of his new personalized health company called Human Longevity,
is also investigating facial reconstruction from DNA, as are many academic labs.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2016/07/forensic-science-justice-
crime-evidence/
Answer the following questions.
1. What were the clues that led to the identification of the suspect?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Does the tissue in the fingernail of the victim lead to the identification of the suspect?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. How did the investigators conclude the characteristics of the murderer?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
4. How DNA fingerprinting helps in solving the crime?
65
Lesson Risks and Benefits of Genetic
12.2 Engineering
Genetically modified organism (GMO) refers to an organism's genome that has been
engineered in the laboratory in order to favor the expression of desired physiological traits or
the generation of desired biological products. In conventional livestock production, crop
farming, and even pet breeding, it has long been the practice to breed select individuals of a
species to produce offspring that have desirable traits. In genetic modification, however,
recombinant genetic technologies are employed to produce organisms whose genomes have
been precisely altered at the molecular level, usually by the inclusion of genes from unrelated
species of organisms that code for traits that would not be obtained easily through
conventional selective breeding.
Advantages of GMOs
1. Profit- GMOs are an effective way to provide farmers a larger profit, while making them
spend less time on resources.
2. Genetic alterations- Plants can be engineered to resist temperature or produce higher

yields, which is good for regions where climate limits productivity.
3. Economically efficient- GMOs are designed to resist pests, there will be no need for
pesticides to be used, which means more savings.
4. Decrease food prices- Advanced crops and lower costs can lead to cheaper food.
5. More nutritional value to crops- GMO method can put in added nutritional value to crops
that lack necessary vitamins and minerals. Considering that there are places in the world
relying on rice or corn as their daily staple, plant genes may be added to these crops to
increase their nutritional value. This would help malnourished populations receive more
nutrients from their diet.
Disadvantages of GMOs
1. Dangerous to other insects- GMOs are believed to be dangerous to some insects because
new crop genes can be deadly to them.
2. Concerns on changing the field of agriculture- The process of making GMOs includes
adding new genetic material into an organism’s genome. In agricultural ecology, this means
introducing new genes in the genome of crops like corn. GMO strains have the potential to
change agriculture.
3. Damage the environment. - Genetically modified crops can cause a threat to the
environment since they are not a natural way to plant and cultivate plants
4. Unwanted residual effects- A genetically modified plant can leave unwanted residual
substances that can remain in the soil for extended periods of time. Agricultural regulators
were alerted by research that strains from GM crops would remain in the soil for years after
the crops were removed.
5. Create more weeds- Engineered crops can act as mediators in transferring genes to wild
plants, which can create more weeds. To keep these new weeds under control, scientists then
66
invented new herbicides that were not necessary for non-GMO weeds. These chemicals are
also toxic to various mammals and amphibians, who are feeding on GMO crops.
6. It threatens crop diversity- GM genes on genetic diversity because these genes can
spread to other organic farm crops and threaten crop diversity in agriculture. And if crop
diversity decreases, it will have a direct impact on our entire ecosystem and would affect the
population dynamics of other organisms.
Directions: Imagine you are a plant breeder. You were asked to improve the quality of the
plants listed below. What qualities will you improve in each plant? An example is given to
you as your guide.
Plant Improved Quality or Characteristic
1. rice Ex. Resistant to pests, drought and
insecticides
2. grape
3. papaya
4. corn
5. orchid
6. mango
There are several moral and environmental concerns regarding the use of genetically
modified organisms. But there are also a number of good reasons to allow their use.
Directions: Explain how Transgenic Organism (Column 1) was genetically modified due to
the insertion of foreign genes from another organism (Column 2)
Transgenic Organism Source of foreign Gene How was the organism

genetically modified?
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
http://pngimg.com/
.bp.blogspot.com https://upload.wikimedia.org/
67
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
https://3.bp.blogspot.com/
MODULE 13
the different organ systems of representative animals that work together to help animals
survive. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning situations.
The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are
arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them
The module is composed of four lessons, namely:
● Lesson 13.1: How Animals Survive (Nutrition)
● Lesson 13.2: How Animals Survive (Circulation and Gas Exchange)
● Lesson 13.3: How Animals Survive (Homeostasis and Waste Removal)
● Lesson 13.4: How Animals Survive (Immune System)
● Describe the general and unique characteristics of the different organ systems in
representative animals
● Analyze and appreciate the functional relationships of the different organ
systems in ensuring animal survival
Lesson How Animals Survive?

13.1 (Nutrition)
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The human digestive system is composed of the following parts:
1. The mouth or oral cavity is responsible for ingestion. Your mouth has specialized dentition
for mechanical digestion of food. Also, chemical digestion of food occurs in your mouth,
specifically, of carbohydrates. With the aid of the salivary gland, food is softened and rolled
by your tongue, which results in a round, semi-digested food called the bolus. The bolus
enters the digestive tract, via a crossroad of food and air called the pharynx. To prevent food
from entering the respiratory system, your epiglottis covers the opening (called the glottis) to
the respiratory when you swallow.
68
2. The esophagus, which has voluntary muscles at the pharyngeal end, allows the movement
of bolus to the stomach by lubricating its walls with mucus produced by goblet cells.
Movement of food, not only through the esophagus, but throughout the digestive tract is
caused by peristalsis or the wave-like movement of the muscles of the organs of digestion.
3. The stomach is a bag which mainly functions in the storage of food. Chemical digestion of
food starts here through the action of pepsin (an enzyme for protein digestion) and
hydrochloric acid (HCl) helps in breaking cells, activating pepsinogen to pepsin, and
denaturing proteins. Denaturation is the process of breaking the bonds of protein, through
acids, bases, heavy metals, high temperature and others. The product of digestion in the
stomach is called the chime. Your stomach has two valves at each end, which regulates the
entrance and exit of food. When your stomach is filled, the product of its digestion called
chyme or acidic chyme (due to its acidic nature) moves to the small intestines.
4. In the small intestines, chemical digestion of the four biomolecules occurs. Different
enzymes and hormones are activated / released to the small intestine by the small intestine
itself, the liver, and the pancreas. These hormones, chemicals and enzymes are responsible
for turning complex biomolecules into simpler molecules. Bile for example, is a substance
produced by the liver and stored by the gallbladder which aids in the digestion of fats by
emulsification of fat molecules. Villus (plural- villi) and microvillus (plural- microvilli) are
structures responsible for the efficient absorption of the digested molecules. Thus, your small
intestine has the largest surface area among the organs in the digestive system.
5. The large intestine, termed for its larger diameter compared to the small intestine, is
responsible for water reabsorption and temporary storage of feces. Water from the process of
digestion, which comes from the surrounding tissues (mucus, saliva, chemicals), is recycled
by the large intestine by reabsorbing it. The rate of water reabsorption has an implication on
the hardness/softness of the feces to be eliminated.
6. In humans, the cecum is a structure called the appendix, a vestigial organ. It does not
have any known digestive function, but some argue that it has immune functions. The rectum
is the structure of the large intestine which temporarily stores feces, the movement of the
feces is regulated by a voluntary muscle called the anus.
7. Aside from the major organ of the digestive system, there are accessory organs that help
in digestion of food. These are the liver, gallbladder and pancreas.
The Human Digestive System

(source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Digestive_system_with_liver.png)
69
Activity: Fill Me
Directions: Complete the table of the human digestive system by writing the function of the
part in the second column, then, draw or paste the cut-out picture of the different parts in
the last column.
Parts Function Drawing/Cut out picture
Mouth
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Liver
Pancreas
Gallbladder
1. Based on the illustration above, what are the main organs of the human digestive
system?
2. What is the importance of liver, gallbladder, and liver in the human digestive
system?

13.2 (Circulation and Gas Exchange)
THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
During inhalation your diaphragm descends creating a negative pressure around your
lungs and they begin to inflate, drawing in air from outside the body. The air enters the body
through your nasal cavity located just inside the nose. As the air passes through your nasal
cavity, the air is warmed to body temperature and humidified by moisture from mucous
membranes. Particulate matter that is floating in the air is removed in the nasal passages by
hairs, mucus, and cilia. Air is also chemically sampled by the sense of smell.
From your nasal cavity, air passes through your pharynx (throat) and larynx (voice
box) as it makes its way to the trachea. The main function of the trachea is to funnel the
inhaled air to the lungs and the exhaled air back out of the body. It is made of incomplete
rings of cartilage and smooth muscle. The cartilage provides strength and support to the
70
trachea to keep the passage open. The trachea is lined with cells that have cilia and secrete
mucus. The mucus catches particles that have been inhaled, and the cilia move the particles
toward the pharynx.
The end of your trachea divides into two bronchi that enter the right and left lung. Air
enters your lungs through the primary bronchi. The primary bronchus divides, creating
smaller and smaller diameter bronchi until the passages are under 1 mm (.03 in) in diameter
when they are called bronchioles as they split and spread through the lung. Like the trachea,
the bronchus and bronchioles are made of cartilage and smooth muscle. The final bronchioles
are the respiratory bronchioles. Alveolar ducts are attached to the end of each respiratory
bronchiole. At the end of each duct are alveolar
sacs, each containing 20 to 30 alveoli. Gas
exchange occurs only in the alveoli. The alveoli are
thin-walled and look like tiny bubbles within the
sacs. The alveoli are in direct contact with
capillaries of the circulatory system. Such intimate
contact ensures that oxygen will diffuse from the
alveoli into the blood. In addition, carbon dioxide
will diffuse from the blood into the alveoli to be
exhaled. The anatomical arrangement of capillaries
and alveoli emphasizes the structural and
functional relationship of the respiratory and
circulatory systems.
The Human Respiratory Systems

(source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human-respiratory-system-structure.jpeg)
THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system is a network of vessels—the arteries, veins, and capillaries—
and a pump, the heart. In all vertebrate organisms this is a closed-loop system, in which
the blood is largely separated from the body’s other extracellular fluid compartment, the
interstitial fluid, which is the fluid bathing the cells. Blood circulates inside blood vessels and
circulates unidirectionally from the heart around one of two circulatory routes, then returns
to the heart again; this is a closed circulatory system. Open circulatory systems are found
in invertebrate animals in which the circulatory fluid bathes the internal organs directly even
though it may be moved about with a pumping heart.
The Heart
Your heart is a complex muscle that consists of two pumps: one that pumps blood
through pulmonary circulation to the lungs, and the other that pumps blood through
systemic circulation to the rest of the body’s tissues (and the heart itself). Your heart is about
the size of a clenched fist; it is divided into four chambers: two atria and two ventricles. There
is one atrium and one ventricle on the right side and one atrium and one ventricle on the left
side. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the systemic circulation through the
major veins: the superior vena cava, which drains blood from the head and from the veins
that come from the arms, as well as the inferior vena cava, which drains blood from the veins
that come from the lower organs and the legs. This deoxygenated blood then passes to the
right ventricle through the tricuspid valve, which prevents the backflow of blood. After it is
filled, the right ventricle contracts, pumping the blood to the lungs for reoxygenation. The left
atrium receives the oxygen-rich blood from the lungs. This blood passes through the bicuspid
valve to the left ventricle where the blood is pumped into the aorta. The aorta is the major
artery of the body, taking oxygenated blood to the organs and muscles of the body. This
pattern of pumping is referred to as double circulation and is found in all mammals.
Blood Vessels
Your blood from the heart is carried through the body by a complex network of blood
vessels. Arteries take blood away from the heart. The main artery of the systemic circulation
is the aorta; it branches into major arteries that take blood to different limbs and organs. The
aorta and arteries near the heart have heavy but elastic walls that respond to and smooth
71
out the pressure differences caused by the beating heart. Arteries farther away from the heart
have more muscle tissue in their walls that can constrict to affect flow rates of blood. The
major arteries diverge into minor arteries, and then smaller vessels called arterioles, to reach
more deeply into the muscles and organs of the body. Arterioles diverge into capillary beds.
Capillary beds contain a large number, 10’s to 100’s of capillaries that branch among the
cells of the body. Capillaries are narrow-diameter tubes that can fit single red blood cells and
are the sites for the exchange of nutrients, waste, and oxygen with tissues at the cellular
level. Fluid also leaks from the blood into the interstitial space from the capillaries. The
capillaries converge again into venules that connect
to minor veins that finally connect to major veins.
Veins are blood vessels that bring blood high in
carbon dioxide back to the heart. Veins are not as
thick-walled as arteries, since pressure is lower, and
they have valves along their length that prevent
backflow of blood away from the heart. The major
veins drain blood from the same organs and limbs
that the major arteries supply.
The Human Circulatory System

(source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2003_Dual_System_of_Human_Circulation.jpg)
Activity: Organ Profile
Directions: Describe two organs (one for respiratory and one for circulatory systems) using
profile. In the first column you will draw or paste a cut out picture of the chosen organ then
in the second column introduce this organ by answering the questions listed in the
box.
Example:
Where am I located?
I am located in the thoracic cavity
between the lungs.
What do I do?
I am responsible for circulating the
blood throughout the body.
How do I interact with other
organs?
I am interacting with the organs of
respiratory, digestive and nervous
systems. I transport oxygen and
nutrients that are carried by the
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human_Heart.png
blood.
Where am I located?
What do I do?
72
organs?
Where am I located?
What do I do?

organs?
Critical thinking question
Which organ of the respiratory and circulatory systems is the most important? Why?
How Animals Survive?

Lesson
(Homeostasis and Waste
13.3
Removal)
HOMEOSTASIS
The goal of homeostasis is the maintenance of equilibrium around a specific value of
some aspect of the body or its cells called a set point. While there are normal fluctuations
from the set point, the body’s systems will usually attempt to go back to this point. A change
in the internal or external environment is called a stimulus and is detected by a receptor; the
response of the system is to adjust the activities of the system, so the value moves back
toward the set point. For instance, if the body becomes too warm, adjustments are made to
cool the animal. If glucose levels in the blood rise after a meal, adjustments are made to lower
them and to get the nutrient into tissues that need it or to store it for later use.
When a change occurs in an animal’s environment, an adjustment must be made so

that the internal environment of the body and cells remains stable. The receptor that senses
the change in the environment is part of a feedback mechanism. The stimulus—temperature,
glucose, or calcium levels—is detected by the receptor. The receptor sends information to a
control center, often the brain, which relays appropriate signals to an effector organ that is
able to cause an appropriate change, either up or down, depending on the information the
sensor was sending.
OSMOREGULATION
Osmoregulation is the process of maintaining salt and water balance (osmotic
balance) across membranes within the body. The fluids inside and surrounding cells are
composed of water, electrolytes, and nonelectrolytes.
73
The body does not exist in isolation. There is a constant input of water and electrolytes
into the system. Excess water, electrolytes, and wastes are transported to your kidneys and
excreted, helping you to maintain osmotic balance. Insufficient fluid intake results in fluid
conservation by the kidneys. Biological systems constantly interact and exchange water and
nutrients with the environment by way of consumption of food and water and through
excretion in the form of sweat, urine, and feces. Without a mechanism to regulate osmotic
pressure, or when a disease damages this mechanism, there is a tendency to accumulate
toxic waste and water, which can have dire consequences.
Activity: Defining Format
Directions: In the first column, write a question about the topic, underneath the question
write the main word you will define. Then in the second column, identify what category does
the word written in the first column belong to. Lastly, in the third column, you write the
characteristics of the word written in the first column. Use the given example as your guide.
Questions Category Characteristics

Example:
What is biology?
Biology is… …the study of..… …life or living things.
Critical thinking question:
Why do you think maintaining internal balance within the body of an organism is
vital?

13.4 (Immune System)
What is the immune system?

Your immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs. Together they
help the body fight infections and other diseases. When germs such as bacteria or viruses
invade your body, they attack and multiply. This is called an infection. The infection causes
74
the disease that makes you sick. Your immune system protects you from the disease by
fighting off the germs.
What are the parts of the immune system?
The immune system has many different parts, including
-Your skin, which can help prevent germs from getting into the body
- Mucous membranes, which are the moist, inner linings of some organs and body cavities.
They make mucus and other substances which can trap and fight germs.
- White blood cells, which fight germs
- Organs and tissues of the lymph system, such as the thymus, spleen,
tonsils, lymph nodes, lymph vessels, and bone marrow. They produce, store,
and carry white blood cells.
How does the immune system work?
Your immune system defends your body against substances it sees as harmful or
foreign. These substances are called antigens. They may be germs such as bacteria and
viruses. They might be chemicals or toxins. They could also be cells that are damaged from
things like cancer or sunburn.
When your immune system recognizes an antigen, it attacks it. This is called an
immune response. Part of this response is to make antibodies. Antibodies are proteins that
work to attack, weaken, and destroy antigens. Your body also makes other cells to fight the
antigen.
Afterwards, your immune system remembers the antigen. If it sees the antigen again,
it can recognize it. It will quickly send out the right antibodies, so in most cases, you don't
get sick. This protection against a certain disease is called immunity.
What are the types of immunity?

There are three different types of immunity:
1. Innate immunity is the protection that you are born with. It is your body's first
line of defense. It includes barriers such as the skin and mucous membranes.
They keep harmful substances from entering the body. It also includes some cells
and chemicals which can attack foreign substances.
2. Active immunity, also called adaptive immunity, develops when you are infected
with or vaccinated against a foreign substance. Active immunity is usually long-
lasting. For many diseases, it can last your entire life.
3. Passive immunity happens when you receive antibodies to a disease instead of
making them through your own immune system. For example, newborn babies
have antibodies from their mothers. People can also get passive immunity through
blood products that contain antibodies. This kind of immunity gives you protection
right away. But it only lasts a few weeks or months.
Activity: Find Me
Directions: Complete the cloze test below using the words in the box. Then choose one word
and describe it using your own words.
The 1______ is a network of biological processes that protects an organism against disease.
There are types of immunity – innate immunity, passive immunity, and active immunity. The
2_________ is your body's first line of defense. It includes barriers such as the skin and
mucous membranes. 3_____ also called adaptive immunity, develops when you are infected
with or vaccinated against a foreign substance. While 4______ happens when you receive
antibodies to a disease instead of making them through your own immune system.
Immune system defends your body against substances that are called 5_________. They may
be germs such as bacteria and viruses. They might be chemicals or toxins. They could also
be cells that are damaged from things like cancer or sunburn.
75
When the immune system recognizes an antigen, it attacks it. This is called an 6________.
Part of this response is to make antibodies. 7_______ are proteins that work to attack, weaken,
and destroy antigens. Your body also makes other cells to fight the antigen.
Afterwards, your immune system remembers the antigen. If it sees the antigen again, it can
recognize it. It will quickly send out the right antibodies, so in most cases, you don't get sick.
This protection against a certain disease is called 8____.
immune system innate immunity passive immunity active immunity antigens
immune response Antibodies immunity
Guide Questions:
Choose one word from the box then describe or explain it using your own words.
Activity: The Artist

Directions: Create an album of the digestive system, respiratory & circulatory, and immune
system of other representative animals. Draw or paste the cut-out pictures in short bond
paper. (Note: your output will be assessed using a rubric)
MODULE 14
the different organ systems of representative animals that work together to help animals
survive. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning situations.
The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are
arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them
The module is composed of three lessons, namely:
● Lesson 14.1: How Animals Survive (Hormones)
● Lesson 14.2: How Animals Survive (Nervous System)
● Lesson 14.3: How Animals Survive (Locomotion)

● Describe the general and unique characteristics of the different organ systems in
representative animals
● Analyze and appreciate the functional relationships of the different organ
systems in ensuring animal survival
76
14.1 (Hormones)
Before we study the effects of hormones in our body, let’s have a review of the human
endocrine system. Endocrine system is made up of glands whose function is to secrete
chemical substances (hormones) into other regions of the body. There are two types of glands
– endocrine (endo means within) glands and exocrine (exo means “outwards) glands.
Endocrine glands are ductless glands that release hormones directly into either the
bloodstream or the fluid around the cell. Exocrine glands deliver substances through a tube-
like structure called ducts. The ducts transport the chemicals to specific locations or part of
the body. Examples of exocrine glands are sweat glands, mucus glands, and salivary glands.
Pancreas functions both as endocrine and exocrine glands.
Hormones are involved in coordinating the activities that the endocrine system carries
out to keep your body functioning properly. Hormones are (1) responsible for regulating many
processes including growth, development, behavior, and reproduction, (2) coordinating the
production, use, and storage of energy, (3) maintaining homeostasis of internal balance, such
as nutrition, excretion, water and salt balance, and (5) reacting to stimuli from outside the
body.
How Hormones Work
Each hormone is very specific about which type of cell receives its instruction. After
hormones are released from the cell in which they are made, they bind and act only on target
cells. A target cell is a specific hormone that binds to and acts on. If a hormone is not specific,
all cells in the body would respond to the hormone thus resulting in uncoordinated activities.
That’s why a hormone should bind only to a specific target cell.
The mechanism of hormones in our body is like a lock-and-key. Hormones mediate

changes in target cells by binding to specific hormone receptors. In this way, even though
hormones circulate throughout the body and meet many different cell types, they only affect
cells that possess the necessary receptors. Receptors for a specific hormone may be found on
many different cells or may be limited to a small number of specialized cells. For example,
thyroid hormones act on many different tissue types, stimulating metabolic activity
throughout the body. Cells can have many receptors for the same hormone, but often also
possess receptors for different types of hormones. The number of receptors that respond to a
hormone determines the cell’s sensitivity to that hormone and the resulting cellular response.
Regulation of Hormones in the Body
Our body produces more than forty kinds of hormones. Therefore, the body must
regulate their release, or it may cause internal imbalances or, in worse scenarios, body
malformations such as goiter or gigantism. In the human body, the level of a hormone in the
blood turns the production of the hormone on and off through a feedback mechanism.
Feedback mechanisms detect the amount of hormones in circulation or the amount of other
chemicals produced because of hormone action. If high levels of a hormone stimulate the
output of even more hormones, then regulation is positive feedback. Example of a positive
feedback mechanism is seen when a woman is giving birth. More hormones are released to
stimulate the contraction of the uterus which enables her to release the baby. Negative
feedback mechanism, on the other hand, counteracts the production of a hormone in one
direction. Example of a negative feedback mechanism is the control of the blood glucose level.
77
In this mechanism certain endocrine cells in the pancreas called alpha and beta cells, detect
the level of glucose in the blood. Then they respond appropriately to keep the level of blood
glucose within the normal range. If the blood glucose level rises above the normal range,
pancreatic beta cells release the hormone insulin into the bloodstream. Insulin signals cells
to take up the excess glucose from the blood until the level of blood glucose decreases to the
normal range. If the blood glucose level falls below the normal range, pancreatic alpha cells
release the hormone glucagon into the bloodstream. Glucagon signals cells to break down
stored glycogen to glucose and release the glucose into the blood until the level of blood
glucose increases to the normal range.
Major Endocrine Organs and Hormones
Tissue/Gland Hormone Target Major Actions

Produced
Hypothalamus Release and inhibits Anterior pituitary Stimulates or inhibits
hormones
Pituitary gland Thyroid-stimulating Thyroid Stimulates production
(Anterior) hormone (TSH) and secretion of
thyroxine
Prolactin Mammary glands Stimulate milk
production
Adrenocorticotropic Adrenal cortex Stimulates secretion of
hormone (ACTH) corticosteroids
Endorphin Brain Decreases pain
Growth hormone (GH) Various cells Stimulates general
body growth
Luteinizing hormone Ovaries Stimulates ovulation
(LH) and production of
estrogen and
progesterone
Follicle-stimulating Ovaries Stimulates growth of
hormone (FSH) ovarian follicle
Testes Stimulates sperm
production
Pituitary gland Oxytocin Mammary glands Milk secretion
(Posterior)
Uterus Uterine contraction
Antidiuretic hormone Kidney Increase water
(ADH) absorption
Thyroid Thyroxine Most cells Increases metabolic
rate and growth
Calcitonin Bones Stimulates calcium
uptake
Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone Bones Stimulate calcium
release into blood
Digestive tract Stimulate calcium
uptake into the blood
Adrenal glands Epinephrine Circulatory system Increases heart rate,
(adrenaline) blood pressure, and
blood sugar
Respiratory system Increases breathing
rate and clears
airways
Norepinephrine Generally, the same as
epinephrine
Pancreas Insulin Many cells Stimulates glucose
uptake from blood
Glucagon Many cells Stimulates glucose
release
78
Ovaries Estrogen Many cells Stimulates female
development and
behavior
Progesterone Uterus Stimulates growth of
uterine lining
Testes Testosterone Many cells Stimulates male
development and
behavior
Thymus Thymosin White blood cells Stimulates
differentiation
Pineal Melatonin Brain Promotes sleep
Gastrointestinal tract Gastrin Gut cells Stimulates
hydrochloric acid
secretion
Activity: Match Me
Directions: Complete the following table by writing the correct answers from the list below.
Glands Hormones Functions

Pituitary
Adrenal
Ovaries
Pancreas
Parathyroid
Testes
Thyroid
- Oxytocin - Promotes milk production

- Prolactin - Stimulates growth
- Thyroxin - Regulates metabolism and growth
- Estrogen - stimulates development of female secondary
- Insulin sex characteristics
- Testosterone - Regulates calcium use by body
- Epinephrine - Stimulates release of milk
- Parathyroid hormone - Stimulates thyroid to release thyroxine
- Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) - stimulates male secondary sex
- Growth hormone characteristics
- Norepinephrine - Increases heart rate and blood pressure
- Stimulates glucose uptake from blood
Why is hypothalamus considered the control center of the endocrine system?
79
14.2 (Nervous System)
THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system enables our body to respond quickly to changes in the
environment by doing the four basic functions: (1) gathers information both from the outside
environment and inside the body, (2) transmits information to the processing areas in the
brain and spinal cord, (3) processes information to determine the best response, and (4) sends
information to muscles, glands, and organs so they can respond correctly.
The nervous system is made up of neurons, specialized cells that can receive and
transmit chemical or electrical signals, and glia, cells that provide support functions for the
neurons. There is great diversity in the types of neurons and glia that are present in different
parts of the nervous system.
A typical neuron
(source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Neuron.svg)
TYPES OF NEURONS
Sensory Neurons
Sensory neurons are also called afferent neurons because their function is to receive initial
stimuli from sense organs where most receptors are located. The sensory neuron’s goal is to
transmit the nerve impulses to the spinal cord and to the brain so an action can be taken.
Interneuron
Interneurons are also called connector neurons or association neurons. They “read”
impulses received from sensory neurons. Interneurons are found in the spinal cord and in
the brain. When an interneuron receives an impulse from a sensory neuron, the interneuron
determines what response should be generated. If a response is required, the interneuron
passes the impulse on to motor neurons.
Motor neurons
Motor neurons are called efferent neurons and the function is to stimulate effector
cells. It is through motor neurons that the messages from your brain and spinal cord are sent
to a muscle cell or gland cell in your body. When a motor neuron receives a signal from the
interneuron, the motor neuron works to stimulate an effect or an action.
DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Our nervous system is divided into two main parts: the central nervous system and
the peripheral nervous system.
Central Nervous System

All information about what is happening in the world inside or outside your body is
brought to the central nervous system. The central nervous system is the command or main
center of the entire body. It processes information and sends instructions to other parts of
the body. The central nervous system (CNS) is divided into two parts: the brain and the spinal
cord.
80
The brain is the main control center of the CNS. It transmits and receives messages
through the spinal cord. It is protected and encased by a bony covering called the skull. The
brain is also wrapped with three layers of connective tissue, which nourish and protect it.
The brain is divided into three main parts: the cerebrum, the largest region, and the most
noticeable part of the human brain; the cerebellum, the second largest part of the brain; and
the brain stem.
The cerebrum is the area where learning, intelligence, and judgment occur. Aside from
this enormous task, it also controls all the voluntary activities of the body. In addition, it
shapes your attitudes, emotions, and even your personality. On the other hand, the
cerebellum coordinates the actions of the muscles and to maintain balance. It controls the
balance, equilibrium, and posture. Meanwhile, the brainstem connects the brain to the spinal
cord. It coordinates many survival functions of the body such as breathing, heart rate, sleep
and wakefulness.
The spinal cord is a tube-like organ of neurons and blood vessels. It is protected inside
the backbone or spinal column. The function of the spinal cord is to relay the message from
the peripheral nervous system to the brain.
Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the link between the central nervous system
to the rest of the body. It is made of a network of nerves that extends or branches out of the
central nervous system and connects throughout the different organs of the body. The PNS
gathers and delivers information to and from the central nervous system. The word peripheral
means “outer part”.
The Human Nervous System

(source: http://learn.neurotechedu.com/the_nervous_system/)
Activity: Organ Profile
Directions: Describe two organs using a profile. In the first column you will draw or paste a
cut out picture of the chosen organ then in the second column introduce this organ by
answering the questions listed in the box.
Example:
Where am I located?
I am in the thoracic cavity between
the lungs.
What do I do?
I am responsible for circulating the
blood throughout the body.
81
organs?
I am interacting with the organs of
respiratory, digestive and nervous
systems. I transport oxygen and
nutrients that are carried by the
blood.
Where am I located?
What do I do?

organs?
Where am I located?
What do I do?

organs?
Critical thinking question
Why do you think the brain is considered as the control or command center of the nervous
system?

14.3 (Locomotion)
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
The muscular system consists of all the muscles of the body. The largest percentage
of muscles in the muscular system consists of skeletal muscles, which are attached to bones
and enable voluntary body movements. There are almost 650 skeletal muscles in the human
body. Besides skeletal muscles, the muscular system also includes cardiac muscle — which
makes up the walls of the heart — and smooth muscles, which control movement in other
internal organs and structures.
Types of muscles
82
(source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Figure_33_02_12abc.jpg)
Skeletal muscles are attached to bones of the skeleton. When these muscles contract,
they move the body. They allow us to use our limbs in a variety of ways, from walking to
turning cartwheels. Skeletal muscles also maintain posture and help keep balance.
Smooth muscles in the walls of blood vessels contract to cause vasoconstriction,

which may help conserve body heat. Relaxation of these muscles causes vasodilation, which
may help the body lose heat. In the organs of the digestive system, smooth muscles squeeze
food through the gastrointestinal tract by contracting in sequence to form a wave of muscle
contractions called peristalsis. Think of squirting toothpaste through a tube by applying
pressure in sequence from the bottom of the tube to the top, and you have a good idea of how
food is moved by muscles through the digestive system. Peristalsis of smooth muscles also
moves urine through the urinary tract.
Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the walls of the heart. When cardiac muscle
contracts, it makes the heartbeat. The pumping action of the beating heart keeps blood
flowing through the cardiovascular system.
Muscles are organs composed mainly of muscle cells, which are also called muscle
fibers (mainly in skeletal and cardiac muscle) or myocytes (mainly in smooth muscle). Muscle
cells are long, thin cells that are specialized for the function of contracting. They contain
protein filaments that slide over one another using energy in ATP. The sliding filaments
increase the tension in — or shorten the length of — muscle cells, causing a contraction.
Muscle contractions are responsible for virtually all the movements of the body, both inside
and out.
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system is the organ system that provides an internal framework for the
human body. Why do you need a skeletal system? Try to imagine what you would look like
without it. You would be a soft, wobbly pile of skin containing muscles and internal organs
but no bones. You might look something like a very large slug. Not that you would be able to
see yourself — folds of skin would drop down over your eyes and block your vision because
of your lack of skull bones. You could push the skin out of the way if you could only move
your arms, but you need bones for that as well!
In adults, the skeletal system includes 206 bones. Bones are organs made of dense
connective tissues, mainly the tough protein collagen. Bones contain blood vessels, nerves,
and other tissues. Bones are hard and rigid due to deposits of calcium and other mineral
salts within their living tissues. Locations, where two or more bones meet, are called joints.
Many joints allow bones to move like levers. For example, your elbow is a joint that allows
you to bend and straighten your arm.
Besides bones, the skeletal system includes cartilage and ligaments. Cartilage is a
type of dense connective tissue, made of tough protein fibers. It is strong but flexible and very
smooth. It covers the ends of bones at joints, providing a smooth surface for bones to move
over. Ligaments are bands of fibrous connective tissue that hold bones together. They keep
the bones of the skeleton in place
The skeleton is traditionally divided into two major parts: the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton, both of which are pictured below.
The axial skeleton forms the axis of the body. It includes the skull, vertebral column
(spine), and rib cage. The bones of the axial skeleton, along with ligaments and muscles, allow
the human body to maintain its upright posture. The axial skeleton also transmits weight
from the head, trunk, and upper extremities down the back to the lower extremities. In
addition, the bones protect the brain and organs in the chest.
The appendicular skeleton forms the appendages and their attachments to the axial
skeleton. It includes the bones of the arms and legs, hands and feet, and shoulder and pelvic
girdles. The bones of the appendicular skeleton make possible locomotion and other
movements of the appendages. They also protect the major organs of digestion, excretion, and
reproduction.
The functions of the skeletal system include (1) support, shape, and protection, (2)
Movement, (3) hematopoiesis or the process in which blood cells are produced, and (4)
mineral storage and homeostasis.
83
Activity: Defining Format
Directions: In the first column, write a question about the topic, underneath the question
write the main word you will define. Then in the second column, identify what category does
the word written in the first column belong to. Lastly, in the third column, you write the
characteristics of the word written in the first column. Use the given example as your guide.

Example:
What is biology?
Why do you think organisms need to move?
Activity: The Artist

Directions: Choose one organ system discussed in this module. Create an album of the
chosen organ system of other representative animals. Draw or paste the cut-out pictures in
short bond paper.
of paper.
Life Science
1. Binary fission is an example of asexual reproduction. In this mode, the cell divides to form
two identical daughter cells. Each cell then continues to grow until it becomes as large as the
parent cell. Which pair of organisms reproduce through binary fission?
A. amoeba and paramecium C. hydra and yeast
B. bread mold and mushroom D. star fish and spirogyra
84
2. Sexual reproduction in plants involves several stages. In which stage do pollen grains reach
and land on the stigma and eventually undergo mitosis to give rise to two sperm cells.
A. Double fertilization C. Pollen germination
B. Gametogenesis D. Pollination
3. The primary purpose of the endocrine system is to ____.
A. ensure proper growth and development
B. maintain a relatively constant internal environment
C. provide a mechanism for rapid response to changes in the body
D. all of these
4. What is the mechanism that regulates the amount of a hormone in the blood?
A. ductless gland C. negative feedback
B. diffusion D. secretion
5. You drink a glass of lemonade, but your body's pH does not change. This is an example of
how organisms:
A. maintain homeostasis.
B. maintain organization.
C. adapt to their environment.
D. are immune to acid.
6. Humans born without sweat glands usually do not survive. Why not?
A. Sweating is an important mechanism for maintaining temperature homeostasis.
B. Sweat glands create openings in the skin where gas exchange occurs.
C. Sweating is an important way of ridding the body of excess water.
D. Sweating is important for purging impurities from the body.
7. Genetic engineering is the alteration of an organism’s genotype using recombinant DNA
technology. Scientists follow a step-by-step process to alter the DNA of an organism. Which
of the following shows the correct sequence of genetic engineering?
A. Identify the trait of interest Insert the desired trait into the new genome Growing
the GMO Isolate the genetic trait of interest
B. Isolate the genetic trait of interest Identify the trait of interest Insert the desired
trait into the new genome Growing the GMO
C. Growing the GMO Isolate the genetic trait of interest Identify the trait of interest
Insert the desired trait into the new genome
D. Identify the trait of interest Isolate the genetic trait of interest Insert the desired
trait into the new genome Growing the GMO
8. Organs are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells. This is an example of which
characteristic of life?
A. Living things grow and develop
B. Living things respond to stimuli
C. Living things have levels of organization
D. Living things maintain themselves by homeostasis
9. The sum of the chemical activity at the cellular level which enables an organism to meet
its nutrient and energy demands is termed:
A. Evolution B. Responsiveness C. Metabolism D. Growth
10. A plant grows toward the light. The plant’s action is an example of
A. reproduction.
B. a response.
C. a stimulus.
D. development.
85
86
Lesson 1.2 What's More
Layer Description
1. Inner core Composed of mostly iron and nickel. It is theorized that is solid.
2. Outer core Composed of iron and nickel. The iron in this layer is in liquid form.
3. Lower mantle is the lower liquid portion of the mantle ranging from 400 miles below the
surface to about 1,800 miles below the surface. The lower mantle is incredibly
large and takes up most of the volume of the earth.
4. Upper is liquid rock, and very hot. The upper mantle actually moves large areas of
mantle crust, called tectonic plates, very slowly. When tectonic plates move, they can
form volcanoes, mountains, or earthquakes.
5. Crust composed of both the oceanic and the continental crusts. Most of the crust is
composed of eight elements, namely oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium,
sodium, potassium and magnesium
Lesson 1.1 What's More
Module 1
Quarter II Quarter I Quarter II QUarter I
Assessment Assessment What I Know What I Know
1. A 1. D 1. C 1. A
2. C 2. B 2. D 2. B
3. D 3. B 3. A 3. B
4. C 4. A 4. A 4. D
5. A 5. B 5. A 5. A
6. A 6. D 6. B 6. C
7. D 7. C 7. A 7. A
8. C 8. B 8. B 8. C
9. C 9. B 9. A 9. C
10. B 10. B 10. D 10. D
87
Lesson 2.1 Lesson 2.1
What’s more What’s more Activity 1.1
Activity 1.2
Halites
Halides
Carbonates
Phosphates
Sulphides
Quartz
Silicates
Sulphates
Native Element
Oxides
Module 2
Module 1 Lesson 1.3
What I Can What's More
Do 1. TRUE
2. FALSE
Poster to be 3. FALSE
submitted 4. FALSE
will vary 5. FALSE
6. TRUE
7. TRUE
8. TRUE
9. FALSE
10. TRUE
88
What's More What's More
Activity 1 (answers may vary) Activity 1 (answers may vary)
Sample answers Sample answers
1. The food color moved from hot area to cold 1. The ice cubes melt. The area where the salt
area. was place formed a groove.
2. The movement of food color followed the heat 2. As the ice turns to water, the change from
that comes from the mug below. solid to liquid requires heat. This is just like when
3. The magma moves from an area with high water changes from liquid to gas, for example
temperature to an area with low temperature. when evaporating sweat cools your skin. As ice
4. The pieces of carboard moved melts, the heat is taken from the ice and water
5. There is a continuous movement of magma around it.
from the earth’s internal part to outside. 3. A kilometer of rock works as a reasonably
good insulator.
Module 3
Module 2 Lesson 2.4
What’s I can Do What’s more Activity 1
The output to be submitted (expository 1. Form 6. True
speech) will be assessed using a rubric 2. True 7. Contact
3. Gradual 8. True
4. Low-Grade 9. True
5. True 10. True
What’s more Activity 1 What’s more Activity 1
89
Module 4 Lesson 4.2
What I Can Do What's More
Set- What is the What is the If this happens to Activity 1
up description of direction of the rocks on Earth,
the finished force? What do you think
paper is its manifestation?
structure
created?
a.Parts of the Push inwards Mountains/ hills
paper went up
b.The middle part Pull outwards Mid ranges and
became flat continent drifts
c. The paper Push in earthquakes
stack in different
different direction
direction
Lesson 4.1
What's More
Activity 1 Part 2
Lesson 4.1
What's More
Activity 1 Part 1
Name of rock Definition Drawing or picture
Igneous rock Igneous rocks form when rocks are Picture of drawing
heated to the melting point which may vary
forms magma.
Sedimentary Sedimentary rocks are formed from Picture of drawing
rock the cementing together of may vary
sediments, or from the compaction
(squeezing together) of sediments,
or from the recrystallization of new
mineral grains
Metamorphic Metamorphic rocks form from heat Picture of drawing
rock and pressure changing the original may vary
or parent rock into a completely
new rock.
Module 4
90
Module 7 Lesson 7.2 Lesson 7.1
What I Can Do What's More What's More
Infographic campaign Activity 1 Activity 1
materials will be assessed 1. T 6. Continuous rain 1. B 6. A
using rubric 2. M 7. Earthquake 2. C 7. D
3. M 8. Cutting of slope 3. C 8. C
4. M 9. Plant trees 4. A 9. B
5. T 10. Proper land use 5. D 10. D
Module 7
Lesson 6
Module 6 What's More
What I Can Activity 1
Do (Answers may vary)
Infographic Sample Answer
may vary 1. Cherry Hills Subdivision Landslide Incident
Geological Disaster: landslide
Date of Occurrence: August 3, 1999
Background of the Disaster: On the night of August 3, 1999, a massive landslide occurred in Cherry
Hills subdivision in Antipolo, Rizal province, Philippines. Cherry Hills subdivision was home to
hundreds of families paying-off low cost, concrete houses. The landslide was primarily caused by the
heavy rains of the approaching typhoon Olga. The subdivision became a death trap when its
foundations was filled with water and the whole complex slid down the hill on which it was built.
Effects of the disaster: It resulted to about 60 death toll and 378 houses buried.
Mitigation Measures: Planting of trees in the nearby mountains.
Module 6
Module 5 Lesson 5
1. They are folded Activity 1
2. Yes 1. C 4. B
3. Pushing of the layer
4. The layers are not horizontally oriented 2. C 5. D
5. Folds result from the slow deformation of rocks. This happens deep underground 3. A
where the rocks are under pressure and temperatures are higher. 6. Normal fault
6. If the pressure is applied too quickly, or is too great, or the rock isn’t warm 7. Reverse fault
enough, then the rock will not fold but will break like any other brittle solid. The line
8. Strike-slip fault
of the break is called a fault. The pressure is still on the two sides of the fault, so the
bits of rock usually start sliding slowly past each other. The initial movement – the 9. Transform fault
break – causes shockwaves in the surrounding rocks and creates an earthquake.
Module 5
91
Module 9 Lesson 9 Lesson 9
What I Can What's More What's More
Do Critical Thinking Questions
The research 1. The primordial soup is a
output about generic term that describes the
the different aqueous solution of organic
experiment compounds that accumulated
that in primitive water bodies of the
disproved early Earth because of
the theory endogenous abiotic syntheses
will be and the extraterrestrial
assessed delivery by cometary and
using a meteoritic collisions, and from
rubric which some have assumed that
the first living systems evolved.
2. Prebiotic chemistry is the
study of how organic
compounds formed and self-
organized for the origin of life
on Earth and elsewhere
Module 9
Lesson 8.3 Lesson 8.2 Lesson 8.1
What's More What's More What's More
Activity 1 Activity 1 Activity 1
1. Fact 1. C 1. Hanging Habagat
2. Fact 2. G 2. PAG-ASA
Module 8 3. Bluff 3. A 3. Northwest Pacific
What I Can Do 4. Bluff 4. E Ocean
The output (emergency kit 5. Fact 5. J 4. Storm surge
and description of the kit) will 6. B 5. December-March
be assessed using rubric 6. Cool and dry
7. F
7. Flood
8. D
8. Monsoon
9.H 9. Hurricane
10. I 10. Tropical cyclone
Module 8
92
Module 11
What I Can Do
Answer may vary
Lesson 11.2
What's More
Activity 1
Lesson 11.1
What's More
Activity 1
Module 11
Module 10 Lesson 10
Activity 1
Cells
2. Tissues
3. Organs
4. Organ system
5. Organism
1. Bacteria are unicellular organisms that are
made up of single or one cell only.
2. The functions and activities of an organism
(multicellular) depends on the harmonious
relationship of the organs and organ systems.
That is why these organs and organ system
needs to work hand in hand.
Module 10
93
Lesson 13.1
What's More
Activity 1
Sample Answers
The main organs of digestive system are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines.
The accessory organs like liver, pancreas, gall bladder help in the process of digestion
Parts Function Drawing/Cut
out picture
Mouth The mouth or oral cavity- is responsible for ingestion Drawing may
vary
Esophagus allows the movement of bolus to the stomach by lubricating its walls
with mucus produced by goblet cells
Stomach mainly functions in the storage of food.
Small intestine Site where chemical digestion of the four biomolecules occurs
Large intestine is responsible for water reabsorption and temporary storage of feces.
Liver is essential for digesting food and ridding your body of toxic
substances.
Pancreas plays an essential role in converting the food we eat into fuel for the
body's cells
Gall bladder stores bile produced by the liver.
Module 13
Module 11
What I Can Do
Answer may vary
1. Genetic engineers inject arctic fish genes into tomatoes and strawberries to make them
frost tolerant.
2. Genetic engineers combine the gene of poison in the tail of a scorpion with a cabbage.
These genetically modified cabbages kill caterpillars.
3. Genetic engineers have created goats with spider genes that create "silk" in their milk.
Apart from increasing the silkiness of the beverage, scientists also use its spider web protein
to make bulletproof vests.
Lesson 12.1
Lesson 12.2
What's More
What's More
Activity 1 (Answer may vary)
Activity 1 (Answer may vary)
1. flavor-savor 1. The tissue found in the fingernail.
2. herbicide-resistant 2. Yes
3. pest-resistant cotton plants 3. The tissue found in the fingernail undergo
4. virus-resistant plants DNA phenotyping which yield to identifying the
5. drought-resistant plants murderer
6. nutritious 4. It yield to the construction of facial
7. edible vaccines composite of the murder.
Module 12
94
- Regulates metabolism and growth - Thyroxin Thyroid
- stimulates male secondary sex characteristics - Testosterone Testes
- Regulates calcium use by body - Parathyroid hormone Parathyroid
- Stimulates glucose uptake from blood - Insulin Pancreas
characteristics
- stimulates development of female secondary sex - Estrogen Ovaries
- Norepinephrine
- Increases heart rate and blood pressure - Epinephrine Adrenal
- Prolactin
- Promotes milk production
(TSH)
- Stimulates thyroid to release thyroxin - Thyroid stimulating hormone Pituitary
Drawing/Cut out picture Hormones Glands
The hypothalamus is the master switchboard. It's the part of the brain that controls the endocrine system
Lesson 14.1 What's More Activity 1
Module 14
Module 13
What I Can Do
Output will be assessed using a rubric
Lesson 13.4
What's More
Activity 1
1. immune system 5. antigens
2. innate immunity 6. Immune response
3. active immunity 7. antibodies
4. passive immunity 8. immunity
Our immune system defends your body against substances it sees as harmful or foreign.
Lesson 13.3
What's More
Activity 1 Answers may vary
Sample Answers
It is vital to maintain the internal balance within our body because it will keep us alive and functioning.
Example:
What is biology?
Lesson 13.2
What's More
Sample Answers
Every organ of the respiratory and circulatory systems plays an important role in maintaining the human body. I
think they are all equally important.
Where am I located?
I am located in the thoracic cavity between the lungs.
What do I do?
I am responsible for circulating the blood throughout the
body.
How do I interact with other organs?
I am interacting with the organs of respiratory, digestive
and nervous systems. I transport oxygen and nutrients
that are carried by the blood.
95
Module 14
What I Can Do
Output will be assessed using a rubric
Lesson 14.3
What's More
Animals move for a variety of reasons, such as to find food, a mate, a suitable microhabitat, or to escape predators.
For many animals, the ability to move is essential for survival and, as a result, natural selection has shaped the
locomotion methods and mechanisms used by moving organisms.
What are the three types of
muscles?
Skeletal, cardiac, and … three types of muscles They use in different purposes
smooth muscles are the.. found in our body. like walking, digesting food,
and even in beating of the
heart.
Lesson 14.2
What's More
The brain controls what you think and feel, how you learn and remember, and the way you move and talk. But it
also controls things you're less aware of — like the beating of your heart and the digestion of your food
Where am I located?
Head
What do I do?
Controls what you think and feel, how
you learn and remember, and the way you
move and talk. But it also controls things
you're less aware of — like the beating of
your heart and the digestion of your food
How do I interact with other organs?
Spinal cord
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human_Brain.png
References
Braganza, Maria Chona M. (2005). Earth Science. Rex Bookstore.
Campbell, N.A., Reece, J. B., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P.V., Jackson, R.B.
(2008). Biology 8th Edition. Pearson Education Inc.
Mangali, G. R. (2016). Earth and Life Science. Makati: Diwa Learning Senior High Series.
Salandanan, G.G., Faltado, III, R. E., Lopez, M.B. (2016). Earth and Life Sciences. Lorimar Publishing,
Inc
Sia, Shila Rose, Cortez, Leah Amor. Science in Today’s World for Senior High
School Earth and Life Science.2016. Pp. 22-47.
Tarbuck, L. (2015 ). Earth Science . Pearson Publishing .
Igneous rock eng text.jpg. (2019, December 15). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository.
Retrieved 01:30, August 28, 2020 from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Igneous_rock_eng_text.jpg&oldid=380
575428.
Chocolate Hills overview.JPG. (2018, November 22). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chocolate_Hills_overview.JPG&oldid=
328868380.
Tubigon 2 earthquake.JPG. (2014, October 16). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tubigon_2_earthquake.JPG&oldid=13
7116391.
Faults and folds.jpg. (2014, November 23). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. Retrieved
11:19, August 26, 2020 from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Faults_and_folds.jpg&oldid=1403912
42.
Arredondo, A. Group Worksheet 1- Anthony Arredondo – Biological
Evolution.https://www.studocu.com/en-us/document/the-university-of-texas-rio-grande-
valley/biological-evolution/lecture-notes/group-worksheet-1-
anthonyarredondo/6293282/view.
https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php/2-uncategorised/7871-infographic
Volcanoes of the Philippines (2016). Retrieved from https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph
Earthquake and Its Hazards. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph
Mapping Philippine Vulnerability to Hazards. (n.d) Risk To Earthquake. Retrieved from
http://vm.observatory.ph/geophys_maps.html
Top 10 Most Landslide Prone Provinces. (2013). Retrieved from
http://philippinegeographic.blogspot.com/
Risk to project Rainfall change. (n.d.). retrieved from http://vm.observatory.ph/cw_maps.html
Mimosa pudica 9zz.jpg. (2020, October 30). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. Retrieved
01:34, November 20, 2020 from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mimosa_pudica_9zz.jpg&oldid=50707
6851.
Organization levels mouse.svg. (2020, October 29). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository.
Retrieved 03:39, November 20, 2020 from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Organization_levels_mouse.svg&oldid
=506167487.
Department of Education. (2011). Pollination and fertilization. Retrieved November 08, 2020, from
https://lrmds.deped.gov.ph/detail/17491
Dolly the sheep. Retrieved from http://s0.geograph.org.uk/
Digestive system with liver.png. (2020, September 7). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository.
Retrieved 05:25, November 26, 2020 from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Digestive_system_with_liver.png&oldi
d=451225931.
Human-respiratory-system-structure.jpeg. (2020, October 30). Wikimedia Commons, the free media
repository. Retrieved 00:53, November 27, 2020 from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Human-respiratory-system-
structure.jpeg&oldid=506925075.
Human Heart.png. (2020, September 28). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. Retrieved
04:09, November 27, 2020 from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Human_Heart.png&oldid=474100848.
Human Nervous System (n.d.) retrieved on November 28, 2020 from
http://learn.neurotechedu.com/the_nervous_system/
96
For inquiries or feedback, please write or call:
Department of Education – Schools Division Office Navotas

Learning Resource Management Section
Bagumbayan Elementary School Compound

M, Naval St., Sipac Almacen, Navotas City
Telefax: 02-8332-77-64
Email Address: navotas.city@deped.gov.ph

SDO Navotas EarthLifeScience SHS 1st2ndsem - FV

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

SDO Navotas EarthLifeScience SHS 1st2ndsem - FV

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DIVISION OF NAVOTAS CITY

Earth and Life

Published by the Department of Education

Development Team of the Module

Inilimbag sa Pilipinas ng ________________________

Department of Education – Navotas City

Assessment (Quarter 1) ................................................................47

Assessment (Quarter 2) ................................................................84

Answer Key ..................................................................................86

2. The earth is a closed system. Which of the following statements is true?

5. What process does the Earth’s internal heat come from?

6. What is caused by the movement of crust plates during mantle convection?

8. Which of the following is NOT an engineering solution to mitigate landslide?

9. PAG-ASA stands for Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical ____________ Services

10. Which of the following is NOT a coastal mitigation process?

The History of the Earth

The Internal Structure of the Earth

The Water Cycle

Distribution of water on Earth

Layers of the Atmosphere

It is the area beyond the atmosphere of the earth

The densest layer of the atmosphere

The Biosphere is the “life zone” of the Earth and includes

Lesson The Interactions of the Earth’s

Earth: A Closed System

EARTH IS A DYNAMIC BODY

EARTH IS ALSO PART OF A SYSTEM

ALL SUBSYSTEMS ARE INTERCONNECTED

EARTH’S PROCESSES COVER DIFFERENT TIME AND SPACE SCALES

THE EARTH SYSTEM IS POWERED BY ITSELF AND THE SUN

HUMANS ARE PART OF THE EARTH SYSTEM

1. The earth is a closed system

Lesson Minerals and their Physical and

Physical Properties of Minerals

Feldspar Yellow, White, Pink, Green Hematite Metallic Gray or Black

Hornblende Green, yellow, brown and Limonite Black, brown or yellow

Sulfur Pale Gold

Chemical Properties of Materials

Activity 1.1: Physical Properties of Mineral

10. 11. 12.

13. 14. 15.

Activity 1.2: Chemical Properties of Mineral

EARTH AS A SYSTEM: The Rock Cycle

IGNEOUS ROCKS: FORMED BY FIRE

EXTRUSIVE VS INTRUSIVE Igneous Rocks

RATE OF COOLING AND CRYSTAL FORMATION

Sedimentary rocks begin in the process of weathering of sediments and these

CLASSIFICATIONS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Internal Heat of the Earth

Activity 1: What’s Hot

Photo taken by the author of Mt. Banahaw last June 1, 2020

food container with Books or anything

1. What do you observe with the distribution of

2. How can the distribution of volcanoes affect the

3. The Philippines is known to have a good

The Rock Cycle

Heat and Pressure

Igneous rocks Metamorphic rocks

Lesson Formation of different Types of

2. Volcanic igneous rocks

Activity 1: Compare Me!

Intrusive Igneous Rocks Extrusive Igneous Rocks

b. Second stack of paper