The Politics of Information in Media Arts) History - Discourses - Theory and Critique

The politics of information in media arts: history, discourses, theory and critique
DEFINITION
Politics - the total complex of relations between people living in society

Information - (1): knowledge obtained from investigation, study, or instruction
(2): INTELLIGENCE, NEWS
(3): FACTS, DATA
b: the attribute inherent in and communicated by one of two or more alternative
sequences or arrangements of something (such as nucleotides in DNA or binary digits
in a computer program) that produce specific effects
c(1): a signal or character (as in a communication system or computer)
representing data
(2): something (such as a message, experimental data, or a picture) which
justifies change in a construct (such as a plan or theory) that represents physical or
mental experience or another construct
d: a quantitative measure of the content of information specifically: a numerical
quantity that measures the uncertainty in the outcome of an experiment to be performed
2: the communication or reception of knowledge or intelligence
3: the act of informing against a person
4: a formal accusation of a crime made by a prosecuting officer as distinguished
from an indictment presented by a grand jury
Media Arts - The Media Arts curriculum encompasses the fields of media, art and
design. In Media Arts, students create visual representations that communicate,
challenge and express their own and others’ ideas, as both artist and audience.
Students learn about the role of the artist and designer, their contribution to
society, and the significance of the creative industries.
"Media art" refers to artworks that depend on a technological component to
function. The term "media" applies to any communication device used to transmit and
store information. By incorporating emerging technologies into their artworks, artists
using new media are constantly redefining the traditional categories of art.
Over the years, numerous artistic disciplines have fallen under the umbrella of "media
art", including:
 Biotech Art
 Computer Art
 Digital Art
 Electronic Art
 Interactive Art
 Kinetic Art
 Multimedia Art
 Network Art
 Robotic Art
 Sound Art
 Space Art
 Technological Art
 Video Art
 Web Art
STRUCTURE
The curriculum is structured around four strands, each of which involves making and
responding.
Stran Explore and Media Arts Present and Respond and

d Represent Ideas Practices Perform Interpret
Exploring and Developing Planning, Analyzing,

experimenting with and refining producing, evaluating
ideas and understanding presenting and interpreting and
representations using , skills, distributing media reflecting upon
images, sound and techniques, artworks to meanings, beliefs
text. Manipulating technologies audiences. and values in
media structure, Considering the
and media artworks.
elements and concepts relationship
processes. Examining media
with intent to represent between artist
and communicate intentions, artworks in
ideas. audience historical, cultural,
interpretation and institutional and
engagement. social contexts.
Achievement standards
In Media Arts, students’ progress along a curriculum continuum that provides the
first achievement standard at Foundation and then at Levels 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10.
A 'Towards Foundation Levels A to D' curriculum is provided for students with

disabilities or additional learning needs in this curriculum area.
MEDIA ARTS LEVEL
Level A (Towards Foundation)
Level A Description
In Level A, students are exposed to media arts. They experience how media
artworks can represent the world in which they live.
Students become aware of character and settings as they explore sensory
elements of media arts, explore ideas and assist in the construction of stories.
Students experience safety in using technologies and in interaction with others.
They are exposed to the role of artist. As an audience they are exposed to the
sensory elements of the media art.
Explore and Represent Ideas
Experience characters and settings through stories in images, sounds and multi-
modal texts
Media Arts Practices

Experience media technologies to capture images and sounds for a story
Present and Perform

Experience the presentation of media artworks
Respond and Interpret

React to stimuli in media artworks
Level A Achievement Standard

By the end of Level A, students react to media artworks being made and viewed.
Students assist to make and share media artworks representing their life and
preferences.
Level B (Towards Foundation)
Level B Description
In Level B, students explore media arts. They explore how media artworks can
represent the world and that they can make media artworks to represent their
ideas about the world.
Students learn about safety in using technologies and in interaction with others.
They experience the role of artist. As an audience they learn to focus their
attention on the media artwork and to respond at the end of the viewing.
Respond to characters and settings through images, sounds and multi-modal
texts

Use media technologies to select images and sounds for a story
Present and Perform

Share media artworks that communicate ideas or familiar story

Respond to media artworks
Level B Achievement Standard

By the end of Level B, students indicate what they like and dislike about media
artworks they make and view.
Students assist to make and share media artworks using technologies and by
selecting images and sounds to represent an idea or familiar story.
Level C (Towards Foundation)
Level C Description
In Level C, students explore media arts. They explore and learn about how
media artworks can represent elements of the world and that they can make
media artworks to represent their ideas about the world. Students become aware
of simple structure, character and settings as they explore ideas and construct
stories.
They experience the role of artist. As an audience they learn to focus their
attention on the media artwork and to respond at the end of the viewing.
Explore different ways of representing characters and settings through images,
sounds and multi-modal texts

Assist in the use of media technologies to capture images and sounds for a story
Present and Perform

Present media artworks that communicate an idea or concept

Respond to media artworks by answering questions using one word responses
or images
Level C Achievement Standard

By the end of Level C, students communicate about media artworks they make
and view, and why media artworks are made.
Students make media artworks that communicate a word or concept.
Level D (Towards Foundation)
Level D Description
In Level D, students explore media arts. They learn how media artworks can
represent the world and that they can make media artworks to represent their
ideas about the world. Students become aware of character and settings as they
explore ideas and construct stories. They learn about composition, sound and
technologies.
They experience the role of artist and they respond to feedback in their media
arts making. As an audience they learn to focus their attention on the media
artwork and to respond at the end of the viewing. They make simple evaluations
of media artworks expressing simple statements about what they like and why.
Level D Content Descriptions
Explore ideas, characters and settings through stories in images, sounds and
multi-modal texts
Develop skills to use media technology to capture images, sounds and text for a
story
Present and Perform

Present media artworks that communicate a simple idea or story (VCAMAP015)

Respond to media artworks and describe some of the characteristics they
observe
Level D Achievement Standard

By the end of Level D, students describe the characteristics of media artworks
they make and view.
Students make and share media artworks representing a significant idea, event
or story.
Foundation Level
Foundation Level Description
In Foundation, students explore media arts and learn how media artworks
represent the world in which they live. Students make media artworks with their
peers, and experience media artworks as audiences.
Students become aware of character and settings as they explore ideas and
construct stories. They learn about the elements of media arts such as
composition and sound, and experience media arts from a range of cultures,
times and locations.
Students experience the role of artist in their media arts making, and as an
audience, learn to respond to media artworks they view.
Explore ideas characters and settings in images, sounds and multi-modal texts

Use media technologies to capture and edit images, sounds and text
Present and Perform
Present media artworks that communicate ideas

Respond to media artworks by describing ideas, characters, settings and
stories
Foundation Level Achievement Standard

By end of Foundation, students describe the media art works they make and
view.
They make and share media artworks representing stories with settings and
characters.
Levels 1 and 2
Levels 1 and 2 Description
In Levels 1 and 2, students explore media arts and experiment with story and
elements of media arts. They develop an understanding of a range of media
artworks. They make and share their media artworks as artists and audience.
Students become aware of structure, intent, character and settings as they

explore ideas, and plan and construct stories. They learn about the elements of
media arts and about different audience groups. They experience media arts
from a range of cultures, times and locations.
Students learn how to safely use media technologies in media arts practice.
They develop their role as an artist in their media artworks, and ways to
respond to media artworks as an audience.
Levels 1 and 2 Content Descriptions

Experiment with ideas and develop characters and settings through stories
using images, sounds and text

Use media technologies to capture and edit images and sounds and text to tell
stories
Present and Perform

Create and present media artworks that communicate ideas and stories to an
audience

Respond to media artworks and consider where and why people in their local
area make media artworks, including media artworks of Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander peoples
Levels 1 and 2 Achievement Standard

By the end of Level 2, students describe the media artworks that they make
and view, and describe where and why media artworks are made.
Students use the story principles of structure, character, intent and setting,
media technologies and the elements of media arts to make and share media
artworks.
Levels 3 and 4
In Levels 3 and 4, students extend their understanding of key concepts of
media arts such as the use of media technologies, story principles of structure,
intent, character and settings, and use the media arts elements of composition
and sound. They consider themselves as audiences and explore the
characteristics of audience types.
As they make and respond to media artworks, students explore meaning and
interpretation, genre, media forms and elements. They explore social and
cultural contexts of media arts, and evaluate their own and others’ media
artworks.
Students use media technologies safely in their media arts practice. They
increase their understanding of the role of the artist and of the audience, and
consider how and why audiences respond to media art works. Students also
consider ethical issues when making media artworks.

Investigate and devise representations of people in their community, through
settings, ideas and story structure in images, sounds and text

Use media technologies to create time and space through the manipulation of
images, sounds and text when telling stories
Present and Perform

Plan, create and present media artworks for specific purposes with awareness
of responsible media practice

Identify intended purposes and meanings of media artworks considering who
makes media artworks and the characteristics of audiences who view them in
different social, historical and cultural contexts, including media artworks of
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

By the end of Level 4, students describe similarities and differences between
media artworks they make and view. They discuss how and why they and
others use images, sound and text to make and present media artworks. They
identify the characteristics of audiences who view media artworks and the
social, historical and cultural contexts in which media artworks are viewed.
Students use intent, structure, setting, characters, media elements and media
technologies to make and share media artworks that communicate ideas to an
audience.
Levels 5 and 6
In Levels 5 and 6, students develop their use of structure, intent, character and
settings by incorporating viewpoints and genre conventions in their media art
works. They explore and use media technologies and media elements such as
time, space, sound, color, movement and lighting, and evaluate the use of
these elements in the media artworks they make and view.
Students identify the variety of audiences for which media artworks are made.
They explain the purpose and processes for producing media artworks. They
experience media arts from a range of cultures, times and locations including
social, cultural and historical contexts. Students use media technologies safely
in their media arts practice. They consider the role of responsible media
practices for organizations who distribute media art works, and the role of
communities and organizations in regulating access to media artworks.
Students develop a deeper understanding of their role as a media artist, and
as an audience, as they engage with more diverse media artworks.

Explore representations, characterizations and viewpoints of people in their
community, using stories, structure, settings, and genre conventions in
images, sounds and text

Develop skills with media technologies to shape space, time, color, movement
and lighting, within images, sounds or text when telling stories
Present and Perform
Plan, produce and present media artworks for specific audiences and
purposes using responsible media practice

Explain how the elements of media arts and story principles communicate
meaning and viewpoints by comparing media artworks from different social,
cultural and historical contexts, including media artworks of Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander Peoples

By the end of Level 6, students explain how viewpoints, ideas and stories are
shaped and portrayed in media artworks they make, share and view.
Students use materials and media technologies to make media artworks for
specific audiences and purposes, using intent, structure, setting and
characters to communicate viewpoints and genre conventions. They explain
the purposes of media artworks made in different cultures, times and places
for different audiences.
Levels 7 and 8
In Levels 7 and 8, students build on their understanding of structure, intent,
character, settings, viewpoints and genre conventions in their media artworks.
Students extend use of media technologies and their understanding of story

principles and media elements, such as the use of time, space, sound,
movement, color and lighting. They examine the ways in which audiences
interpret meaning and how different audiences engage with and share media
artworks.
As they experience media arts, students draw on media arts from a range of
cultures, times and locations. Students explore how traditional and
contemporary media forms change over time They consider social, cultural
and historical influences and representations in media arts. They evaluate how
established behaviors or conventions influence media artworks they engage
with and make.
Students safely use media technologies. They develop ethical practices and
consider regulatory issues when using technology. Students extend their
understanding of their role as a media artist, and as an audience, as they
engage with more diverse and challenging media artworks.

Experiment with the organization of ideas to structure stories through settings,
genre conventions and viewpoints, in images, sounds and text
Develop media representations to show familiar or shared social and cultural
values and beliefs

Develop and refine media production skills using the technical and symbolic
elements of images, sounds and text to represent a specific story, purpose
and meaning
Plan, structure and design media artworks for a range of purposes that engage
audiences using media elements, technologies and production processes
Present and Perform

Present media artworks within different community and institutional contexts
for different audiences, with consideration of ethical and regulatory issues

Analyze how technical and symbolic elements are used in media artworks to
create representations influenced by genre and the values and viewpoints of
particular audiences
Identify specific features and purposes of media artworks from contemporary
and past times, including media artworks of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander Peoples, to explore viewpoints and enrich their media arts making

By the end of Level 8, students identify and Analyze how representations of
social values and viewpoints are portrayed in the media artworks they make,
distribute and view.
Students use intent, structure, setting, characters and genre conventions to
shape technical and symbolic elements for specific purposes and meanings.
They evaluate how they and others use these genre conventions and
elements to make meaning. They identify and Analyze the social and ethical
responsibilities of both makers and users of media artworks in social, cultural,
historical and institutional contexts.
Students produce representations of social values and viewpoints in media

artworks for particular audiences. They use production processes, equipment
and technologies to achieve their intentions.
Levels 9 and 10
In Levels 9 and 10, students refine and extend their understanding and use of
structure, intent, character, settings, viewpoints and genre conventions in their
compositions. As they use media technologies, they extend the use of media
elements such as time, space, sound, movement and lighting. They Analyze
the way in which audiences make meaning and how audiences interact with
and share media artworks.
Students experience media arts from a range of cultures, times and locations.
As they explore media arts in a range of forms, students learn that over time,
there has been a development of different traditional and contemporary styles
in media arts. They consider the local, global, social and cultural contexts that
shape the purposes and processes in producing media artworks, and evaluate
the social and ethical implications of media arts.
Students safely use media technologies. They maintain ethical practices and
consider regulatory issues when using media technologies. Students develop
a sophisticated understanding of their roles as artists and audiences as they
engage with diverse media artworks.

Experiment with ideas and stories that manipulate media elements, and genre
conventions to construct new and alternative viewpoints in images, sounds
and text
Manipulate media representations to identify and examine social and cultural
values and beliefs

Develop and refine media production skills to integrate and shape the
technical and symbolic elements in images, sounds and text to represent a
story, purpose, meaning and style
Plan, structure and design media artworks for a range of purposes that
challenge the expectations of specific audiences by particular use of media
elements, technologies and production processes
Present and Perform

Plan, produce and distribute media artworks for a range of community,
institutional contexts and different audiences, and consider social, ethical and
regulatory issues

Analyze and evaluate how technical and symbolic elements are manipulated in
media artworks to challenge representations framed by social beliefs and
values in different community and institutional contexts
Analyze and evaluate a range of media artworks from contemporary and past
times, including media artworks of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Peoples, to explore differing viewpoints and enrich their media arts making

By the end of Level 10, students Analyze how values and alternative
viewpoints are portrayed in the media artworks they make, interact with and
distribute.
Students use intent, structure, setting, characters and genre conventions to

evaluate how technical and symbolic elements are manipulated to make
representations and meaning. They evaluate how social, institutional and
ethical issues influence the making and use of media artworks.
Students communicate alternative viewpoints in media artworks for different

community and institutional contexts. They apply design, production and
distribution processes to the media artworks they make.
HISTORY
Experimentation with audio and visual technologies in art dates back to the
19th century. As new technologies have emerged, artists have integrated photography,
film, radio, television, computers and the Internet into their artistic practices. Created
during diverse historical periods, the components of the artworks illustrate an integral
aspect of our relationship with technology and its evolution.
Timeline
The development of media art has been influenced by both technological
advancements and 20th century avant-garde art movements that sought new ways of
making, viewing and understanding art. By situating major technological and artistic
influences, this abridged timeline traces the roots of media art from the 1830s to the
present day.
19th Century
1830s
 British mechanical engineer and mathematician Charles Babbage (1791 – 1871)
invents the analytical engine, a precursor to the modern-day computer. Using punch
cards, it is able to calculate numerical data.
 French artist and chemist Louis Daguerre (1787 – 1851) develop the
daguerreotype, an early form of photography.
1890s
 American inventor Thomas Edison (1847 – 1931) helps develop the kinetograph
and kinetoscope – devices that enable individual viewing of short films. French
filmmakers Auguste Lumière (1862 – 1954) and Louis Lumière (1864 – 1948) introduce
films to the public.
 Radio is developed by numerous inventors throughout the late 19 th and early
20th centuries: Serbian-American inventor Nikola Tesla (1856 – 1943) invents the Tesla
coil, an induction coil for radio technology; German physicist Heinrich Hertz is the first to
broadcast electromagnetic waves; Bengali physicist Jagadish Changra Bose (1858 –
1937) conducts important experiments with short radio waves; Russian physicist
Alexander Stepanovich Popov (1859 – 1906) introduces the application of
electromagnetic waves over long distances; and Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi
(1874 – 1937) further develops wireless telegraphy (the diffusion of messages via the
radio).
20th Century
1920s
 Film and radio become increasingly popular.
 The following discoveries help develop the beginning of television: Scottish
inventor John Logie Baird (1888 – 1946) gives the first public demonstration of a
television system; Russian-American inventor Vladimir Kozmich Zworykin (1889 – 1982)
develops a system of transmitting and receiving information with cathode ray tube
(CRT) technology (a fluorescent screen that depicts images with an electronic
beam); and American inventor Philo Taylor Farnsworth (1906 – 1971) conceives of the
complete operating principles for electronic televisions.
 The avant-garde art movement Dada introduces new ways of representing
reality, including the ready-made (commercially manufactured objects placed in a
museum or gallery context), collage, and photomontage.
1930s
 English mathematician Alan Turing (1912 – 1954) publishes a theoretical
Description of a digital computer that can solve mathematical problems.
 German engineer Konrad Zuse (1910 – 1995) builds a computer using
35mm film tape to control programming.
 Hungarian artist Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, associated with the German Bauhaus
school that combines crafts and fine arts, creates the Light-Space-Modulator. This
lighting equipment installation depicts the play of light and movement.
1940s
 The University of Pennsylvania builds ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Computer), which uses switches for computer-programming control; the computer
is so big that it takes up an entire room.
1950s
 Television becomes widespread in households.
1960s
 The Internet is developed, although it is reserved for university researchers, the
military, and the U.S. government's secret services.
 The following influential art movements emerge and evolve over the ensuing
decades:
 Fluxus: Artists, composers and designers work together to combine artistic
media and disciplines;
 Pop Art: Artists become interested in commercial culture and mass
production;
 Conceptual Art: Artists focus on the idea, the process and language more
than on the aesthetics and materials of the art object;
 Performance Art: An individual or group performs this ephemeral art form;
 Video Art: Inexpensive portable video cameras become available to the
general public and are integrated into artistic practices.
 A series of performances between artists and engineers, 9 Evenings: Theatre
and Engineering, takes place in New York. This event is the precursor to the
organization Experiments in Art and Technology (E.A.T).
1970s
 Annual gatherings for artists working with computers begin to form. These
include Ars Electronica in Austria and SIGGRAPH (Special Interest Group on Computer
Graphics and Interactive Techniques) in the United States.
1980s
 Personal computers (PCs) become more accessible and affordable.
 Video games are popularized.
1990s
 The Internet explodes into a popular medium for distributing and sharing content
(e-mail, publishing, commerce, file-sharing and online gaming).
 PCs become more powerful. Users can now manipulate images, construct Web
sites, use 3D software, and edit video and audio content.
 Universities begin to offer programs in "New Media and Design."
 Museums, galleries and other art institutions begin to collect and exhibit media
art.
21st Century
 Media art is constantly expanding, and new technologies are being used at a
rapid pace.
 Open source software is popularized. It allows people to freely use and modify
existing software.
 Video games and Web interfaces such as flickr, myspace, YouTube, Facebook
and Second Life become new material for artworks.
 Museums and other institutions begin to develop policies and procedures for
documentation and conservation strategies specific to media artworks.
CONSERVATION
What are the main conservation challenges?
Media art uses technologies that inevitably change over time, and the technologies
adopted by artists using new media are representative of a given historical period.
Conservators and curators work together to conserve this history by staying as true to
the original artwork as possible. Otherwise, the historical and technological context of
these valuable cultural artefacts is at risk of being forgotten.
As a result of technology's constant evolution, museums are encountering conservation
challenges that are specific to media artworks:
 Deterioration of Components: Occurs when a part of an artwork no longer
functions and cannot be repaired. Over time, all technology is prone to breaking
down. For example, the magnetic tape of a video cassette will eventually deteriorate.
This can either result in lower image quality or the disappearance of the image.
 Technological Obsolescence: Occurs when technological equipment becomes
outdated and can no longer be used. Electronics companies move on to newer
technologies, and old models are often discontinued. If one component of a media
artwork becomes unavailable, obsolete or incompatible with new software, the entire
work may cease to function.

What are the main conservation strategies?
Museum professionals have been conserving traditional artworks, such as
paintings, prints, drawings and sculptures, since the late 19 th century. Museums only
began collecting media art in the past few decades, making its conservation a relatively
new phenomenon. The conservation of traditional artworks is dependent upon the
scientific analysis of their chemical components. The conservation of media art, on the
other hand, must also take into consideration the variability of technologies.
Consequently, conservators have developed new conservation strategies, which have
both positive and problematic aspects:
 Storage: Involves physically keeping the artwork in a safe and
controlled environment in order to conserve the media artwork's original
condition. This is the most traditional conservation strategy, as the artwork is
not modified at all.
Main problem: Once the equipment deteriorates or becomes
obsolete, the artwork will no longer function.
 Migration: Involves upgrading an old technological component to a
newer version.
Main problem: This strategy may not correspond to the artist's initial
intention and the original appearance of the artwork will likely change.
 Emulation: Involves imitating the original aspects of the artwork
using current technology.
intention.
 Reinterpretation: Involves re-creating the artwork each time it is
exhibited according to contemporary media and practices.
intention.
Discourses
Theory
Critique
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https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/politics
https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/arts/Pag
es/mediaarts.aspx
https://victoriancurriculum.vcaa.vic.edu.au/the-arts/media-arts/curriculum/f-10#level=A
http://www.virtualmuseum.ca/sgc-cms/expositions-exhibitions/arts_mediatiques-
media_arts/art_mediatique-media_art-eng.php
Lev Manovich. The Language of New Media(Cambridge, Massachusetts:

The MITPress, 2001) 20.

The MITPress, 2001) 20.
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http://www.holonet.khm.de/visual_alchemy/lumiere.html (No longer available)
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"Hertz, Heinrich." Encyclopædia Britannica(vol. 5, 15th ed. 2005) 892.
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The politics of information in media arts: history, discourses, theory and critique

Politics - the total complex of relations between people living in society

Stran Explore and Media Arts Present and Respond and

Exploring and Developing Planning, Analyzing,

A 'Towards Foundation Levels A to D' curriculum is provided for students with

Level A (Towards Foundation)

Media Arts Practices

Present and Perform

Respond and Interpret

Level A Achievement Standard

Level B (Towards Foundation)

Media Arts Practices

Present and Perform

Respond and Interpret

Level B Achievement Standard

Level C (Towards Foundation)

Media Arts Practices

Present and Perform

Respond and Interpret

Level C Achievement Standard

Students make media artworks that communicate a word or concept.

Level D (Towards Foundation)

Present and Perform

Respond and Interpret

Level D Achievement Standard

Media Arts Practices

Respond and Interpret

Foundation Level Achievement Standard

Students become aware of structure, intent, character and settings as they

Levels 1 and 2 Content Descriptions

Media Arts Practices

Present and Perform

Respond and Interpret

Levels 1 and 2 Achievement Standard

Levels 3 and 4 Content Descriptions

Media Arts Practices

Present and Perform

Respond and Interpret

Levels 3 and 4 Achievement Standard

Levels 5 and 6 Content Descriptions

Media Arts Practices

Respond and Interpret

Levels 5 and 6 Achievement Standard

Students extend use of media technologies and their understanding of story

Levels 7 and 8 Content Descriptions

Media Arts Practices

Present and Perform

Respond and Interpret

Levels 7 and 8 Achievement Standard

Students produce representations of social values and viewpoints in media

Levels 9 and 10 Content Descriptions

Media Arts Practices

Present and Perform

Respond and Interpret

Levels 9 and 10 Achievement Standard

Students use intent, structure, setting, characters and genre conventions to

Students communicate alternative viewpoints in media artworks for different

Lev Manovich. The Language of New Media(Cambridge, Massachusetts:

Lev Manovich. The Language of New Media(Cambridge, Massachusetts:

"Tesla, Nikola ." Encyclopædia Britannica(vol. 11, 15th ed. 2005) 654.

"Bose, Jagadas Chandra." Encyclopædia Britannica(vol. 2, 15th ed. 2005) 399.

" Popov, Alexander Stepanovich." Encyclopædia Britannica(vol. 9, 15th ed. 2005) 607.

"Marconi, Guglielmo." Encyclopædia Britannica(vol. 7, 15th ed. 2005) 826.