Introduction to Pharmacy

Course No: 1101

Riaz Rahman 48th Batch
 INDEX
Chapter Page Number

Fundamentals of Pharmaceutics 2-43

Classification of Solutions 45-67

Sources of Information 69-92

Communicable Diseases 94

Prescription
 Fundamentals
Of
Pharmaceutics

 DRUG:

Drugs are the pure chemical substance of either natural, biological or synthetic origin that are used
for diagnosis, preventing, treating & curing disease.
 DOSAGE FORM:

Dosage forms are the formulated & finished from of drugs. These are known as “MEDICINES”
 SIGNIFICANCE OF DOSAGE FORMS:

Drugs should be prepared in a particular dosage form. The reasons are as follow: -
What is drug & dosage forms. What is the significance of dosage from?
1) Dosage forms ensures dose accuracy.
2) Dosage forms enhance stability of drug.
3) Dosage forms enhances product acceptability.
4) Dosage forms provides reproducible drug action.1
 Dosage forms enhance stability of drug:
Drugs degrades with time such degradation spoils drug action. To overcome such degradation third
agents like antioxidant and antimicrobial preservative are used along with the drug. Antioxidants
protects the drug from oxidative degradation and antimicrobial preservative protects the drug from
microbial attack. Such protective measures prolong/enhance drug stability.

 Dosage forms enhances product acceptability:

A drug may have disgraceful color, unpleasant flavor & may not be tasty. Under such situation the
drug may become unacceptable to the patients. To solve the problem either a coloring, flavoring,
test masking agent is used before to formulate a particular dosage.

 Dosage forms provides reproducible drug action:

Drug action must be reproducible. A reproducible drug action can only be achieved when drug is
formulated into a particular dosage from & accuracy is maintained.

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 DOSE DOSAGE

The quantity of drug administered at one time. The amount of the drug that should be given
over time.

It is an amount of energy absorbed per unit Interaction of drugs into body cavities (rectal,
mass of tissue. vaginal).

It is not control release medication. It is controlled release medication.

E.g. 500 mg of l Paracetamol. E.g. 500 mg paracetamol TID for 3 days.

DRUG MEDICINE

Drug are chemical substance which can change Medicine are drug which used to cure and treat
the physical and physiological state. illnesses.

From biological source. Modified from drug.

It has no dose or doses from. It has dose and doses from.

Not always useful. Always useful.

Non selective. Selective.

Difference
between
OF DOSAGE
CLASSIFICATIONDrug & FORMS
Medicine: -
(15) M=1
3
Miscibility of the
 ingredients
Formulation
Physical State Short note Technology
on implant
Routes of
Solid dosage forms & inserts?
Administration
(16) M=1
Semi solid dosage forms

Liquid dosage forms Homogenous

Gaseous dosage forms Heterogeneous

Enteral or Oral Implants & Inserts

Parenteral or Injections Floating tablets

Externals or Topicals Foaming tablets

Suppositories Osmotically active tablets

Pessaries Caplets

Drops Patch

Aerosols

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 INSERTS
Implants:
1) Inserts are similar to implants with the exceptional in that-
1) Implants are small sterile solid masses consisting of a highly purified drug made by
2) Excipient mixture is placed with in a body cavity like cul de sac, intrauterine cavity & many
compression or molding or extrusion.
more.
2) Implants are drug delivery systems which provide controlled delivery of drug over a period of
3) Occuserts are commercial preparation of insert & are placed inside cul de sac.
time at the site of implantation.
4) Vaginal ring, vaginal pouch is commercial preparation of insert & are placed inside the
3) EXAMPLE:
vaginal cavity.
a. Nor-plant
5) EXAMPLE: Pilocarpine inserts.
b. Zoladex
c. Gliadel

 ADVANTAGES:
1) Minimized side effects.
2) Termination of therapy as & when required.
3) Unattended continuous (অবিরত অবিচ্ছিন্ন) delivery within the therapeutic window.
4) Avoids the highly variable peak & trough concentrations enhanced drug efficacy.
5) Patient consent is also a benefit of continuous dosing with these implants as they operate
for a long period of time once implanted.

 DISADVANTAGES:
1) Inadequate (অপর্যাপ্ত) release.
2) The reaction between host and implant.
3) Requires small surgery for large implantation & painful.
4) Implantation procedure is difficult in implants the case of larger implants.

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6
What is aerosol?
Aerosol is a pressurized dosage forms containing one or
more therapeutic active ingredients which upon actuation
emit a fine dispersion of liquid and/or solid materials in a
gaseous medium.

ADVANTAGES
1) Easily withdrawn of drug
2) Easy and convenient to apply.
3) Faster Onset of action.
4) No manual/ direct contact with the medicament.
5) Avoid the first pass metabolism.
6) A specific amount of dose or drug can be removed.
7) No microorganism can enter.
8) Release the contents in Controlled and Uniformly.
9) Protect the photosensitive medicaments and oxygen
sensitive material.
10) Provides efficacy of a drug.
11) Irritation can be reduced.
DISADVANTAGE
1) Costly.
2) Difficult disposal of empty aerosol containers.
3) Allergic in some cases.
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4) Explosive.
5) Some formulation is difficult.
6) Sometimes propellants may cause toxic reactions.

What are suppositories?

Suppositories are solid dosage forms intended for
insertion in to body cavities or orifices (Rectum,
Vagina & Urethra) where they melt or dissolved &
exert localized or systemic effect.

ADVANTAGES
1) It avoids first pass effect. Melt at body temperature.
2) It gives localized and systemic action. It can be given
to unconscious patient.
3) It is easy to use for pediatric and geriatric patients.
4) Useful to produce local effect.
5) Useful for rapid and direct effect in rectum.
6) Useful to promote evacuation of bowel Convenient for
those drug causes GIT irritation, vomiting etc.
DISADVANTAGES
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 1) Administration is not easy.
2) Involves psychological fear.
3) Dose is big.
4) Moisture & heat sensitive.
5) Exhibit special rheology.
6) May effect dissolution rate.
7) Some drug may be degraded by the microbial flora
present in the rectum.

SUPPOSITORIES PESSARIES

Solid medicated preparation Solid medicated preparation

deigned for insertion into rectum deigned for insertion into vagina
where they melt, dissolve or where they melt, dissolve or
disperse & exert a local or disperse & exert a local or
systemic effect. systemic effect.

Used to promote evacuation of Used almost exclusively for local

bowel. medication.

Avoid any gastrointestinal Use as antiseptics, Contraceptive

irritation. agents, local anesthetics.

Can be used for systemic Various therapeutic agents to

absorption of drugs and avoid treat trichomonas, bacterial &
first- monilial infection.

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 pass metabolism.

Difference between SP & PS

SOLID DOSAGE FORMS:

MERITS
1. It can maintain dose accuracy in a reproducible
manner.
2. These are easy to handle, carry, use & store.
3. Dose recovery possible without any product loss.
4. It is more stable.
5. It can resist structural deformation.
6. It does not require any mechanical assistance.
7. Products are cheaper as is seen with tablets.

DEMERITS
1. It shows delayed onset of drug action.
2. It requires the presence of third agent to promote
dissolution.
3. It is not suitable for gastric.
4. Psychological fear of throat chocking.
5. Needs special production area & skill manpower.

Semi solid dosage forms:

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MERITS
1. These are easy to use.
2. These forms do not involve any psychological fear
during use.
3. It produces local effects & side effects is also local.
4. In case of emergency termination of therapy can be
done.
DEMERITS
1. Semi solid preparations lack dose accuracy.
2. It contains fats or oils which oxidized & makes
preparations rancid & unusable.
3. Without proper preparation & store it may show
segregation of ingredients which makes it unusable.
4. During use it may contaminate & spoil the product.
5. It forms a sticky layer which spoils clothes & working
surface areas.
6. Occlusive layer blocks heat exchange between skin & the
air.

LIQUID DOSAGE FORMS:

MERITS
1. It is easier to prepare liquid dosage forms.
2. It shows rapid onset of action.
3. In this dosage forms incidences of gastric irritation are
less.
4. It is easier to disguise the disagreeable properties of
drugs by adding masking agents to the preparations.
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5. It can subdivide up to Pico gram level through
dilution.

DEMERITS
1. It is less stable solid dosage form.
2. Reproducibility of dose accuracy is less.
3. These are difficult to carry, transport & store.
4. Products cannot be recovered.
5. Immediate termination of therapy is not possible.

GASEOUS DOSAGE FORMS:

MERITS
1) It gives a prompt relief from stressful conditions.
2) Use as home remedy because these are easy to
prepare.
3) These are readily available.

DEMERITS
1. Vapors lacks dose accuracy.
2. Vapors therapy gives temporary relief.
3. Product loss is appreciable during use.
4. Few drugs can be used as Vapors.

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What are Tablets?
Tablets is defined as a compressed unit solid dosage
form containing medicaments with or without
excipients.

EFFERVESCENT TABLETS
Effervescent or carbon tablets are tablets which are
designed to dissolve in water, and release carbon dioxide.
EXAMPLE:
1) Aspirin Tablets.
2) Diclofenac sodium Tablets.
3) Saline Cathartics.
REACTION
These are mainly made under composition using a mixture of
NaHCO3 & organic acids like citric acids or tartaric acid. As
soon as tablet is in water there occurs a reaction between
NaHCO3 & acids within a minute & there is effervescence.
Effervescent tablets, in contrast, dissolve quickly and
completely, meaning we get the full benefit from the
ingredients.
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ADVANTAGES:
These tablets can produce an extem-poraneous drug
solution with a measured amount of Al.

DISADVANTAGES:
It is not always possible to get a stable formulation.

CHEWABLE TABLETS
Chewable tablets are an oral dosage form intended to be
chewed and then swallowed by the patient rather than
swallowed whole.
Drug with local action & large dose are suitable to given
this form but with bitter taste, bad smell or highly water
insolubility are not suitable.
EXAMPLE:
1) Aspirin Tablets
2) Antacid Tablets.
OSMOTICALLY ACTIVE TABLETS
A drug composed with an osmotic active agent in a
core & a semipermeable coating that has a small hole
(0.4 nm) for drug release.

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MECHANISM
Drug is coated with semipermeable polymer e.g.
“CELLULOSE ACETATE”. Water generates
osmotic pressure gradient by permeating through
semipermeable membrane. Due to that drug pumps
out of delivery orifice over a prolonged time at a
defined rate.
Within the oral mucosal cavity, delivery of drugs is
classified into here categories:
a) Sublingual delivery
b) Buccal delivery
c) Local delivery

SUBLINGUAL DELIVERY:

It is the delivery of drugs or dosage form which is

placed below or under the tongue and allowed to
dissolve.
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LOCAL DELIVERY:
Which is drug delivery into the oral cavity. For the
treatment of periodontal disease, ulcer, bacterial
infection etc.

BUCCAL DELIVERY:
Delivery of drug or dosage form to the place between
the cheek and the gum.
BUCCAL/SUBLINGUAL DOSAGE FORM
a) Tablet.
b) Patches.
c) Chewing Gum.
d) Gels & ointment.
e) Buccal Spray.

CHARACTERISTICS BUCCAL AND SUBLINGUAL TABLETS

1) Buccal and sublingual tablets are flat, oval tablets
intended to be dissolved in the buccal pouch
(buccal tablets) or beneath the tongue (sublingual
tablets) for absorption through the oral mucosa.

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2) They enable oral absorption of drugs that are
destroyed by the gastric juice and/or are poorly
absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract.

3) Buccal tablets are designed to erode slowly,

whereas those for sublingual use (such as
nitroglycerin) dissolve promptly and provide rapid
drug effects.

4) Lozenges or troches are disc-shaped solid dosage

forms containing a medicinal agent and generally
a flavoring substance in a hard candy or sugar
base.

5) They are intended to be slowly dissolved in the

oral cavity, usually for local effects, although
some are formulated for systemic absorption.

Advantages of Buccal/Sublingual Drug Delivery: -

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1) Avoids first pass metabolism.

2) Avoids acid/Enzyme metabolism.

3) Permeation is faster with respect to skin & TDDS

(4-4000).

4) Large surface area with respect to sub-lingual

mucosa.

5) Good patient compliance with respect to

parenteral.

6) Easy administration & removal (termination) in

case of toxicity.

7) For unconscious or non-compatible patients.

Disadvantages of Buccal/Sublingual Drug Delivery:

-
1) Drugs with bitter taste or irritant to mucosa or
having noxious smell are poor candidates.

2) Not for children.

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3) Eating & drinking difficulty.

4) Salivary erosion & it may enter GIT & choke

esophagus.

5) Less surface area than skin.

6) Drugs unstable at Buccal pH (6.5 to 7)

TORCHES & LOZENGES

1) These are taken inside the mouth for local treatments
like sore throat, controlling coughing etc.

2) Lozenges are made by fusion or candy molding

process. Whereas torches are made by usual tablet
making compression process.

3) It has taken a place in the field of medication.

4) Lozenges are used for self-limiting cough, cold

symptoms & minor sore throat.

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 5) Lozenges Example:
a) Benzocaine.
b) Dextromethorphine.
c) Phenylpropanolamine.
d) Zinc
MULTIPLE COMPRESSED TABLETS
Tablets which are composed of multi layers of tablets meaning
tablets with in tablets are called multiple compressed tablets.

The reason for making these tablets are:

1) To separate physically & chemically incomplete drugs or
ingredients from each other.
2) To formulate timed release drug.
3) To enhance stability.
4) The drug performance is highly dependent on gastric condition
like gastric emptying rate.

REPEAT ACTION TABLETS

Tablets in which core tablet is first coated with enteric
polymer to escape drug release in stomach & second dose
of drug is added in a form of sugar coating is called repeat
action tablets.
It is prepared to overcome the limitation of “MULTIPLE
COMPRESSED TABLETS”
This process also has a limitation of having interruption
DELAYED ACTION & ENTERIC COATED
TABLETS
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Tablets which bypass the stomach & releases drug
over several hour in the intestine is called delayed
action tablets or enteric coated tablets.

ADVANTAGES
Enteric coated tablets are used for drugs such as:
1) Drugs irritating to gastric mucosa which include
aspirin and strong electrolytes such as NH4Cl.
2) Drugs that are destroyed by low pH of stomach.
3) Drugs that cause nausea and vomiting if released
in stomach.
4) Drugs that are to be released undiluted and in
highest possible concentration within intestine.

PILLS
These are small, round solid tablets containing very
potent drugs like hormones intended to be used for
contraception.
EXAMPLE: Birth control pills.

SUGAR & CHOCOLATE COATED TABLETS

When tablets are coated with a sugar & chocolate
form is named as Sugar & chocolate coated tablets.

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DISADVANTAGES:
1) The process is time consuming and require skilled
coating artisans.
2) Sugar coatings typically double tablet weight.
3) They are easily mistaken for a candy by children.

FILM COATED TABLETS

These tablets are coated with a film formed from a
polymer like hydroxypropyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose
& water.

ADVANTAGES:
1) Better mechanical strength.
2) Less increment in weight.
3) More acceptability for diabetic patients.
4) Improvement in the ability of debossing tablet
marketing & having no test.

LIMITATION:

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The process is not as easy as sugar coating &
matching the physical appearance & elegancy of the
product also is not easy to achieve.

DENTAL CONES
These are mini tablets intended to be placed inside the
cavity formed following tooth extraction. The main
purpose is to give a sustain action in stopping bleeding or
providing antibacterial action over time. For making dental
cones a vehicle is need which commonly are NaHCO3,
NaCl or R-CHNH-COOH.

LOLLIPOPS
These are sugar-based lozenges mounted on a stick.
EXAMPLE: Fentanyl Actiq.
Which is used to giving relief in breakthrough pain in
cancer patients. This form is able to produce
immediate relief for the patient as in breakthrough
pain the onset of pain is rapid severity is more &
frequently is unpredictable that another drug fail to
treat.

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What are capsules?
Capsules are a solid dosage form in which the drug
substance is enclosed in water soluble shell or an
envelope. A capsule shell is made from gelatin. The
capsules are available both as hard capsule & soft
capsule.

Examples of commercially available capsules:

1) Aquasol A – Retinol (Vitamin A)
2) SuperEPA – Omega-3
3) Lanoxicap – Digoxin
4) Zantac – Ranitidine HCl
5) Adalat – Nifedipine

HARD CAPSULE SOFT CAPSULE

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 Two pieces with short A single piece that is
cap and large body. always sealed.

Cylindrical shape. Available in different

standard shapes.

Available in different No specific sizes.

standard sizes.

Made from hard gelatin. Made from soft gelatin.

Can hold a range of Hold liquid, semi liquids

products such as tablets, and unstable substance.
powders or mixture of
any two.

Filling is done after Filling and sealing take

manufacturing the place in a combined
capsule. operator.

ADVANTAGES OF TABLETS
1) Widely accepted, elegant.
2) Custom size, shape, and appearance.
3) Scored tablets make it possible for dose splitting.
4) Typically have lower cost.
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5) Preferred delivery for products with large amounts per
serving due to compressibility.
6) Chewable tablets can be consumed by multiple
demographics.
7) Controlled release agents used in tablets can aid specific
nutrient uptake.
8) Low cost coatings for enteric delivery when necessary.
9) Dissolution control for quick, delayed, or extended release.

DISADVANTAGES OF TABLETS
1) Potentially poor disintegration in the GI tract, unless
properly controlled for disintegration.
2) Granulation technique can add heat/moisture to
components.
3) Potential sensitivities to coatings.

ADVANTAGES OF CAPSULES
1) Unique mixes of ingredients are possible.
2) Sealed hard gelatin capsules can be good oxygen
barriers.
3) Protection for sensitive ingredients.
4) Capsules can be opened to obtain powdered
ingredients.
5) Reduced gastrointestinal irritation.
6) Odorless, tasteless, easy to swallow.
7) Oil and fat-soluble nutrient delivery.

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DISADVANTAGES OF CAPSULES
1) Bulky materials can result in large capsule size.
2) Ingredients can interact with capsule shell.
3) Limited fill weight based on capsule volumes
4) Variation in fill volume is known to occur.
5) Can be more costly.
6) Soft gel contents restricted to a tight pH range.

What is powder?
A Pharmaceutical powder is a mixture of finely
divided drugs or chemicals in a dry form meant for
internal or external use.

CHARACTERISTICS OF POWDERS ARE:

1) Purity
2) Chemical composition
3) Particle size
4) Particle shape
5) Size distribution
6) Particle microstructure
7) Apparent Density
8) Flow rate

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CLASSIFICATION OF POWDERS
1) Bulk powder for internal use.
2) Bulk powder for external use.
3) Simple & Compound powder for internal use.
4) Powder enclosed in cachets & capsules.
5) Compressed powders (Tablets).

Bulk powder for internal use: -

1) When accuracy of dosage form is not required at that
time powders are dispensed in bulk form.
2) Bulk powder contains several doses of powder.
3) They are supplied in wide-mouthed containers that
permits easy removal of a spoonful powder.
4) The non-potent substances which are supplied in bulk
are antacid & laxative etc.
5) EXAMPLE: Rhubarb powder

Bulk powder for external use: -

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1) Bulk powder for external use are non-potent
substance.
2) These powders are supplied in cardboard, glass or
plastic containers, which are often designed for
the specific method of application.
3) The dusting powders are supplied in perforated or
sifter top containers.
4) EXAMPLE:
a) Dusting Powders
b) Insufflations
c) Snuffs
d) Dentifrices

Simple & Compound powder for internal use:

1) In this form of powder, each individual dose is
enclosed in paper.

2) The number of ingredients is one i.e. simple

powder while more than one i.e. compound
powder.
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3) The minimum quantity of each powder should not
be less than 100 mg for it can be handled
conveniently by patient & can be weighed
accurately.

4) EXAMPLE: Dispensed six powders of Aspirin

each powder contains 300 mg of aspirin.

Powders enclosed in cachets & capsules: -

Cachets are quite hard so, before swallowing they
dipped in water for seconds & then placed on the
tongue & swallowed with draught of water. After
swallowing the cachets gets disintegrate & drug is
released.
EXAMPLE:
a) Sodium amino salicylate cachets,
b) Sodium amino salicylate with isoniazid cachets

Compressed powders (Tablets): -

1) They are flat, circular disc & usually contains potent drug.

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2) In that potent drugs are mixed with lactose, dextrose or
some other diluents.

3) They are available in several sizes having a capacity ranging

from 30 to 250 mg.

4) Generally, 50 to 250 tablet triturates can be prepared at a

time from a tablet triturate mold.

5) These are standard uncoated tablets made by compression

using wet granulation, direct compression or double
compression.

6) Provide rapid disintegration & drug release.

7) Mostly intended to exert local action in GIT.

8) Typically include water insoluble drugs such as antacids

and adsorbents.

9) Other drugs having systemic effect have some aqueous

solubility, dissolve from tablet and disintegrate tablet
fragments in GI contents and are then absorbed and
distributed in the body

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ADVANTAGES OF POWDERS:
1) Powders are more stable than liquid dosage form.
2) The chance of incompatibility is less.
3) The onset of action of powdered drug is rapid as
compared to other solid dosage form e.g. tablet,
capsules.
4) Larger quantity. of powdered drugs can be
administered to the patient orally by dissolving or
mixing the powder in the suitable liquid.
5) Small children or elderly patient can easily take the
powdered drug as such or dispersed in water or any
other liquid.
6) Powders are more economical as compared with other
dosage form because not required any special
machinery or technique.
7) Powders are easier to carry than the liquid dosage
form.

DISADVANTAGE OF POWDERS:
1) Drugs having bitter, nauseous & unpleasant taste
cannot be dispensed in powdered form.
2) Deliquescent & hygroscopic drugs cannot be
dispensed in powder form.

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3) Drugs which get affected by atmospheric
conditions are not suitable for dispensing in
powder forms.
4) The dispensing of powder is a time consuming.

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CLASSIFICATION
OF
SOLUTIONS

34
 LIQUID DOSAGE FORMS

BIPHASIC
MONOPHASIC
Emulsions
Suspensions
EXTERNAL
INTERNAL

Liquids for Liquids applied Liquids

Draughts
oral cavities on body cavities applied on skin
Drops
Linctus
Syrups
Elixirs Douches.
Gargles
mixtures Mouthwashes Enemas.
Throat paints Ear drops.
Glycerites Nasal drops.
Throat spray
Inhalants.
eye drops.

Liniments
Lotions
collodions

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLUTIONS
1) Enteral or Oral solution.
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2) Parenteral or Injection.
3) External or Tropical.

Enteral or Oral solution

 Oral, Ingestible & Internal solution.
 Oral & Non-ingestible solution.

ORAL, INGESTIBLE & INTERNAL SOLUTION:

1) Solution are taken into mouth & are ingested.
2) Drug action may be either local or systemic.
3) For example –
a. Elixirs.
b. Syrups.
c. Draughts.
d. Drops.
e. Linctus.

ELIXIR
1) Clear, sweetened hydro alcoholic solution.
2) Intended for oral use and are usually flavored to
enhance palatability.
3) Usually less sweet than syrups and less viscous.
4) EXAMPLE: -
a. Chlorpheniramine elixir
b. Ephedrine elixir
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 c. Paracematol elixir
d. Piperizine citrate elixir
ADVANTAGES OF ELIXIRS: -
1) Better able to maintain both water-soluble and alcohol-
soluble components in solution
2) Has stable characteristics
3) Easily prepared by simple solution.
DISADVANTAGES OF ELIXIRS: -
1) Less effective than syrups in masking taste of
medicated substances.
2) Contains alcohol, accentuates saline taste of bromides.

SYRUP
Syrups are concentrated, viscous solutions of sugar or
sugar-based substances in water or without medicinal
substances. EXAMPLE: -
1) lemon syrup
2) raspberry syrup
3) Tou syrup (cough syrup)
4) Dolocol syrup (anti pyretic)
5) Novoplex syrup (multi vitamin)

ADVANTAGES OF SYRUPS: -
1) Ability to disguise bad taste of medication.

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2) Thick character of syrup has soothing effect on
irritated tissues of throat.
3) Contain little or no alcohol.
4) It is the most natural & easiest route of administration.
5) Easy to adjust the dose for a child’s weight.
6) Economical & safe to the patient.

DISADVANTAGES OF SYRUPS: -
1) Delayed onset of action because absorption takes
time.
2) Not suitable in emergency and for unconscious
patients.
3) Not convenient for a patient with a certain
disorder such as diarrhea, ulceration, and nausea.
4) Can’t avoid first pass metabolism.

What are dry syrups? (17) M=1

Dry syrup refers to medicine that is contained in
powder form. To administer dry syrup the powder
medication is dissolved in water.
Example: -
1) Lorain Levosalbutamol Syrup.
2) Mimox Dry Syrup

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How come syrups become a threat to the diabetic
patients?
Sugar & water although are the main components
of syrup but in many cases, sugar may be replaced
as a whole or in part by other substances such as
sorbitol, glycerin & propylene glycol.
Unfortunately, sugar, glycerin, propylene glycol are
all glycogenic materials. There converted to
glucose inside the body & rises up blood sugar
level easily. That’s why syrups are threat to the
diabetic patient. In order to rid of such threat, use
non-glycogenic material like methylcellulose or
hydroxyl-methyl cellulose. There cellulose
materials are not hydrolyses easily & are not
absorbed into blood stream. Therefore,
possibilities of increasing blood sugar level
become less.

ELIXIR SYRUP

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A sweetened, aromatic solution
A concentrated sugar solution
of alcohol and water
that contains medication or
containing, or used as a vehicle
flavoring.
for, medicinal substances.

Elixirs are able to maintain Syrups are unable to maintain

both water soluble acid, alcohol alcohol soluble components in
soluble components in solution. solution.

Elixirs are preferred over Syrup are not preferred over

syrup. elixirs.
Elixir containing over 10-20% Syrup containing over 60-80%
of alcohol are usually self- of sugar where usually self-
preserving. preserving.
Usually less sweet than syrup. Usually sweeter than elixir.

Less effective than syrup. More effective than elixir.

Less viscous than syrup. More viscous than elixir.
Example: Example:
Sedative Elixir: Phenobarbital Acacia syrup
Cardio tonic Elixir: Digoxin Cocoa syrup
Orange syrup

Difference between elixir & syrups: -

DRAUGHTS
1) A draught is a liquid oral preparation taken as a single
dose.

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2) If several doses are prescribed, each dose is dispensed
in separate containers.
3) It is essential to be labelled with storage conditions on
draughts.
4) It is given very early expiry date (48 hours).
5) Do not use, if the solution is discolored.
6) EXAMPLES:
 Male fern extract draught
 Paraldehyde draught
DROPS
1) For vitamins and antibiotics formulation for pediatric
purpose.
2) It is not meant for higher dose.
3) Drops are dispensed in a bottle with dropper.
4) It contains potent drugs, so dose is measured precisely.
5) EXAMPLE:
 Otic drop.
 Eye drop.
 Nasal drop.
Difference between Drops & Draughts: -

DROPS DRAUGHTS

Dose is single & large Dose is small like 1 to 2

drops.
(≥ 50mL).

41
 Use in cavities to give Use where bulk dose is
systemic or local drug need.
effect.

Dispensed in small Dispensed in a single or

bottles & vials. multiple dose container.

During use color must be Residual part of drops

carefully noted. should not be put back.

Example: Vitamin A Example: Case of

drop, poliomyelitis, poisoning where forceful
vaccine drop. vomiting is the mode of
treatment.

LINCTUS

1) Viscous liquid oral preparations that are usually

prescribed for the relief of cough.
2) Consists of simple solution of active agent in high
conc of sucrose.
3) Vehicle is always a syrup and sometimes contains
glycerin, because of sweetening taste and soothing
effect on mucous membrane.

42
4) Should be taken as such without dilution and
sipped slowly to prolong action of drug
5) EXAMPLE: -
 Codeine Linctus.
 Diamorphine Linctus.
 Compound Tolu Linctus.

ORAL, & NON-INGESTIBLE SOLUTION: -

1) Solution are taken into mouth but are not
ingested rather these are thrown out
afterwards.
2) Drug action is local.
3) For example –
a. Mouthwashes.
b. Gargles.

MOUTHWASH & GARGLES

USES:
1) Used to treat oro-dontal diseases.
2) Used to know the presence of cancer or lesions in
oral cavity.
43
 3) Used to maintain the local hygiene of oral cavity
through rinsing.
4) Used to deoderise oral cavity.
5) Use as a diagnostic tool.
GARGLE
Gargles are aqueous solutions used
to prevent or treat throat infections.
Its pH is 5-9.5
Some therapeutic agents used in
gargles are antibiotics, antiseptics,
local anesthetics.
Gargles should be dispensed in
clear, fluted glass bottles closed with
a plastic screw cap.
Gargle container should be labeled
external use only “. The direction for
proper dilution, should be stated on
the label.
EXAMPLE:
1) Phenol gargles.
2) Potassium chlorate.
3) Thymol glycerin compound.
MOUTHWASHE
Mouth washes are aqueous solution
used to cleanse and deodorize the
buccal cavity.
Its pH is 5.5 or below
Mouth washes generally contain
antibiotic agents or astringent,
alcohol, glycerin, sweeteners,
surfactants, flavoring and coloring
agents.
Mouthwashes are dispensed in white
fluted bottles.
Mouthwash label should clearly
indicate the proper directions for
diluting before use.
EXAMPLE:
1) Alkaline phenol mouth wash
2) Hydrogen peroxide mouth wash
3) Buffer sodium perborate mouth
wash
4) Compound sod. Chloride mouth
44
 wash

Difference between Mouthwash & Gargle: -

PARENTERAL SOLUTIONS OR INJECTION

INJECTION
1) There are liquids which are inserted into body or
cavity through route other than oral route.
2) These are put directly either the vain, into the
muscles or under the skin.
3) On the basis of administration these are of
different types: -
a. Intravenous Injection.
b. Intramuscular Injection.
c. Infusions.
d. Subcutaneous Injection.

INJECTION INFUSIONS
An injection doesn’t An infusion requires IV
require any IV lines, nor lines or an IV pump.
45
 does it require an IV
pump.

Injections are an effective Infusions are less

way to administer effective way to
medication. administer medication.

Injections are not similar Infusions are much more

to traditional IV drips. similar to traditional IV
drips.
An injection is typically
used to treat various
conditions such as severe An infusion is typically
allergic reactions, used to treat some type of
arthritis, blood diseases, chronic issue such as
breathing problems, pain.
certain cancers, eye
diseases, intestinal
disorders, and skin
diseases.
Difference between an Injection & Infusions
DOUCHES
Generally, three cavities are widely used: -
1) For vaginal purpose termed as Douches.
2) For bladder purpose termed as Irrigation
3) For rectum purpose termed as Enemas.

46
1) A douche is an aqueous solution directed against a
part or into a cavity of the body.
2) It is a liquid preparation intended for the irrigative
cleansing of vagina.
3) Functions as cleaning or antiseptic agent.
4) Usually administered into a body part using a bulb
syringe or fountain syringe.
5) EXAMPLE
a. Eye douches.
b. Nasal douches.
c. Vaginal douches.
d. Bladder douches.
e. Rectum douches.
ENEMA
Is the procedure of introducing liquids into the rectum
and colon via anus.
Types of Enemas:
a. Therapeutic enemas.
b. Diagnostic enemas
c. Evacuation enemas.

DIAGNOSTIC ENEMAS: -
1) There are used for diagnosis purpose.

47
2) They contain diagnostic agent like radio opaque
materials.
3) It is used for detecting the presence of disease in
lower bowel.
4) They are commercially available in forms of
solutions & suspension.
5) EXAMPLE: BaSO4 suspension

THERAPEUTIC ENEMAS: -
1) These are used for treatment purpose.
2) It used as solutions that gives local & systemic drug
action.
3) For instance, drug which produces gastric irritation,
higher side effects, delayed onset of action there this
enema preferred.
4) While drugs with higher gastric irritation being
formulated as enema is used in small dose is called
"MICRO ENEMA".
5) While drugs with higher gastric irritation being
formulated as enema is called "RETENTION
ENEMA".
EVACUATION ENEMAS: -
1) These are used to facilitate evacuation bowel.

48
2) The injection of liquid into the rectum through the anus
for cleansing.
3) Sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, glycerin, docusate
potassium and light mineral oil are used in enemas to
evacuate bowel
4) It is usually given at a body temperature in quantities of 1
to 2 pt. injected slowly with a syringe.

49
 Difference between Enema & Pessary: -

ENEMA PESSARY
This dosage form This dosage form
usually uses rectum usually uses vaginal
cavity for drug cavity for drug
administration. administration.
It is one type of It is like suppositories.
douche.
Drug action may be Drug action either local
either local or systemic. or systemic or both.

Types of pessary: Types of pessary:

1. Diagnostic enema. 1. The ring.

2. Therapeutic enema. 2. Gehrung.

3. Evacuation enema. 3. Shaatz.

4. Disposable enema 4. lever.

EXTERNAL OR TOPICAL SOLUTIONS

LOTION

50
 1) Lotion are liquid preparations intended for external
application or for special use.
2) It may be aqueous or alcoholic solution or suspension
referred as SHAKE LOTION.
3) In aqueous or alcoholic solution, the main ingredients
are salts.
4) Alcohol causes defatting, countered by addition of
castor oil.
5) Lotions are applied to inflamed area.
6) Lotion used for local cooling, soothing, protective,
drying or moisturizing properties.
7) Lotion includes- antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-
infective, anti-pyretic and local anesthetic agents.
8) It should be storage in fluted bottle, closed with plastic
screw cap.
9) It should be label as "FOR EXTERNAL USE ONLY"
10) EXAMPLES:
a. Lead lotion - lead subacetate in water.
b. Salicylic lotion - salicylic acid in alcohol.
COLLODION
1) Collodions are fluid- prepared for external use.
2) They are applied by brush, rod or applicator.
3) The base is pyroxylin (Nitro Cellulose) in a
volatile solvent.
4) The volatile vehicle evaporates leaving a flexible,
protective film covering the site.

51
5) The volatile vehicles are ether, alcohol and
acetone.
6) Flexibility to film given by castor oil.
7) Pyroxylin is highly inflammable so it is kept moist
with industrial methylated spirit, stored loosely
packed, protect from light in a cool place.
8) It should be label as "FOR EXTERNAL USE
ONLY"
9) EXAMPLE
a. Flexible Collodion –USP/BP
b. Salicylic acid collodion -BPC
TINCTURE
1) The tinctures are alcoholic liquid preparations
containing the active principles of vegetable
drugs.
2) The tincture is a popular local anti-infective agent
applied to skin, is useful in delineating the
application over the affected skin area.
3) The tincture is used for preparation of orally or
topically used drugs.
4) The tincture should be stored in a tight container
to prevent loss of alcohol.
5) EXAMPLE:
a. Tincture of Iodine.
b. Tincture of Benzoin.
c. Tincture of Cannabis sativa.
52
OINTMEN PASTE CREAM GEL
T
Generally Basically,
Semisolid Semisolid
Hydro- ointmentpreparation preparation
carbon in whichin which in which a
based high one or more liquid
greasy percentag
medicament phase is
semisolid e of s are trapped
insoluble
dissolved in within a 3-
solid has
either a D
been W/O or polymeric
added. O/W matrix.
emulsion.
Opaque Opaque Opaque Transparen
t
Greasy Less Less Greasy Less
Greasy Greasy
Difference between O/P/C/G

53
 SOLUTION SUSPENSION COLLOID EMULSION

A solution is a A pharmaceutical An emulsion is a

homogeneous suspension is a coarse A colloid is a mixture of two or
mixture of two or dispersion in which substance more liquids that are
more substances in internal phase is microscopically normally
a definite ratio by dispersed uniformly dispersed throughout immiscible.
mass. throughout the external another substance.
phase.

Homogeneous Heterogeneous Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Partial size is Partial size is >1000nm Partial size is 1-200nm Partial size is
<1nm
>1µm

Partial undergo Partial do not undergo Partial undergo

sedimentation Partial undergo sedimentation sedimentation
sedimentation

Used in various Used in the paint Used in agriculture

industry as a Used in the production industry, food industry industry, chemical
biological source to of medication & milk & various other industry, oral
prepare drops, of magnesia. industrial application. products, Tropical
medicine etc. use.

Example: Example: Example: Example:

Includes NaCl in Includes milk of Includes milk, Includes
water & sugar in magnesia, shampoo, gemstones & vinaigrettes,
water. soot in air. foam rubber. homogenized milk.

54
55
 SOURCE OF
INFORMATION

56
What is Information?
An information is the tool for making a person to be
aware of a fact.
Academic fields an information should be: -
1) Authentic
2) Reliable
3) Unbiased

Communicating information to a person make

him/her: -
 Aware of facts about which they have no
knowledge.
 Updates present knowledge.
 Expands present knowledge.
 Sometimes change thinking.

What is pharmacy & What are the Importance of

information in pharmacy?
PHARMACY:

57
 Pharmacy is a profession that deals with the
preparation, formulation, manufacture & dispensing
of drugs.
Importance of information: -
1) Disease pattern occurring in our society does not remain
same every year it is changing.
2) So, change should be made with the pattern of medication
this needs reviewing of current drug.
3) May be some drug would be withdrawn some new
molecules will be added to the list of drugs of current usage.
4) Therefore, for reviewing the drugs & also for knowing the
drugs properties of drug must be known.
5) All pharmacists, physicians involved with medication need
to be updated with the current trends of disease & disease.
6) This in possible through communication information.
What is the Source of information in pharmacy?

A. PRINTING MEDIA
1) Text book
2) Monograph
3) Pharmacopoeia & codex
4) Formulary
5) Journals
B. ELECTRONIC MEDIA
6) Proceedings
7) Periodicals 1) E-books/ Digital library
8) Annals 2) Online journal
9) Booklets 3) Internet & web sites
58
10) Inserts
 C. MASS MEDIA
1) Newspaper
2) Television
3) Radio

PHARMACOPOEIA
BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA: -
1) The British Pharmacopoeia (BP) is the national pharmacopoeia of the
United Kingdom.

2) The British Pharmacopoeia is an important statutory component in

the control of medicines. Along with the British National Formulary
(BNF), it defines the UK's pharmaceutical standards.

3) It consists of two sections.

4) The first edition of the British Pharmacopoeia was published in 1864

and was one of the first attempts to harmonize pharmaceutical
standards.

5) In 1907 the British Pharmacopoeia was supplemented by the British

Pharmaceutical Codex, which gave information on drugs and other

59
 pharmaceutical substances not included in the B P, and provided
standards for these.

6) The current edition of the British Pharmacopoeia comprises six

volumes which contain nearly 3,000 monographs for drug substances,
excipients and formulated preparation.
EUROPEAN PHARMACOPOEIA: -
1) The European Pharmacopoeia is a pharmacopoeia that aims to
provide common, quality, standards throughout Europe to
control the quality of medicines and the substances used to
manufacture them.

2) European pharmacopeia commission started working since

1964 to prepare EP.

3) Since its 5th edition, the pharmacopoeia is published in 2

volumes. Volume 1 contains general chapters and monographs
volume 2 contains all substance monographs.

4) The 8th Edition, published in July 2013 and is currently in

force, contains more than 2220 monographs and 340 general
chapters.

5) During runtime of current edition several supplements are

published. Electronic versions are also available (CD-ROM,
USB stick and online version).

INDIAN PHARMACOPOEIA: -

60
1) The Indian Pharmacopoeia is the official book of
standards and medicines produced in India must comply
with the specified standards.

2) The process of publishing the first Pharmacopoeia

started in the year 1944.

3) It has 8th Edition I. P. 2018.

4) Around 19 New Radiopharmaceutical Monographs & 1

General chapter is first time being included in this
edition.

5) It covers 2550 monographs.

6) The set of standards are published under the title Indian

Pharmacopoeia (IP).

UNITED STATES PHARMACOPOEIA: -

1) The united states pharmacopoeia & the national formulary
(USP-NF) are recognized as official compendia & are used as
reference books for determining the strength, quality, purity,
packaging of drug & other related articles.

61
2) United States Pharmacopeia 35 - National Formulary 30
Published November 2011; official May 1, 2012.

3) The United States Pharmacopeia and National Formulary are

updated annually, plus two supplements are published each
year.

4) Covered Products are Drug Substances/APIs, Drug Products,

Biologics, Excipients.

5) In the USP-NF Total Monographs: About 4,500.

6) USP is a member of the Pharmacopoeia Discussion Group

(PDG).

7) WHO IU yardstick for biologics.

EXTRA PHARMACOPOEIA (MARTINDALE): -
In pharmacopoeia a vast number of drug & proprietary
medicines in use are included so therapeutic information &
its retrieval is one of the major problems of pharmacists
whatever his field of practice so there is extra pharmacopeia
which is commonly known as Martindale extra
pharmacopoeia.

This is published by pharmaceutical society & is for using

as a reference book. It has information on official
preparation, proprietary products & preparation in foreign
pharmacopoeia.
62
This is a compilation of data. Under the medicine act each
product marketed commercially must be described in a data
sheet confirming to the requirements of the licensing
authority. This data sheet of leading company is published
annually in a bound from by the association of British
pharmacopoeia industry (ABPI)

What is codex?
This is a compilation of drug that are not included
into the pharmacopoeia.
Here unofficial drugs characteristic, Purity, preparations are
included. This work as a compilation volume of pharmacopoeia.
E.g. British pharmacopoeia codex (BPC). This is published by
the direction of council of pharmaceutical society of great British
& established in 1923.
This differs from pharmacopoeia in following aspects: -
1) This has more drug & preparation than pharmacopoeia.
2) The inclusion of the agents is in advance of pharmacopoeia so
needs official status.
3) Some non-proprietary drugs & preparations are included.
4) This is also authentic.
5) It provides information of drug action.
6) Uses of drug.
7) Undesirable effects of drugs Precautions.
8) Treatment of poisons.

63
9) It contains formulae, method of preparation, dose container &
storage conditions of most of the preparation.

64
What is formulary?
It is a list of prescription drugs of current uses & made
them available to the prescribers, physicians, practicing
pharmacists.

This is also compilation & ready-made access to drug

information highlighting dose, use, side effects & cost. As
cost is involved so formulary provide incentives for
patients to select lower cost drugs. This publication is
serial publication, so latest one is renewed & is an updated
version of the past E.g. is: -

1) NFI: National Formulary.

2) BNF: British National Formulary.
3) BDNF: Bangladesh National Formulary

What are open access journals? (7)

Open access journals define as journals that use a funding
model that doesn't change readers or their institutions for
access.

65
ADVANTAGES
1. Research often is released faster, since the publishing
process is streamlined.
2. wider audience as readers do not need to have paid or
institutional access to the journal through their libraries.
3. Many open access journals are new and publish fresh
content on new topics.
DISADVANTAGES
1. New open access journals often don't have the same
perception of legitimacy as established printed journals.
2. Open access journals do not always have the level of
peer review as established printed journals.
3. Board members on open access journals may not be
established scholars.
How to identify open access journal & the article?
(7)
Open access journals provide many benefits for both
authors and readers.
8 Ways to Identify an Open Access Journal: -
1. Tries to keep the copyright to authors’ work.
2. The editorial board is very small.
3. Issue problem in journal.
4. The website is not professional in quality.
5. The journal title notes a national or international
affiliation that does not match its editorial board or
location.
66
6. There are fundamental errors in the titles and abstracts.
7. The content of the journal varies from the title and stated
scope.
8. single publisher releases an overwhelmingly large suite
of new journals all at one time.

PROCEEDING:
Proceedings a series of activities or events
happenings.

PERIODICALS:
A magazine that is published every month or week
specially one that is concerned with academic subject.

ANNALS:
An official record of events or activities conducted
year by year.

MAGAZINES:
A type of large thin book with a paper cover that we
can buy every week or month that contains articles,
photographs on a particular type.
67
INSERTS:
Insert means something inserted with the main.
Regarding pharmacy it bis a brief description about a drug
provided along with the pack. It is one-page information & the
size of the paper is < 5.

NEWSPAPER:
It is a compilation of news & is given in a printed
from & is circulate daily bias. It conveys many news
like- politics, Weathers, sports, Health & event that is
remarkable.

Pharmacopoeia Monograph Journal

68
 It is a book containing A monograph is a A journal is a collection
collection of monographs specialist work of of academic research
and published by an writing on a single papers or writing from
authorized body like subject usually by a several people based on a
government or single author theme and published
Pharmaceutical society. from time to time.

It maintains the To present primary It provides

uniformity and control research and original Chronological Record.
the standards of the drugs scholarship
available in market.

It provides Complete To present research at It Minimizing the

information on drugs and length and is different possibility of errors.
their dosage forms. from an article

Reference for laboratory, It explains the details of It provides Narration.

industry and academic a drug.
institutions.

Difference between pharmacopoeia, monograph, journal: -

What is digital library?

A digital library is a collection of documents in organized
electronic form, available on the Internet or on CD-ROM disks.
ADVANTAGES
1) No physical boundary.
69
2) Networking.
3) Space.
4) Preservation & conservation.
5) Information retrieval.
6) Structured approach.
7) Multiple accesses.
8) Round the clock available.
DISADVANTAGES
1) Copyright.
2) Speed of access.
3) Initial cost is high.
4) Preservation.
5) Environment.
6) Efficiency.
7) Band width.
What is library?
A library is somewhere that you can find all kinds of
books.
ADVANTAGES
1) Different information sources in one location.
2) It can provide Up-date information.
3) We can choose the format we prefer to access our
information.
4) Some libraries have free internet access.
5) We can take books home which is more convenient.

70
Disadvantages
1) The book we want may not be available.
2) We can't remove reference books.
3) We need to pre-book the computer & internet use.
4) They may charge for internet use.
LIBRARY DIGITAL LIBRARY
Print collection All resources in digital
form.

Stable, with slow Dynamic and

evolution ephemeral

Individual objects not Multi-media and fractal

directly linked with objects
each other

One way interactions Dynamic real-time

dialogue

Limited access points Unlimited access points,

and centralized distributed collections
management and access control
71
 Differences between Book & Text Book: -
BOOK TEXT BOOK
A book may or may A text book must be
not be relevant to an relevant to an
academic course. academic course.

A book is published by A text book is published

single author. one or more author.

Book can be either Text Books are non-

fiction or non-fiction. fiction.
EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
Novel, Story Book A text book on theory &
practices.

72
 Differences between Book & E-Book: -

BOOK E- BOOK
Printed books are very E-books are organized.
heavy and sometimes
messy.
Books costs are loss E-Books costs are often
extensive times. times lesser.
Printed book keeps us E-book keeps us from
from being distracted being engaged into the
into the software seen in software seen in a certain
a certain device. device which lost our
valuable time.
NO privacy. Offers privacy.

What is an e-book?
An e-book is a digital or electronic book that is
formatted into a file that can be read on an e-reader
device or app.
ADVANTAGES
73
1) Portable-Many different texts on one small device.
2) Nothing goes out of print.
3) Instantly available.
4) Font size can be change.
5) The multimedia book arriving soon.
6) Supposedly cheaper.
DISADVANTAGES
1) Requires a device of some sort-Computer, Tablet, E-
reader, etc.
2) Requires Internet access.
3) Limits on the number of users.
4) Limits on the ability to print, Copy or download.
5) E-books usually cost more than print book.
6) Libraries face many unknowns in preserving e-book.
What is a Print Book?
A print book is a physical book that has the text,
images, etc. printed on paper. The pages are bound
together, and the book has either a hardcover or
softcover (paperback).
ADVANTAGES
1) No power or internet connection required.
2) No need for account or passwords.
3) Book is durable.
4) Book are easy to store.
5) When we own a book, we can do what we want with
that book.
74
6) Book allow physical interaction.
DISADVANTAGES
1) Despite being durable, books do get worn, damaged,
written in.
2) Books take up a lot of space.
3) Books only contain material that can be printed on a
page.
4) One reader at a time.
5) Books are heavy.
What is printing media?
Print media is a medium that disseminates printed
matter.
ADVANTAGE
1. Printed materials
2. Possible to read any time of the day without
power supply.
3. Copy write is preserved.
4. Cannot be copied & claimed by others.
Disadvantages
1. Wooden materials are need environment is lost.
2. Need a wide space & facility like chair, table etc.
3. Note available for 24 hours.
4. Need extra care to maintain the texture of the
paper.

75
What is E-media?
Electronic media is media that uses electromechanical
device to access the content Broadcast or storage
media that take advantage of electronic technology.
ADVANTAGES
1. This is 24/7 service.
2. This no space, no cost.
3. Wooden materials are not need.
4. Can’t be stolen, torn, wet etc.
5. No sorter is need.
6. It is portable.
DISADVANTAGES
1. No copy right protection.
2. Privacy act is overcome.
3. Inter connection is need.
4. Initial cost is investment is high.
5. Eye become fatigue easily.
6. Purchase of book is not easy as payment.

76
COMMUMICABLE
DISEASES

77
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80
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