Rock Mechanics and Tunneling Engineering

Rock Mechanics and Tunneling Engineering
(DE-624)
for
M.Sc. in Dam Engineering
Instructor: Abunu Atlabachew (Dr.)
Chapter Three : Discontinuities and treatment of rocks1with

Contents
Chapter Three: Discontinuities and treatment of rocks with

defects
3.1 Description of components of rockmass
3.2 Importance of study of discontinuities
3.3 Types of discontinuities in rocks
3.4 Geometrical properties of discontinuities
3.5 Mechanical and hydraulic properties of rockmass
3.6 Treatment of rocks with defects
Rock Mechanics and Tunneling Engineering (DE-624) Course Lecture Notes Prepared by Dr. Abunu Atlabachew 2
Chapter Two: Physical and Mechanical Properties of rocks
3.1 Description of components of rock mass
3.1.1 Rock mass
• A rock mass is more commonly formed from an array of intact rock
blocks with boundaries formed by discontinuities .
• Within the rock mass, the mechanical properties of both the intact rock
blocks and the discontinuities may be inhomogeneous and anisotropic.
Rock mass = Rock materials(Intact rock) + Rock discontinuities
3.1.2 Intact rock or rock material

• Intact rock blocks are blocks of rock that do not contain mechanical
discontinuities and do have tensile strength.
3.1.3 Discontinuity
• Discontinuity in rocks represents planes of weakness across which the
rock material is structurally separated.
• Or discontinuity denotes any separation in the rock continuum having
effectively zero tensile strength.
Rock Mechanics and Tunneling Engineering (DE-624) Course Lecture Notes Prepared by Dr. Abunu Atlabachew
3
3.1 Description of components of rock mass (Cont’d…)
• The most common discontinuities in rocks are joint plane, fault plane and
bedding plane.
• There are other discontinuities in rocks like cleavage, foliation planes,
fissures, and tension cracks in anticline of folds.
• Bedding planes, joints, fractures, faults, etc. are mechanical
discontinuities if the tensile strength perpendicular to the discontinuity or
the shear strength along the discontinuity is lower than of the surrounding
rock material (ISRM, 1978b, 1981a), effectively zero tensile strength.
• A division is made between integral discontinuities and mechanical
discontinuities. The latter are planes of physical weakness.
• Integral discontinuities are discontinuities that are as strong as the
surrounding rock material.
• Integral discontinuities can change into mechanical discontinuities
due to weathering or chemical reactions that change the mechanical
characteristics.
• ‘Discontinuities’ denote mechanical discontinuities throughout these
notes except where stated otherwise.
4
Figure 3.1 : Rockmass components

(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 3.2 : (a) bedding plane, (b) joint plane, (c) Fault plane, (d) anticline fold
3.2 Importance of study of rock discontinuities in different
engineering works
The study of discontinuities and folds is very important in
the following engineering works .
1) Natural and Artificially Cut Slopes
2) Dams and Surface Storage Reservoirs
3) Underground Structures
4) Underground Fluid Storage and Transport Structures
5) Toxic and Hazardous Wastes
6) High-Level Nuclear Waste
• Discontinuities represent zones of weakness and are therefore less
resistant than intact rock to deformation and failure by shear and
tensile stresses.
• The presence of water in the rock mass promotes failure by
lowering effective stresses and increasing static hydraulic forces on
potentially sliding blocks.
7
engineering works (Continued…)
3.2.1 Influence of discontinuities and
other rock defects on stability of
Natural and Artificially Cut
Slopes
• Most types of rock slope failures, such as
translational /rotational sliding failures,
(a)
toppling failures, and rock falls, can usually be
associated with isolated discontinuities or
fracture zones.
• Water-induced pore pressures may also increase
if the fractures are blocked by ice, swelling of
intact rock, or precipitation of minerals.
• Stress levels may also rise in fractures because
of rainfall, and failure may follow heavy rain.
• Fractures in rock slopes have an increased
susceptibility to weathering, which reduces
shear and tensile resistance and may lead to
(b)
blockage of water flow.
Figure 3.3 : failure because of discontinuity in (a) natural slope and (b) cut slope
3.2.2 Influence of discontinuities and other rock defects on
stability Dams and Surface Storage Reservoirs
• Fractures cause both foundation and slope problems that can affect the stability of
dams’ foundations and surface storage reservoirs.
• Fractures are reopened and eroded by a rise in the water table level during the
first reservoir filling and by subsequent water level changes during reservoir
operations and lead to slope failure.
• Hydraulic reservoir pressures exert significant loads parallel to the ground surface
that can lead to opening of fractures upstream of the dam and closure of fractures
downstream. This response produces shorter seepage pathways and higher water
pressures near the ground surface downstream of the dam.
• These high water pressures lower the effective stresses, which can produce large
ground deformations and lead to collapse of the dam.
• Fractures in dam foundations and abutments can also cause significant loss of
water from the reservoir owing to increased permeability of the rock mass.
• Erosion of fault and fracture-filling materials under hydraulic gradients can cause
significant reduction in strength of rocks and possibly dam failure.
9
Figure 3.4 : failure because of discontinuity in dam abutment

3.2.3 Influence of discontinuities on stability Underground
Structures during excavation
• Examples of underground structures are tunnels, caverns and power houses.
• Fractures affect stability of underground structures by deformation and fluid flow
into tunnels and caverns.
• Flow into tunnels through fractures can slow or delay construction. Construction
conditions are often made more difficult by the flow of hot and/or chemically
aggressive water into the tunnel.
• For example, during construction of the Simplon Tunnel through the Swiss-
Italian Alps, inflows of cold water as high as about 18,000 liters per minute were
encountered in fractured marble units.
• At another location in the same tunnel, hot water (46° C) discharged from
fracture zones at rates up to about 6,300 liters per minute.
• Fractures may also serve as conduits for toxic and explosive gases into tunnels
and mines.
• High pore water pressures reduce effective stresses around underground
excavations, which can lead to rock deformation and instability.
• Tunneling through a fault zone can produce a sudden inrush of water and loss of
support for the face. Occasionally, such inrushing can stop the tunneling work for
a significant period of time.
• Fractures also have an effect on the support structure (lining) of underground
excavations, which must accommodate both the rock load and water pressure. 11
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.5 : Tunnel failure (a) groundwater runoff , (b) face collapse
3.2.4 Influence of discontinuities on tightness and stability
Underground Fluid Storage and Transport Structures
• Tunnels and caverns may be used to store and transport gases and liquids.
• These stored fluids exert large internal pressures on the perimeters of
underground structures. If the support structures fail or if no support exists, it is
likely that the stored fluids will escape through fractures in the rock..
• In intensely fractured rocks, stored fluids can escape through these cracks, and
new fractures may be induced in surrounding rock masses through hydraulic
fracturing.
• This hydraulic fracturing reduces the strength of rocks surrounding the storage
and transport structure.
3.2.5 Influence of discontinuities on disposal of Toxic and Hazardous

Wastes
• Improperly designed land disposal facilities can release contaminants into the
subsurface through fractured rocks.
• Fracture networks control the dispersion of these contaminants in the subsurface.
• Typically, wastes are injected below an impermeable confining layer that provides a
barrier to upward waste migration. Fractures in these confining layers can provide
conduits for upward contaminant migration.
• . 13
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 3.6 : failure in (a) road tunnel, (b) train tunnel , (c) drainage tunnel, , (d) utility tunnel
• The injection of waste into the

subsurface at high pressure can
artificially fracture the
confining layer. These artificial
fractures can also provide
pathways for the upward
migration of contaminants.
• Aquifers, which rock bodies
that contain economically
significant quantities of
groundwater, are particularly
sensitive to contamination
owing to the rapid and
somewhat unpredictable
Figure 3.7: Toxic and hazardous waste
movement of contaminants disposal system
through fractures.
15
3.2.6 Influence of discontinuities and other rock defects on
disposal of High-Level Nuclear Waste
• The term high-level nuclear waste refers to highly toxic and highly
radioactive waste such as spent fuel from nuclear reactors.
• The most commonly used repository design is a subsurface facility.
• Other than human intervention, groundwater is the only important
mechanism for escape of radioactive waste from a repository.
• Fractures could play a key role in the movement of groundwater into a
repository.
• If waste metallic containers are breached (opened), fractures could control
the transport of waste in groundwater from the repository into the
environment.
• .
16
Therefore the study of discontinuities is useful
• To find out relationship between joints and faults and/ or folds.
• To understand the nature and sequence of deformation in an area.
• To find out the brittle deformation in an area of construction (dams,
bridges, and power plants).
• To find out the ductile deformation in an area of construction
• In mineral exploration to find out the trend and type of fractures and
joints that host mineralization which will help in exploration.
• To understand joints and fractures serve as the plumping system for
ground water flow in many area and they are the only routes by
which ground water can move through igneous and metamorphic
rocks.( To understand porosity and permeability of rock mass)
• To understand joints orientations in road cuts greatly affect both
construction and maintenance. Those oriented parallel to or dip into
a highway cut become hazardous during
17
3.3 Types of discontinuities in rocks
• For proper design of engineering structures ‘on’ or ‘in’ rock, it is
necessary to have a good information and understanding about the
existing defects and discontinuities inside the rock mass in addition
to lithological information.
• The following major defects and discontinuities can affect the
engineering structures life and stability if they are not well
considered.
1) Faults
2) Joints Discontinuities
All are defects in rocks
3) Bedding planes
4) folds Other defects
18
3.3 Types of discontinuities in rocks (Cont’d…)
Table 3.1: Types of discontinuities
Type of discontinuity Description
Fracture A general name given for any separation or break in
the rock mass.
Joint A fracture along which no displacement or
movement occurred between the adjacent block of
rocks
Fault A fracture along which movement occurred
between the two adjacent blocks of rocks.
Foliation planes Series of parallel layers resulted from parallel
orientation of minerals crystals during
metamorphism
Bedding planes Contact between sedimentary rock layers or strata
Cleavage Stress fractures from folding
19
3.3.1 Faults
3.3.1.1 What is fault?
• Faults are well-defined cracks or fractures along which
appreciable amount of displacement (movement) has taken
place between adjacent blocks of rocks.
• The movement can be in any direction
• The magnitude of displacement varies between wide limits
(from a few cm to hundreds of meters).
3.3.1.2 Parts of a fault

• Fault plane: a fracture plane along which displacement takes
place
• Hanging wall: the block above the fault plane
• Foot wall: the block below the fault plane
20
• Dip angle: angle between the fault plane and the horizontal
• Hade: angle between the fault plane and the vertical
• Throw: the vertical displacement component of the fault
• Heave: the lateral displacement component of the fault
• Up thrown side: the block which relatively moves upward along
the fault plane
• Downthrown side: the block which relatively moves downward
along the fault plane
• Slip: the displacement that occurs during faulting on the fault
plane.
• Strike: the line of intersection of the fault plane with the
horizontal ground surface
21
Figure 3.8: Parts of faults
22
3.3.1.3 Cause of faulting
• Faults develop mainly due to shear or sliding failures resulting
from compressional forces (tectonic).
3.3.1.4 Types of faults

• Faults are classified based on:
a) Type of net slip involved

b) Relative movement of footwall and hanging wall on
inclined fault plane
c) The amount of dip angle

d) The basis of fault pattern
23
(a) Classification of faults based on net slip
Based on net slip there are 3 fault types
1. Dip slip fault
• Normal dip slip fault
• Reverse dip slip fault
2. Strike slip fault
• Left lateral or sinistral strike slip fault
• Right lateral or dextral strike slip fault
3. Oblique slip fault
Figure 3.9: Dip

slip fault
24
Figure 3.10: Dip slip fault across the road
25
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 3.11: (a) Layered rocks block before faulting, (b) block after strike slip
faulting, (c) Strike slip fault on outcropping rocks layer
26
Figure 3.12: Top view of right lateral strike slip fault across the asphalt road
27
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 3.13: (a) before faulting, (b) after oblique slip faulting, (C) Normal left slip fault,
(d) Reverse left slip fault
28
(b) Classification of faults based on apparent movement of hanging
wall and footwall blocks on inclined plane
• Based on apparent movement of hanging block and foot block on inclined
plane , faults are divided into two: (d)
1. Normal fault
(b)
2. Reverse fault
(a)
(e)
Hanging block moved down
(c)
(f)
Hanging block moved up
Figure 3.14: (a) before faulting, (b) after normal

faulting, (C) after reverse faulting, (d) and (e) Normal
faults, (f) Reverse fault
29
(c) Classification of faults based on the dip angle
• Based on the dip angle the fault plane, there are two types of faults:
1. High angle fault- the dip angle is greater than 450
2. Low angle fault- the dip angle is less than 450
(a) (b)
Figure 3.15: (a) low angle normal dip slip fault, (b) low-angle reverse dip slip fault (trust
slip fault)
(d) Classification of faults based on their pattern

• Based on pattern their , faults are classified into the following types :
i. Parallel faults v. Radial fault
ii. Step faults vi. Peripheral fault
iii. Graben vii. Enechelon fault
iv. Horst
30
(i) Parallel fault
 A series of faults running more or less parallel to one another and all
handing in the same direction, are called “parallel faults”
(ii) Step fault
 It consists of those parallel faults where down throw of all are in the
same direction and it gives a step like arrangement.
Figure 3.16: Step faults and
parallel faults in rift valley
(iii) Graben: When two normal

faults striking parallel and dipping
towards each other and the beds
between them are thrown down in the
form of a wedge, the structure is
called Graben. Figure 3.17: Graben
31
(iv) Horst
 Horst is a block raised between two normal faults
(v) Radial fault
 A number of faults occur on the surface and appear to be radiating from a
common point are called radial faults.
(vi) Arcuate or Peripheral faults
 Curved faults of more or less circular in outcrops on level surface are called
peripheral faults
(vii) En echelon
 En echelon faults are comparatively short faults which overlap
each other
(b) (c)
(a)
(a)
Figure 3.18: (a) Horst, (b) Radial fault top view , (c) En echelon fault
32
3.3.1.5 Geometric recognition elements of faults
 Slicken side is a smoothly polished surface caused by frictional
movement between rocks along the two sides of a fault. This
surface is normally striated .
 Faults scarps: are steps in the land surface that coincide with
locations of faults. They are expression of movements or original
fault offset and the height of the fault scarp approximate the
displacement.
 Triangular facets: formed when former planar fault scarps
dissected by erosion.
 Increase of stream gradients at the fault line.
 In situ fault breccia
 Offset of streams along strike slip faults.
 aligned springs.
 Landslides 33
(a) (b)
Fault
scarp
(c)
(d)
Triangular
facets
Figure 3.18: (a) slicken side and lines, (b) Fault scarp, (c) Triangular facets, (d) stream gradient increase
(a)
(b)
(d)
Figure 3.19: (a) fault breccia, b) Stream offset topview

3.3.1.6 Effects of faults
 considerable fracturing and shattering of rock
along fault zones
Reduces bearing capacity of rocks at foundation
Destruction or collapse of building or road
Abutment failure in dam or bridge structure
 shear zones and fault zones serves as easy
pathways for water
leakage
 bring totally different rocks together
 heterogeneity or non-uniformity of physical character
 Slippage along the fault plane
Land slide
36
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 3.20: (a) hose settlement, (b) Road settlement , (c) dam abutment failure
due to faulting
3.3.2 Joints
3.3.2.1 Definition of joints
• Joints are divisional planes or cracks along which the fractured
rock masses appear to have suffered no relative displacement.
3.3.1.2 Parts of a fault
Figure 3.21: Vertical joints

38
3.3.2.2 Types of joints
• Joints are mainly classified based on their:
a) orientation
b) origin
c) relative attitude to the beds
a) Classification of joints based on their orientation

 Systematic joints
 Non-systematic joints
• Systematic joints: joints which have parallel orientation and
regular spacing. They are also straight.
• Nonsystematic joints: joints that do not share a common
orientation and those highly curved and irregular fracture
surfaces. They occur in most area but are not easily related to
a recognizable stress.
39
• Some times both systematic and nonsystematic joints formed
in the same area at the same time but nonsystematic joints
usually terminate at systematic joints .
(a)
Figure 3.22: (a) Non-systematic

joints, (b) Systematic joints (b)
40
b) Classification of joints
based on their mode of
origin
 Most of the joints are formed due
to either tensional forces or
shearing forces. Accordingly, they
are described as :
1. Tension joints
2. Shear joints
 Tension joints develop
perpendicular to the direction of
tensional forces, which pull apart
the rock masses. Both columnar
joints in basalt and mud cracks are
examples of tension joints.
 Shear joints develop in those
contexts where shearing forces
prevail. Faults and limbs of folds
are the places where shearing
forces occur and create shear joints. Figure 3.23: Columnar joints
c) Classification of joints based on the (a)
relative attitude to beds
• In this classification the strike direction of
the joint is compared with the strike and dip
of the bedding of a sedimentary rock, the
schistocity of a schist, or gneissic structure
(b)
of a gneiss. There are 3 such joints:
1) Strike joint
2) Dip joint
3) Oblique joint.
• A strike joint is a joint in which its strike is (c)
parallel to the strike of strata.
• A dip joint is a joint in which its strike is
parallel to the dip of strata.
• Oblique joint : When strike of the joint
plane is oblique to the strike of dip of strata, Figure 3.24: (a) strike joint,
it is called an oblique joint (b) dip joint, (c) oblique joint
3.3.2.3 Nature of joints
• Joint set: joints that
share a similar
orientation in same area.
• Joint system: two or
more joints sets in the
same area
• Joints can be straight or
curved.
• The joint surface can be
rough or smooth.
• Joints can be microscopic
or master joints
Figure 3.25: Joint sets

and joint systems
3.3.2.4 Effects of joints
• Creates shattering and cracking (a)
• Reduces the bearing capacity of the rocks
beneath foundation of huge civil structures.
• Joints can percolate water down to the
ground.
• Serious leakage beneath reservoirs and dams
• cause sever landslides along hill slopes.
(b) (c)
Figure 3.26: (a) foundation failure, (b) Slope failure along railway,
(c) slope failure along road because of jointed rock weakness 44
3.3.3 Bedding planes
• Bedding planes are the planes
which separate the sedimentary
and stratified rocks into different
layers.
• The bedding plane can be
horizontal, inclined or vertical.
Figure 3.27: Bedding

planes between strata
45
3.3.4 Fold
3.3.4.1 What is a fold?
• Folds are bends, buckles, curvature or undulations developed in the horizontal
rocks of the earth’s crust.
• Folds are structures in which the attitudes of the beds are changed by flexure
resulting from the application of post-depositional tectonic forces.
3.3.4.2 Parts of folds
• Parts of folds are described based on their geometry
 Axial plane- is the imaginary plane, which divides folds as symmetrically
as possible. It may be vertical, inclined or horizontal
 Axis of fold- is the line of intersection of the axial plane with the bed of
fold. It may be horizontal or inclined or vertical
 Plunge- the axis of a fold may be horizontal or inclined. The angle of
inclination of the fold axis with the horizontal as measured in a vertical
plane is termed as pitch or plunge of the fold
 Crest- the highest point on the anticline
 Trough- the lowest point on the syncline
 Limbs- are the layers which form the sides of fold after buckling 46
Figure 3.28: Parts of folds
47
(b)
(a)
(c)
Figure 3.30: Folded rocks with

(a) anticline and syncline, (b) Syncline
and (c) anticline
48
3.3.4.3 Causes of folds
• Folds can be formed because of one of the following phenomenon
1) Folding due to tangential compression
2) Folding due to intrusion of magma or salt bodies
3) Folding due to differential compaction.
(b)
(a)
Light Heavy
(c)
Figure 3.31: Folding due to

(a) Tangential compression, (b) Magma intrusion
and (c) Differential compaction
49
3.3.4.4 Types of folds
• Folds are classified on the basis of:
a) upward or downward bend
b) position of axial plane
(a) Classification of folds based on upward or downward bend
1) Anticline / Antiform
2) Syncline/ synform
1) Anticline fold
• In anticline fold the beds bent upward i.e. become convex upward
• The older rocks occupy a position in the interior or core of curvature
• The limbs dip away from each other at the crest
Figure 3.32:
Anticline fold
50
2) Syncline fold
• syncline fold - the beds bent inward i.e. become concave upward
• The younger rocks occupy a position in the interior or core of
curvature
• The limbs dip into each other at the trough
Figure 3.33: Syncline fold

51
(b) Classification of folds based on position of axial plane
• Folds that are recognized 1) Symmetrical fold
on the basis of position of • Symmetrical fold: is the fold in which the
axial plane are: vertical axial plane divides the fold into two
1) Symmetrical folds equal halves
2) Asymmetrical folds 2) Asymmetrical fold
3) Recumbent folds • Asymmetrical fold: is the fold in which the
4) Over turned folds vertical axial plane divides the fold into two
unequal parts
5) Isoclinal folds
3) Recumbent fold
• Recumbent fold is the fold in which the
axial plane has almost horizontal attitude. In
such folds limbs are more or less horizontal
5) Isoclinal fold 4) Over turned fold
Isoclinal fold is the fold with • Over turned fold is the fold with inclined
inclined axial plane and the axial plane and the limbs dip out at unequal
limbs dip at equal angles in angles in the same direction.
the same direction.
52
(b) (c)
(a)
(d) (e)
Figure 3.34: (a) Symmetrical fold, (b) Asymmetrical fold, (c) Recumbent fold,
(d) Overturned fold, and (e) Isoclinal fold
53
3.3.4.5 Effect of folding
• reduces rocks bearing capacity
• makes the rocks permeable
• result in the release of pressure
• Folding induces change in the attitude
54
3.4 Geometrical properties of joints or discontinuities
• Geometrical properties of discontinuities include:

1) Number of joint sets
2) Joint persistence
3) Joint plane orientation
4) Joint spacing, frequency, block size, and RQD
5) Joint surface roughness and matching
6) Joint aperture and filling
3.4.1 Number of joint sets

• Joint set is a group of joints having the same orientation or which run parallel
to each other.
• The number of joint sets can be up to 5.
• Typically one joint set cuts the rock mass into plates, two perpendicular sets
cut rock into column and three into blocks, and more sets cut rocks into mixed
shapes of blocks and wedges.
55
3.4 Geometrical properties of joints or discontinuities (Cont’d…)
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 3.35: Rockmass with (a) one joint set, (b) two joint sets, (c) three joint sets
56
Table 3.2: ISRM Suggested description of the rock mass quality based on the
number of joint sets
• Mechanical properties of the rock mass is influenced by joint sets.

• As the number of joint sets increase the quality of the rock decreases.
• More joint sets provide more possibilities of potential slide planes .
57
3.4.2 Joint persistence
• Persistence is the length of a discontinuity
• Persistence can be measured by observing the trace lengths of discontinuities
on exposed surfaces.
• Direct estimation of persistence is not possible from borehole core.
• The persistence of joint sets controls large scale sliding or 'down-stepping‘
failure of slope, dam foundation and tunnel excavation.
• Persistence ratio (PR) is used to describe the persistence of discontinuities.
• Discontinuity or joint persistence ratio (PR) can be expressed as the ratio of
sum of lengths of discontinuity segments to a total length of the line along
discontinuity.
Where DL is the length of discontinuity

segment
RBL is the length of the rock bridge
Ls = DL + RBL
Figure 3.35: Persistence ratio defined by joint length

• Joint or discontinuity persistence ratio (PR) is defined as the ratio of
the sum of areas of discontinuity segments to the total area of a region
on which all segments of discontinuity found.
Where asi is the area of the ith discontinuity in S region

AS is area of a region S on/in which the discontinuity is found,
• Generally as the persistence of the

discontinuity is high the rock strength
will decrease
Figure 3.36: Persistence

ratio defined by joint area
59
Table 3.3: ISRM Suggested Description of persistence of discontinuity plane
3.4.3 Joint plane orientation

• Discontinuity orientation in spherical coordinates is defined by strike, dip
angle and dip direction.
• Strike is the line of intersection of inclined plane with a horizontal plane.
• Strike direction is the angle between the North direction and the strike line.
• Dip angle is the maximum angle of inclination of discontinuity plane from
the horizontal.
• Dip direction or azimuth is the direction of the horizontal projection of the
line of dip measured clockwise from the north.
• Plunge is the dip of the line of intersection of two planes or the axis of a
borehole or a tunnel.
60
Figure 3.37: The joint plane

in a block of rock with its
strike, dip, and dip direction
• Trend is the direction of the horizontal projection of a line measured

clockwise from North.
• The notation  used for dip direction, dip angle respectively, e.g.,
210/35, or 030/35.
• Sometimes, strike/dip format is used, e.g., 120/35SW.
• Dip direction and strike direction are always perpendicular to each other.
• Strike, dip angle and dip direction are measured by geological compass.
61
(a) (b)
Figure 3.38: (a) Ordinary

geological compass (b) An
electronic geological compass
• Orientation of a joint plane can be represented graphically using

hemispherical projection method.
• The projection method is used to represent a 3D plane by a 2D
presentation.
• The 2D model can be used to analyze large number of joint data and
examine the rock slope stability and slide of rock block in underground
excavation.
62
• A plane surface in space can be defined by a normal vector to the plane and by
the distance of this plane to the origin of a coordinate system.
• This normal vector passing as a line perpendicular to the discontinuity plane
through the center of the sphere or origin of coordinate system is called pole.
• For stereographic projection a unit reference sphere is used in which any
discontinuity plane can be represented by one pole point on the surface of the
lower hemisphere.
Figure 3.39: Definition of plane orientation in the unit sphere and stereo-net projection
63
• The dip direction and dip angle ,  of a discontinuity are related to the
trend and plunge n, n of its normal by the following expressions:
Where n = trend of the pole

n = plunge of the pole
 = dip direction of the discontinuity
plane
 = dip angle (amount) of the
discontinuity plane
• Orientation of joint sets controls the possibility of unstable conditions or

excessive deformations.
• The mutual orientation of joints determines the shape of the rock blocks.
Figure 3.39: Definition of plane orientation in the unit sphere and stereo-net projection
64
3.4.4 Joint spacing, frequency, block size and RQD
3.4.4.1 Joint spacing
• Joint spacing (sj) is the perpendicular distance between two
adjacent joints’ surface.
• Spacing, for a joint set, is usually expressed as the mean
spacing of that joint set.
• Often the apparent spacing is measured.
• More joints mean that less average spacing between joints. The
less average spacing means lower strength of the rock mass.
• Joint space also defines the size of rock blocks. When a rock
mass contains more joints numbers, the joints have lower
average spacing and smaller block size.
65
Figure 3.40: Comparison of true and apparent spacing
Table 3.4: Classification of joint spacing
66
3.4.4.2 Joint frequency
• Joint frequency () is defined as number of joints per meter length.
• The length of the sampling line is L meters; the number of
discontinuities is N, and thus, discontinuity frequency is given by:
 = N/L m-1 and mean spacing is S= L/N.
• Joint frequency is therefore simply the inverse of mean joint spacing
(S), i.e.,  = 1 /S
Variation of discontinuity frequency with sampling line direction

• The measured discontinuity frequency can vary with the direction of the
sampling line relative to the orientation of the discontinuities.
• Assume that the length of the line perpendicular to the discontinuities
has length L and intersects N discontinuities.
• Therefore the discontinuity frequency along the set normal, , is equal
to N/L.
67
• Along the scan line, inclined at angle  to the discontinuity set normal, the
discontinuity frequency is calculated by the same method: for the same
number of intersected discontinuities, N, the length of the line is L/cos 
and the discontinuity frequency along the scan line, s, is given by :
Figure Variation in discontinuity

3.41:
frequency for a sampling line passing
through a single set of discontinuities-
two dimensional case.
68
• The discontinuity frequency is always positive and therefore we
have:
• If two discontinuity sets are considered, as illustrated in Figure

below, the contribution from each set is resolved onto the sampling
line as:
•:
Figure Variation
3.42: in
discontinuity frequency for a
sampling passing through two sets of
discontinuities – two – dimensional
case
69
• This procedure can be readily extended to any number of
discontinuity sets, n, with the result:
Where i and i are the angle between the set normal and the
sampling direction, respectively, for the ith set.
3.4.4.3 Rock Quality Designation (RQD)

• Rock Quality Designation (RQD) is defined as the percentage of rock
cores that have length equal or greater than 10 cm over the total drill
length.
• RQD is given by:
Where Li = recovered rock piece with length greater or equal to 10cm.

L = total drilled length (See Fig. 3.43)
70
Figure 3.43: RQD from recovered cored having length greater or equal to 10 cm
Example 3.1: Core recovered from total length of core drilling of 200cm
is indicated in Fig. 3.44. Determine the RQD.
Solution 3.1
Figure 3.44: Core pieces recovered

from core run drilling
Figure 3.45: actual core pieces of rock recovered up on drilling
• RQD can be correlated to joint frequency ():
• For 6 <  < 16 /m , RQD can be approximated by (Fig. 3.46):

RQD  3.68  110.4
Figure 3.46: Joint frequency ( ) versus RQD graph for experimental data.
Table 3.5: Description of rock strength quality based on RQD
RQD (%) Rock quality description
0-25 Very poor
25-50 Poor
50-75 Fair
75-90 Good
90-100 excellent
• Because linear discontinuity frequency  varies with direction, RQD will also
vary with direction.
• It is, therefore, important to specify the corresponding direction when stating
an RQD value.
• Seismic velocity measurements used to estimate RQD.
• By comparing the P-wave velocity of in situ rock mass with laboratory P-wave
velocity of intact drill core obtained from the same rock mass, the RQD can be
estimated by (Deere et al., 1967):
74
where VpF is the P-wave velocity of in situ or field rock mass; and
Vp0 is the P-wave velocity of the corresponding intact rock.
• There are guideline values for maximum loads that may safely be
imposed on undisturbed ground in terms of RQD & UCS.
Table 3.6: Safe Bearing Pressure-guidance Values from RQD, uniaxial compressive
strength and joint spacing
• Values are useful preliminary design guides, as it is normally

uneconomic to complete meaningful field tests on fractured rock
masses.
75
3.4.4.4 Block Size and Volumetric Joint Count (Jv)
Block Size
• Where three discontinuity sets occur, the block volume can be
calculated as:
where S1, S2, S3 are the normal set spacings respectively of the
three discontinuity sets;
1, 2, 3 are the angles between the discontinuity sets.
• If the discontinuity sets intersect at right angles, the block

volume can be simply calculated as
76
Volumetric joint count (Jv)
• The areal joint frequency (a) is the number of joints
discontinuities traces per unit sampling area.
• Volumetric joint frequency or Volumetric joint count (Jv) is
the number of joints per unit cubic meter of volume of the rock.
J v  k a a (Palmstrom, 2002)
where Ka is the correlation factor (range 1 to 2.5, average 1.5). The

highest value is where the sampling plane is parallel to the
main discontinuity set.
Figure 3.47: Blocks bounded by sets of

joints with volume Vb
77
• The International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM, 1978c)
presented the following approximate correlation between
volumetric frequency or volumetric joint count (Jv) and RQD
RQD = 115 – 3.3 Jv, for Jv between 4.5 and 30/m3.
RQD = 100% for Jv < 4.5/m3
RQD = 0% for Jv > 30/m3.
Table 3.6: Terms for describing block size based on

volumetric discontinuity frequency Jv, (after ISRM, 1978c).
• Generally as the
volumetric joint count
increases the block
size decreases and the
quality of the rock
decreases.
Table 3.7: Adjectives for describing block size and shape (after ISRM, 1978c).
3.4.5 Joint surface roughness and matching
3.4.5.1 Joint surface roughness
• A joint is an interface of two contacting surfaces.
• The surfaces can be smooth or rough.
• Roughness is used to denote the deviation of a joint or discontinuity
surface from perfect planarity.
• Joint surface roughness is a measure of surface unevenness and
waviness relative to its mean plane.
• The roughness is characterized by large scale waviness (undulation) and
small scale unevenness (irregularity) of a joint surface.
• Joint roughness is the main controlling factor for shear displacement
direction, shear strength, and the stability slope with rock blocks.
• Joint Roughness Coefficient (JRC) method involves comparing a
profile of a joint surface with standard roughness profiles and hence
assigning a numerical value to the roughness (See Fig. 3.48).
• JRC is a quantitative measure of roughness, varying from 0 for the
smooth flat surface to 20 for the very rough surface.
80
• In Figure 3.48, roughness should be first described in meter scale
(step, undulating, and planar) and then in centimeter scale (rough,
smooth, and slickensided).
• Joint roughness is affected by geometrical scale.
• JRC20 is the profile for 20 cm and JRC100 for 100 cm (see Fig.3.48.)
• The value of JRC decreases with increasing size (scale).
• JRC number is obtained by directly comparing the actual joint surface
profile with the standard profile in the chart (Fig.3.48).
• Joint Roughness Coefficient (JRC) is a quantitative measure of
roughness, varying from 0 for the smooth flat surface to 20 for the
very rough surface, for 20 cm scale.
• The geometrical roughness is naturally related to various mechanical
and hydraulic properties of discontinuities. Shear strength can be
predicted via JRC and other properties.
81
Figure 3.48: Roughness

profiles and corresponding
JRC values (After Barton
and Choubey 1977).
82
• JRC can be determined from the surface roughness amplitude and length
of profile in m as shown in figure 3.49.
Figure 3.49: Estimating JRC from

measurements of surface roughness
amplitude from a straight edge and
length of profile in meter (Barton
1982).
83
Table 3.8: Classification of discontinuity roughness (after ISRM, 1978c).
Joint Roughness in 3D
• In realty, profiles of joint surfaces are 3D features.
• In ISRM, JRC descriptions are 2D based. It is therefore suggested to
take several linear profiles of a surface for the description and JRC
indexing.
(a)
Figure 3.50: (a) A joint

surfaces in 3D, (b) Each 2D
measurement may give
different linear profiles in
different directions.
(b)
85
3.4.5.2 Joint surface matching
• Joint surfaces can be in good contact and matched, or they can be
poorly contacted and mismatched.
• Properties of a joint are also controlled by the relative positioning of
the two surfaces, in addition to the profiles.
• For example, joints in fully contacted and interlocked positions has
little possibility of movement and is also difficult to shear, as
compared to the same rough joints in point contact where movement
can easily occur.
• Often, joints are differentiated as matched and mismatched.
• A Joint Matching Coefficient (JMC) is used to measure joint
matchness.
• JMC is 1 for completely matched joint, i.e., two joint surfaces fully
in contact.
• JMC is 0 for completely mismatched joint, i.e., two joint surfaces in
contact at a few points only.
86
Figure 3.51: (a) smooth joint matched, (b) Rough joint matched, (c) Rough
joint mismatched
3.4.6 Joint aperture and filling

• The perpendicular distance separating the adjacent rock joint walls is
termed as aperture.
• Joint opening is either filled with air and water (open joint) or with
infill materials (filled joint).
• Open or filled joints with large apertures have low shear strength.
• Aperture also associates with flow and permeability.
87
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.52: (a) Closed joint, (b) Opened joint, (c) Filled joint (after ISRM, 1978c)
Table 3.9: Classification of discontinuity aperture (after ISRM, 1978c)
88
• Aperture can be the real aperture and equivalent hydraulic aperture.

The later is particularly important when permeability is concerned.
• Filling is material in the rock discontinuities separating the adjacent
rock surfaces.
• Properties of the filling material affect shear strength, deformability
and permeability of the discontinuities.
• With the exception of discontinuities filled with strong vein materials
(such as calcite, quartz, pyrite), filled discontinuities generally have
lower shear strengths than comparable clean, closed discontinuities.
• The behavior of filled discontinuities depends on many factors of
which the following are probably the most important:
1) Mineralogy of filling material
2) Grading or particle size
3) Over-consolidation ratio
4) Water content and permeability
5) Previous shear displacement
6) Wall roughness
7) Width
89
Figure 3.53: Discontinuity survey data sheet (After Anon, 1977a)

90
3.5 Mechanical and hydraulic properties of rock mass
3.5.1 Deformability of rock discontinuities
• The behavior of jointed rock masses is dominated by the behavior of
discontinuities in the rock mass.
• To consider the effects of discontinuities on the deformability of rock
masses, the deformability of rock discontinuities should be known first.
• The deformation properties of individual rock discontinuities can
described by normal stiffness kn and shear stiffness ks.
3.5.1.1 Normal stiffness

• Normal stiffness (kn) refers to the rate of change of normal stress with
respect to normal displacement un.
• If a compressive normal stress n' is applied on a rock discontinuity, it
would cause the discontinuity to close by a certain displacement
amount, say un.
91
3.5 Mechanical and hydraulic properties of rock mass (Cont’d…)
• Figure 3.54 below shows a typical relationship between n‘ and un .

The slope of the curve in the figure 3.54 gives the tangential normal
stiffness kn of the discontinuity.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.54: (a) normal displacement (un ) verses normal stress (n' ) with a
slope as normal stiffness (Kn), (b) forces application and displacement on joint
surface
92
• A natural joint always has opening aperture of less than 1 mm to a few
mm.
• With increasing normal stresses, the opening closes, and contact areas
of the joint surfaces increase. The normal stress – normal displacement
curve is non-linear.
• The normal stiffness, slope of the curve, is therefore not a constant.
• At high normal stress, joint is closed, the normal stiffness approaches
that of rock material.
• When the joint is completely closed, there is no further closure of the
joint, the displacement is then only by the elastic deformation of the
rock material.
• According to Bandis et al.(1983), the initial (kni)and final (kn) normal
stiffness MPa/mm determined by:
• unc is the limit of discontinuity
closure.
• JCS is joint surface compressive
strength
• e is mechanical aperture in mm
93
• The mechanical aperture (e) is determined by:
Where c is uniaxial compressive
strength of solid rock
• The mechanical aperture (e) of the discontinuity can also be estimated

from the corresponding hydraulic aperture (eh) of the discontinuity.
• Bandis et al (1983) suggested to the following formal for determining

unc
Where JCS and e are the same as defined earlier;

R and S are empirical parameters
94
How to determine JCS in calculation of Unc ?
• If the discontinuity is unweathered, JCS is equal to the
unconfined compressive strength of the rock material c,
• If there has been softening or other forms of weathering along

the discontinuity, then JCS will be less than c .
• Barton and Choubey (1977) explained how the Schmidt hammer
rebound test can be used to estimate JCS from the following
empirical expression:
where  is the unit weight of the rock material (MN/m3);

Rn(L) is the rebound number from the L-type Schmidt hammer
test on the joint surface;
JCS is joint wall compressive strength has the unit MPa in the
range of 20 to 300 MPa.
95
Schmidt hammer test for rebound number
• A Schmidt hammer, also known as a Swiss hammer or a rebound hammer, is
a device to measure the elastic properties or strength of concrete or rock,
mainly surface hardness and penetration resistance.
• Original Schmidt Concrete Test Hammer was invented by Ernst Schmidt, a
Swiss engineer.
• The hammer measures the rebound of a spring-loaded mass impacting against
the surface of the sample.
• When conducting the test the hammer should be held at right angles to the
surface which in turn should be flat and smooth.
• The rebound reading will be affected by the orientation of the hammer.
• The Schmidt hammer rebound number is an arbitrary scale ranging from 10
to 100.
• Schmidt hammers are available from their original manufacturers in several
different energy ranges. These include:
(i) Type L-0.735 Nm impact energy,
(ii) Type N-2.207 Nm impact energy; and
(iii) Type M-29.43 Nm impact energy.
96
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.55: (a)Schmidt hammer and (b) parts of Schmidt hammer

97
3.5 Mechanical and hydraulic properties
(b) of rock mass (Cont’d…)
• The use of the Schmidt rebound
hammer for estimating joint wall
compressive strength was proposed
by Deere and Miller (1966), as
illustrated in Figure 3.56.
(a)
Figure 3.56: (a) positioning of

Schmidt hammer,
(b) Estimation of joint wall
compressive strength from rebound
number from Schmidt hammer test
and unit weight of rock material.
98
• The Schmidt rebound hammer has been used for testing the quality of
concretes and rocks.
• Schmidt hammers are designed in different levels of impact energy,
but L and N types are commonly adopted for rock property
determinations.
• The L-type has an impact energy of 0.735 Nm which is only one third
that of the N-type. ISRM (1978b) presented the detailed test procedure.
• Mayday and Goktan (1992) developed the following empirical
correlation between L and N-type Schmidt hammer rebound numbers
for the ISRM (1978b) test procedure
where Rn(L) and Rn(N) are the L and N-type Schmidt hammer rebound numbers
respectively;
r 2 is the determination coefficient.
99
Table 3.10: lists
the typical L-type
Schmidt hammer
rebound numbers
Rn(L)
for some of the
commonly
occurring rocks
100
3.5.1.2 Shear stiffness
• Shear stiffness (kn) refers to the rate of change of shear stress with respect
to shear or lateral displacement us.
• If a shear stress () is applied on the discontinuity, there will be a relative
shear displacement (us) us on the discontinuity.
• Figure 3.57 below shows a typical relationship between  and Us . The slope
of the curve in the figure 3.57 gives the tangential shear stiffness ks of the
discontinuity
(a)
Figure 3.57: (a) shear displacement (us ) verses shear stress () with a slope as
shear stiffness (Ks), (b) forces application and displacement on joint surface 101
• A tangential shear stiffness ks is given by:
• The relation between shear stress  and relative shear displacement us

can be expressed by the following hyperbolic function (Duncan &
Chang, 1970; Bandis et al., 1983; Priest,1993):
Where ksi is initial tangential shear stiffness of the discontinuity

f is the shear strength of the discontinuity
Rf is the failure ratio given by f / ult
ult is the ultimate shear stress at large shear displacement.
• The shear stiffness is given by:
102
• Bandis et al. (1983) found that the initial shear stiffness ksi increased
with normal stress n' and can be estimated by:
where kj and nj are empirical constants termed the stiffness

number and the stiffness exponent, respectively.
• The stiffness number (kj) in MPa/mm is varying with JRC and can
bee estimated by:
• The shear strength (f) of a discontinuity subjected to a normal stress

(n‘) can be determined in terms of JRC and JCS by:
103
3.5.2 Deformability of rock mass
3.5.2.1 Empirical methods for estimating rock mass
deformation modulus
• A number of empirical methods have been developed that
correlate various rock quality indices or classification systems to
deformation modulus of rock masses.
• There is correlation between the deformation modulus of
rockmass (Em) and RQD, RMR, GSI and Q.
• The definition of RQD, RMR, GSI and Q and the methods for
determining them will be discussed in chapter 4.
(a) Methods relating deformation modulus with RQD

• Coon and Merritt (1970) developed a relation between RQD and
the modulus ratio Em/Er, where Em and Er are the deformation
modulus of the rock mass and the intact rock, respectively (see
Figure 3.58 below).
104
Figure 3.58: Variation of

Em/Er with RQD (after
Coon & Merritt, 1970).
• Coon and Merritt (1970) developed a relation between RQD and

the modulus ratio Em/Er, where Em and Er are the deformation
modulus of the rock mass and the intact rock, respectively (see
Figure 3.58 below).
• Gardner (1987) suggested the rock mass deformation modulus
(Em) can be determined from the intact rock deformation modulus
(Er) by using a reduction factor E, which can be calculated in
terms of RQD.
• For RQD > 57%, the above equation is the same as the relation
of Coon and Merritt (1970).
• For RQD < 57%, the above equation gives Em/Er = 0.15.
106
• The above method is adopted by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials in the Standard Specification for
Highway Bridges (AASHTO, 1989).
• It is noted that the RQD - Em/Er relations of Coon and Merritt (1970)
and Gardner (1987) have the following limitations (Zhang & Einstein,
2004):
1. The range of RQD < 60% is not covered and only an
arbitrary value of EJ/Er can be selected in this range.
2. For RQD = 100%, Em is assumed to be equal to Er. This is
obviously unsafe in design practice because RQD = 100%
does not mean that the rock is intact. There may be
discontinuities in rock masses with RQD = 100% and thus
Em may be smaller than Er even when RQD = 100%.
• Zhang and Einstein (2004) added further data collected from the
published literature to cover the entire range 0 < RQD < 100% (see
Figure 3.59).
107
A large scatter in Fig.

3.59, which may be
caused by many different
factors, such as testing
methods, directional
effect, discontinuity
conditions, and
insensitivity of RQD to
discontinuity frequency
Figure 3.59: Em/Er-

RQD data and
proposed Em/Er- RQD
relations (alter Zhang
& Einstein, 2004).
(b) Methods relating deformation modulus with RMR or GSI
• Bieniawski (1978) studied seven projects and suggested the
following correlation to predict rock mass deformation modulus
(Em) from Rock Mass Rating , RMR > 50%.
• The limitation of the above equation is that it does not give

modulus values for RMR values less than 50.
• Serafim & Pereira, (1983) carried out study on rock masses with
qualities ranging from poor to very good and indicated that the
rock mass deformation modulus (Em) can be related to RMR by:
• The above equation has been found to work well for good quality rocks.
However, for poor quality rocks the above equation overestimates the rock
mass deformation modulus . 109
• Based on practical observations and back analysis of excavation
behavior in poor quality rock masses, Hock and Brown (1997)
modified the above equation using Geological Strength Index (GSI) in
place of RMR in which unconfined compressive strength of intact rock
c < 100 MPa as follows:
• Hoek (2004) obtained correlation between the rock mass

deformation modulus (Em) and Geological Strength Index (GSI),
i.e.,:
• Using 115 data obtained from in situ plate loading and dilatometer
tests, Gokceoglu et al. (2003) obtained the following correlations based
on regression analyses:
110
Figure 3.60 shows the

comparison of the
above correlations with
the test data from
different researchers.
Figure 3.60: Correlation between deformation modulus Em , RMR or GSI

• The following empirical correlations between the ratio of the rock mass
deformation modulus (Em) to the intact rock deformation modulus (Er)
and RMR are presented.
(Nicholson and Bieniawski, 1990)
(Mitri et al.,1994)
(c) Methods relating rock mass deformation modulus (Em) with Q

• Barton et al. (1980) suggested the following relationships between
rock mass deformation modulus Em and Q values:
:Lower bound where Q is the rock quality index
(presented in chapter 4).
:Upper bound This relationships are only applicable
:Mean to Q > 1 and generally hard rocks.
• Barton (2002) suggested the following general relation for
estimating the deformation modulus of rock masses in terms of
Q and c
(d) Method relating rockmass deformation modulus with seismic P-

wave velocity
• Barton (2002) presented the following correlation for
estimating the rock mass deformation modulus (Em) from the
seismic P-wave velocity
where vp is the seismic P-wave velocity of the

rock mass in km/s.
(e) Method relating deformation modulus with unconfined
compressive strength
• Rowe and Armitage (1984) correlated the rock mass
deformation modulus deduced from a large number of field
tests of drilled shafts under axial loading with the average
unconfined compressive strength c of weak rock deposits in
which the drilled shafts.
Comments on empirical methods for estimating rock mass

deformation modulus
• Although the empirical methods are most widely used in practice, there
are some limitations:
1) The anisotropy of the rock mass caused by discontinuities is not
considered.
2) Different empirical relations often give very different deformation
modulus values of rock masses at the same site.
3.5.3 Strength of rock mass
3.5.3.1 Unconfined compressive strength of rockmass
• The the rock mass unconfined compressive strength cm is given
by the Hoek-Brown strength criterion for rock masses , the
unconfined compressive strength can be expressed as:
0
• where s is a constant that depends on the characteristics of the
rock mass, which can be estimated from Rock Mass Rating
(RMR) or Geological Structure Index (GSI ) .
• For GSI > 25, i.e., rock masses has good quality and s is
determined by:
115
Table3.11Empirical formula
for estimating rock mass
unconfined
compressive strength cm
116
3.5.3.2 Tensile strength of rock mass
• The tensile strength of a rock mass can be obtained by (Singh & Goel,
1999)
where fc = c/100 for Q > 10 and c > 100 MPa,

otherwise fc = 1;
 is the unit weight of the rockmass in g/cm3.
• With the Hoek-Brown strength criterion for rock masses , the tensile
strength can be also determined by
where mb is the material constant for the rock mass;

s is a constant that depends on the characteristics of
the rock mass
117
3.5.3.3 Hoek-Brown strength criterion of rock mass
• For jointed rock masses, the most general form of the Hoek-Brown
criterion, which incorporates both the original and the modified form, is
given by
Where mb is the material constant for the rock mass;

s and a are constants that depend on the characteristics of the
rock mass.
• For most good quality rock’s, rock mass strength is controlled by tightly
interlocking angular rock pieces. For such rocks, a = 0.5 and the above
equation is changed into:
118
• For poor quality rock masses with partly destroyed tight
interlocking shearing or weathering and with no tensile strength
or 'cohesion‘, constant s = 0. Therefore, the above strength
equation modified into:
• Hoek and Brown (1988) proposed a set of relations between the

parameters mb, s and a and Rock Mass Rating (RMR),
assuming completely dry conditions and a very favorable
discontinuity orientation. These are:
(i) Disturbed rock masses (ii) Undisturbed rock masses
or interlocking rockmass
119
• The above equations of mb, s, and a for disturbed and
undisturbed rock masses are acceptable for rock masses with
RMR values of more than about 25, but they do not work for
very poor rock masses
• In order to overcome this limitation, Hoek (1994) and Hoek et
al.(1995) introduced the Geological Strength Index (GSI).
• The relationships between mb, s and a and the Geological
Strength Index (GSI) are as follows:
(i) For GSI > 25, i.e. rock (ii) For GSI < 25, i.e. rock masses
masses of good quality of very poor quality
120
• It is noted that the distinction between disturbed and
undisturbed rock masses is not considered in evaluating the
parameters mb, s and a from GSI.
• Disturbance is induced by engineering activities and downgrades
the values of GSI.
• One of the practical problems that arises when assessing the value
of GSI in the field is related to blast damage.
• Figure 3.61 shows that there is a considerable difference in the
appearance of a rock face which has been excavated by controlled
blasting and a face which has been damaged by bulk blasting.
• Wherever possible, the undamaged face should be used to estimate
the value of GSI since the overall aim is to determine the
properties of the undisturbed rock mass.
121
(a) (b)
Figure 3.61 Comparison between the results achieved using (a) controlled
blasting (on the left) and (b) normal bulk blasting (on right) for a surface
excavation in gneiss.
The influence of blast damage (D) on the near surface rock mass properties has
been taken into account in the 2002 version of the Hoek-Brown criterion in
estimation of mb, s and a from GSI :
 D is a factor which depends upon the degree of
disturbance due to blast damage and stress
relaxation. It varies from 0 for undisturbed in situ
rock masses to 1 for very disturbed rock masses.
Guidelines for the selection of D are presented in
Table below.
 D applies only to the blast damaged zone and it
should not be applied to the entire rock mass. For
example, in tunnels the blast damage is generally
limited to a 1 to 2 m thick zone around the tunnel
and this should be incorporated into numerical
models as a different and weaker material than
the surrounding rock mass.
 Applying the blast damage factor D to the entire
rock mass is inappropriate and can result in
misleading and unnecessarily pessimistic results.
Table 3.12 : Guidelines for

estimating disturbance factor D
124
Table 3.13: GSI
determination
from structure of
rockmass and joint
surface condition
Comments on Hoek-Brown criterion

• A more important effect of water is the strength reduction which
occurs as a result of water pressures in the pore spaces in the rock.
This is why the effective not the total stresses are used in the Hoek-
Brown strength criterion.
• The Hoek-Brown strength criterion was originally developed for
intact rock and then extended to rock masses.
• Since it is practically impossible to determine the material
constants mb and s using triaxial tests on rock masses,
empirical relations are suggested to estimate these constants
from RMR or GSI.
• The RMR and the GSI rating systems are also empirical. For
these reasons the Hoek-Brown empirical rock mass strength
criterion must be used with extreme care.
• Hoek and Brown (1988) emphasize that this strength criterion
is not applicable to anisotropic rocks
3.5.3.4 Mohr-Coulomb parameters of rock mass
• Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is given by:
 f  Sm   n' tan m
where f is the shear strength of the rock mass;
Sm and m are respectively the cohesion and internal friction
angle of the rock mass;
n' is the effective normal stress on the sliding plane.
127
3.5.3.5 Factors affecting rockmass strength
• The common factors that affect the rocks strength are:
1) Scale effect on rock mass strength
2) Effect of water pressure on the strength of the rock mass
3) Effect of direction variation on rock mass strength
4) Effect of Matching and Mismatching of joint surfaces
• The water pressure in a joint directly counteracts the strengthening

effect of the normal stress applied to the joint.
• To calculate the water pressure required to cause a fault or joint to
slip in addition to initial stresses and strength parameters, the
orientation  of the joint plane with the direction 1 is considered. If
the initial stresses are 1 and 3 , the water pressure that will produce
fault slip is given by:
128
 2 sin  cos  
  3   1   3  sin  
si
w  
tan  i  tan i 
where Pw = minimum joint water pressure that causes joint or

fault to slip
• When a joint is wet, it has lower strength than a dry joint. This is
because generally water by its effects , chemical dissolution and
water pressure, reduces the internal friction angle and a cohesion.
• If a joint is subjected to water pressure, normal stress in the shear
strength equation is the effective normal stress, i.e., total stress – water
pressure. Where  ' is effective normal stress
n
S ' is effective cohesion

  S   n tan  '
' '
 '  effective friction angle
S '  S  pw  n is total normal stress
 is total shear strength
 n '   n  pw p w is pore water pressure
129
Figure 3.62 the angle between axial stress and the joint plane ()
3.5.4 Permeability of rockmass
• The permeability of a rock is a measure of its capacity for
transmitting a fluid.
• The coefficient of permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) is

defined as the discharge velocity through a unit area under a unit
hydraulic gradient and is dependent upon the properties of the
medium, as well as the viscosity and density of the fluid.
• Because of the presence of discontinuities in a rock mass, the

permeability of a rock mass is controlled not only by the intact
rock but also by the discontinuities separating the intact rock
blocks.
131
 According to Darcy's law, the quantity of flow through a cross-
sectional area of rock can be calculated by
Q  KiA
where Q is the quantity of flow;
K is the permeability coefficient of the rock, having
the units of a velocity;
I is the hydraulic gradient (head loss divided by length over
which the head loss occurs);
A is the cross-sectional area of flow.
 The following factors affect the permeability of rocks (Intact rock
and rock mass)
1) Stress
2) Depth
3) Temperature
4) Scale
5) Interconnectivity
6) Direction variation or Anisotropy of rock permeability 132
3.6 Treatment of rock masses with defects
• The treatment methods of the rock defects used to improve the
strength and deformation behavior of rocks. They also reduce the
permeability of rock masses.
• There are different methods of improvement of the defected rock
masses. These are:
1. Grouting 8. Split set
2. Ground freezing 9. Self Drilled Rock bolt (SDR)
3. Lowering of groundwater table 10. Anchors
4. Fore poling 11. Nailing
5. Shotcrete 12. Steel support
6. Bolts and dowels 13. Concrete support
7. Swellex 14. Timber
133
3.6 Treatment of rock masses with defects (Cont’d…)
3.6.1 Grouting
• Grouting is the process of injecting or pumping of a cement milk or
resin into the ground with the following two principal objectives:
 to reduce the permeability of the ground;
 to strengthen and stabilize the ground. In soft ground this
leads to an increase in its ‘strength’ and in jointed rock in
its ‘stiffness’.
• The grout is pumped into the rock mass from surface, a small
diameter service tunnel, or from feeder holes ( see Figure 3.63
below).
• Generally, the method works very well to improve the strength and
deformation characteristics of the groundmass.
• Special care should be taken that the grouting is not done with a too
high pressure. A too high pressure will cause the groundmass to
break and permeability after the grout process may have increased
rather than decreased.
134
3.6 Treatment of rockmasses with defects (Cont’d…)
 There are several types of grouting technique and these are:
 permeation grouting
 jet grouting
 compaction grouting
Permeation grouting (chemical grouting) (Fig. 3.63)
 This technique fills the voids with either chemical or cement binders
with the intention of not disturbing the fabric of the ground.
Jet grouting (Fig. 3.64)
 This technique uses high pressure jets.
 Jet grouting may be used in pre-bored holes or the ‘jets’ can be self-
drilled.
 Once the jet has reached the required depth, it is rotated and the jetting
fluids are pumped at high pressure to the jetting tip as the system is
withdrawn from the hole at a controlled rate to form an in situ column.
135
Compaction grouting (Fig. 3.65)
 Compaction grouting is the injection of a low slump (typically
25–100 mm) grout, i.e. stiff grout, such that an expanding bulb
forms.
 This expansion causes deformation and increase in density around
it and ultimately improves the ground.
 The method is carried out by either drilling or driving small
diameter casings (89–114 mm ) to the required depth,
withdrawing the rods or knocking off the drive point and then
pumping the grout to the bottom of the hole

136
Figure 3.63 Permeation (chemical) grouting

(b)
(a)
Figure 3.64 Jet grouting : (a) procedure,

(b) in the foundation, (c) inside the
(c) tunnel
Figure 3.65 Jet grouting : (a) procedure,

(b) in the foundation, (c) inside the
tunnel
Types of grouts
 In rock grouting , the fissures and fractures are filled with grouts.
 Grout types can be grouped into two categories: suspension grouts and
chemical solution grouts.
Suspension grouts
 Suspension grouts consists of cement slurry with a cement/water ratio
of approximately 0.1 to 0.4, and an optional clay component. The
purpose of the clay is to reduce the cement consumption and to improve
the stability and viscosity of the suspension.
 Sand can be added to suspension grout when large fissures are to be
injected.
 Additives such as plasticizers(comprising metal salts, such as lithium,
sodium and potassium salts) can be used in suspension grouts to prevent
the clay particles flocculating (i.e. clumping together) and this will give
different properties to the grout.
140
 Suspension grouts are best suited to injection into fissured rocks and granular
media with large voids and porosity (down to a particle size of approximately
0.2 mm).
 A suspension grout containing fine to coarse sand, cement and a plasticizer is
technically known as a mortar, which can be used to plug large fissures and
cavities
Chemical grouts
 Chemical grouts usually consist of solutions and resins which form gels.
 They reduce the permeability by void filling and strengthen the ground.
 The strength of chemical grouts is generally low compared to cement grouts.
 The most common types of grouts are either cement bentonite (suspension
grout) or silicate based (chemical grout).
 The type of grout depends on both ground type and grouting technique adopted.
 For filling large voids, materials such a pulverized fuel ash (PFA, a waste
product from coal-fired power stations) can be used.
141
3.6.2 Ground freezing
 The principle of ground freezing is to use a refrigerant to convert in situ
pore water into a frost-wall, with the ice bonding the soil particles
together.
 The groundwater freezes if sufficient amount of heat is extracted.
 The frozen ground temporarily attains a strength which stabilizes the
tunnel until a support is installed. The following issues should be
considered when freezing the ground:
 The groundwater velocity must not exceed 2m/s, otherwise heat is
permanently supplied and freezing is prevented
 Minerals dissolved in the groundwater may lower the freezing
temperature
 A saturation degree of at least 0.50-0.70 is required. This can be achieved
by adding water, e.g., by a fire hose, a sprinkler system, a borehole or
injection device to raise the moisture content in the ground.
142
 As a rule, if used from within the tunnel, freezing lances are installed
from the tunnel in the direction of tunnel excavation as the frozen
ground should create an arching mechanism (Figure 3.66 a).
 The lances are situated in the crown and, if necessary, at the springline.
In order to achieve a closed frozen body, the distances between the
lances are limited, e.g. 1 m, in combination with a length of 20 m or
more.
 The common cooling fluids are brine (salt solution) with a temperature
of –50 0C to –20 0C, or liquid nitrogen which evaporates at –196 0C.
 The cooling fluid circulates within pipes or freezing lances that are
driven into the soil.
 For excavations from the ground surface, a cylindrical freeze wall is
formed around the periphery of the planned excavation or a layer of
ground above the tunnel roof is frozen.
143
• Advantages of ground freezing:

 The strength of ground can be increased.
 An impermeable barrier is created.
 It is non-toxic and noiseless
 It is totally removable (unlike grouting)
 Limitations of ground freezing:

 The time required to achieve ground freezing can be many weeks
depending on the ground and groundwater conditions.
 Flowing water causes heat drain and can prevent the ground
freezing.
 The boreholes must be accurately positioned to create a
continuous frozen zone.
144
(a) (b)
(d)
(c)
Figure 3.66 (a) freezing lances design, (b) freezing lances in tunnels portal,
(c)Frozen tunnel portal, (d) Frozen interior of tunnel
3.6.3 Lowering of groundwater
 If groundwater is lowered successfully, improvement is possible in the
ground properties.
 There are two methods of groundwater lowering:
a) well points
b) deep filter wells
a) Well points
 Wellpoint dewatering systems lowers groundwater table, which allows safe
excavation below the normal water table.
 Individual small wells, called Wellpoints, which are generally 40 to 50mm in
diameter and 6 or 7 metres in length, are inserted into the ground using either a
drill or high pressure water, this depends on the ground conditions.
 Wellpoints are installed at between 1 to 3 m intervals but the spacing depends on
the permeability of the ground.
 Figure 3.67 (a) shows a typical arrangement for a well point system.
 Wellpoints can also be used from inside the tunnel. In this case they should be
directed upwards.
146
b) Deep wells
 Deep wells can be used to dewater to greater depths.
 These consist of 300 mm diameter or greater wells sunk at an
average spacing of 3 m or more to below the level required for
the dewatering.
 A filter is used at the base of the well around perforated suction
pipes, above which a submersible pump is located (Fig. 3.67 (b)).
 Drawdown of the groundwater level can cause consolidation
settlements in the surrounding ground and hence affect adjacent
structures, and therefore it should be closely monitored.
 The extent of the drawdown zone depends on the depth of the
well and the type of aquifer.
147
(a) (b)
Figure 3.67 (a) wellpoint arrangement (after Woodward 2005)

(b) details of a deep well arrangement
3.6.4 Forepoling
 This technique is aimed at limiting the decompression in the
crown immediately ahead of the face .
 Longitudinal bars (dowels) or steel plates (forepoling plates) are
installed ahead of the tunnel from the periphery of the face,
typically over the upper third or quarter of the excavated profile.
 In rock, the plates or dowels driven ahead of the excavation are
also known as spiles.
 The traditional method of forepoling was to drive 5 to 7 mm thick
steel sheets up to 4m beyond the face into the ground or 1.5 to 6 m
long steel rods (so called spiles) with a spacing of 30 to 50 cm.
 Nowadays, forepoling is achieved by spiling, pipe roof, grouting
and freezing
149
(a) (c)
(b)
(d)
Figure 3.67 Tunnel face excavation (a) Forepoling design, (b) supported with steel rod forepoling, (c)
supported with steel rod forepoling and grout , (d) supported with steel rod forepoling and freezing
3.6.5 Shotcrete
 Shotcrete is a quick setting mortar sprayed on the rock mass (a
mixture of sand/cement/water sprayed on the ground for
waterproofing).
 It is applied in layers about 5 cm thick at a spray velocity of about
150 m/sec and closely follows the excavation contours.
 Additives can be added that shorten the setting time allowing thicker
layers to be sprayed in one layer, also fibers of plastic or steel (up to
about 5 cm thickness) can be added to give tensile strength.
 Multiple layers can build up to a final layer of (in principle)
unlimited thickness; however, mostly the maximum is around 40 to
50 cm.
 In thicker layers wire mesh, mats of steel, and/or steel beams are
installed in the shotcrete as reinforcement to give tensile strength.
151
• Shotcrete supports the mass by keeping all even the smallest, particles
of the mass at its location by gluing the mass together. This prevents
deformation and movements.
• The first layer can be sprayed directly after excavation to minimize
deformation and to prevent blocks falling out.
• Shotcrete can be applied in two ways: dry and wet.
1) In the dry process, the water is mixed in the nozzle with the cement
and sand particles.
2) In the wet process, the water is already mixed in the cement -
aggregate mixer.
• Dry shotcrete is easier because the pipes do not need to be cleaned
during interruptions, but the mixing with water is not so good and many
particles will not stick to the objects being sprayed. This creates dust
and forms a health risk for the laborers.
• Wet mix process is suited to projects requiring large volumes of sprayed
concrete at regular intervals, greater quality control and less dust.
152
• Depending on the discharge, shotcrete, is sprayed from a

distance of 0.5 to 2m, as perpendicular to the wall as possible, in
layers of up to 4cm (on vertical walls) and 2 to 3 cm (on the
roof) thickness.
• Starting from lower parts, shotcreting moves to the roof. Care
should be taken to shotcrete beyond reinforcement, i.e., to avoid
shadows.
Table 3.14: Relation of cross-section area and thickness of shotcrete
153
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 3.68 Shotcrete (a) in tunnel

combined with mesh, (b) along slope,
(c) in tunnel combined with mesh and
steel ribs
3.6.6 Bolts and dowels
Bolts
 These are reinforcing elements which are tensioned during
installation.
 It is one ground improvement methods that keeps the rock mass
together and providing reinforcement in the mass.
 They consist of a rod and mechanical or grouted anchorage (resin
capsules or cement) coupled with some means retaining the rod
tension.
 Mechanical fixings are suitable for hard rock.
 The length of bolt varies between 2 to 10 m.
 Bolt is stiff and made from steel bar.
 Bolts can be artificially tensioned.
155
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 3.69 (a) Rock bolt,

(b) Tensioned rock bolt on
slope, (c) Tensioned rock
bolt on roof of tunnel
Figure 3.70 Schematic diagram for

tensioned bold in rockmass
consolidating joints
Dowels
 Rock dowels are passive reinforcing elements which need some
ground displacement for activation.
 Dowels are 0.5 – 2 m long.
 In installation of rock dowels, a hole is drilled and untensioned
steel bars are inserted into the hole.
 Rock dowels consist of a rod, faceplate and nut , and can be made
from deformed steel bars, glass fibre or plastic, depending on
whether a permanent or a temporary installation is required.
 The rod is usually embedded in a mortar or grout filled hole.
 Dowels in ground or in hard rock can be placed at discrete
locations to prevent unstable parts of the ground falling into the
excavation.
158
(a) (c)
(b)
Figure 3.71 (a) Rock dowel, (b) Tensioned rock dowel on slope, (c)
Tensioned rock dowel with shotcrete and steel ribs on roof of tunnel
3.6.7 Swellex rock bolt
• Swellex works by expanding a steel tube in a hole (Figure
below).
• A hole is drilled with a diameter slightly larger than the tube.
• The tube is inserted and a pump with very high compression is
connected to the tube via a one-way valve.
• Water is pumped in the tube under very high pressure. This
causes the steel of the tube to expand and fit exactly to the
irregularities of the rock.
• The interconnection between the steel and the rock provides the
friction between the tube and the rock.
• If the rock mass deforms the tube will be tensioned.
160
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.72 (a) Swellex rock box (b) Swellex bolt in rock mass Top: installation
before expanding, Below: after expanding due to water pressure.
3.6.8 Split set rock bolt
• A ‘Split-set consists of a steel tube slit open along the length the tube .
• A hole is drilled with a slightly smaller diameter than the ‘split-set’.
• The ‘Split-set’ is inserted in the hole with force. Because the ‘split-set’
has to fit in the slightly smaller diameter hole, the split is closed.
• The steel of the split-set will be under bending stresses and the elastic
response of the split-set will cause the steel to be pressed against the
rock.
• The friction between the steel and the rock provides the shear strength
along the split-set. If movements in the rock mass occur the split set
will be tensioned.
• The advantages of the ‘split-set’ are that installation is fast and easy,
and that the ‘split-set’ will maintain working even if very large
deformations and movements occur in the rock mass.
• The disadvantage is that ‘split-sets’ are relatively expensive.
162
(a) (b)
Figure 3.73 (a) Split set rock box (b) Split set bolt in rock mass
3.6.9 Self-drilled rock bolt
• A so-called “Self Drilled (a)
Rock bolt” (SDR) or
hollow stem auger type of
bolt can be used in poor
ground in which a drill
hole does not stand open .
• These are drilled into the (b)
mass, and then grout is
injected through the
hollow bolt or stem and
into the surrounding mass.
Figure 3.74 (a) Self-drilled

rock bolt, (b) machine
screwing of self-drilled rock
bolt in soft rock mass.
164
3.6.10 Anchors
• Anchors are similar as bolts but larger in length and flexible, i.e.,
> 10m.
• Anchors work similar to the mechanical or grouted rock bolts

with artificial tensioning (mostly) a flexible cable (or cables) is
used instead of a rebar.
• The advantage is that the flexible cable can be far larger than a
rebar, and still can be handled with ease.
• Figure 3.75 below shows large scale anchoring of the foundations

for the abutments of a bridge.
165
(b)
(a)
Figure 3.75 Rock anchors (a) along slope near a road

(b) Along a abutment for planned bridge construction
3.6.11 Nailing
• Nailing is the expression used for stabilizing weak rock masses
with a combination of bolts or anchors and wire mesh or steel
mats, textile or any other material that keeps the soft material
together.
Figure 3.76:
Weak rock
mass or Soil
nailing
167
3.6.12 Steel support
• Steel support exists in two forms: flexible and fixed.
Flexible steel support
• The flexible steel support, normally in the form of so-
called ‘yielding steel arch sets’, are able to deform and
therefore release the stresses in the rock mass.
• Bolts keeping the steel parts together can regulate the
maximum (yielding-) strength of the arch set.
• The flexible steel support is in particular suitable for
environments were large movements and stresses are
expected that cannot be stopped, mostly in mining.
• When the major part of the stress relief and deformations
has occurred the arch sets can be covered with shotcrete
or concrete.
168
Figure 3.77 Flexible (Bended) steel arch sets with shotcrete

Fixed steel support

• Fixed steel sets consist of
H-beams.
• Fixed steel is seldom used
alone, but incorporated in
shotcrete or concrete to
give structural (tensile)
strength.
• Fixed steel support is used
where heavy loads on the
support are expected and
movements are not
allowed.
• This would for example, Figure 3.78:. Fixed steel anchor
be the case in shallow
underground excavations
in an urban environment.
170
3.6.13 Concrete support
• Reinforced concrete support is used if large stresses are expected
on the support and movements are not allowed.
• The concrete can be in the form of pre-fabricated plates and
segments or formed concrete (by pouring behind a shuttering)
(a) (b)
Figure 3.79: Concrete tunnel support (a) precast concrete, (b) insitu concrete
171
3.6.14 Timber support
• Timber has been used extensively as support in the past; nowadays
timber support in civil engineering is limited.
• Timber is used in the form of timber beams, or as blocks of wood in
combination with steel or other support.
• Timber is very compressible and has a high bending possibility before
it will break. This makes timber very suitable in locations were large
displacements (and forces) are expected that cannot be stopped, for
example, in mining.
• The compressibility makes that timber from a geotechnical point is a
very poor form of support.
• The compressibility makes that the surrounding groundmass can move
this causing loss of structure and reduction of shear strength along
discontinuities.
• Timber rots in time and has to be replaced regularly. This allows
relaxation of the groundmass and further movement and loss of
strength.
172
Figure 3.80 Timber pack to support under ground house


Rock Mechanics and Tunneling Engineering

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Rock Mechanics and Tunneling Engineering

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Rock Mechanics and Tunneling Engineering

Instructor: Abunu Atlabachew (Dr.)

Chapter Three : Discontinuities and treatment of rocks1with

Chapter Three: Discontinuities and treatment of rocks with

3.1.2 Intact rock or rock material

Figure 3.1 : Rockmass components

Figure 3.4 : failure because of discontinuity in dam abutment

3.2.5 Influence of discontinuities on disposal of Toxic and Hazardous

• The injection of waste into the

Cleavage Stress fractures from folding

3.3.1.2 Parts of a fault

Figure 3.8: Parts of faults

3.3.1.4 Types of faults

a) Type of net slip involved

c) The amount of dip angle

Figure 3.9: Dip

Figure 3.10: Dip slip fault across the road

Figure 3.14: (a) before faulting, (b) after normal

(d) Classification of faults based on their pattern

(iii) Graben: When two normal

Figure 3.19: (a) fault breccia, b) Stream offset topview

3.3.1.2 Parts of a fault

Figure 3.21: Vertical joints

a) Classification of joints based on their orientation

Figure 3.22: (a) Non-systematic

Figure 3.25: Joint sets

Figure 3.27: Bedding

Figure 3.28: Parts of folds

Figure 3.30: Folded rocks with

Figure 3.31: Folding due to

Figure 3.33: Syncline fold

• Geometrical properties of discontinuities include:

3.4.1 Number of joint sets

• Mechanical properties of the rock mass is influenced by joint sets.

Where DL is the length of discontinuity

Figure 3.35: Persistence ratio defined by joint length

Where asi is the area of the ith discontinuity in S region

• Generally as the persistence of the

Figure 3.36: Persistence

3.4.3 Joint plane orientation

Figure 3.37: The joint plane

• Trend is the direction of the horizontal projection of a line measured

Figure 3.38: (a) Ordinary

• Orientation of a joint plane can be represented graphically using

Where n = trend of the pole

• Orientation of joint sets controls the possibility of unstable conditions or

Figure 3.40: Comparison of true and apparent spacing

Table 3.4: Classification of joint spacing

Variation of discontinuity frequency with sampling line direction

Figure Variation in discontinuity

• If two discontinuity sets are considered, as illustrated in Figure

3.4.4.3 Rock Quality Designation (RQD)

Where Li = recovered rock piece with length greater or equal to 10cm.

Figure 3.44: Core pieces recovered

Figure 3.45: actual core pieces of rock recovered up on drilling

• RQD can be correlated to joint frequency ():

• For 6 <  < 16 /m , RQD can be approximated by (Fig. 3.46):

• Values are useful preliminary design guides, as it is normally

• If the discontinuity sets intersect at right angles, the block

where Ka is the correlation factor (range 1 to 2.5, average 1.5). The

Figure 3.47: Blocks bounded by sets of

Table 3.6: Terms for describing block size based on