Cardiff School of Engineering

Autumn Semester 2020/21

EN2090 Engineering Mathematics 2

Fourier Analysis
Prof. Adrian Porch
Dr Yue Zhou

ZhouY68@cardiff.ac.uk
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Section 3: The Fourier Transform (FT)

Aims of this section

• To show how the Fourier transform (FT) is used for the spectral
analysis of an aperiodic waveform

Objectives of this section

After completing this section you should be able to
• Explain, using the simple example of the rectangular pulse, how the
FT arises as a limiting form of the complex Fourier series of a
periodic waveform in the limit when its period → 
• Calculate the FT of any given waveform
• Calculate and plot the amplitude and phase spectra of a FT
• Explain what is meant by the inverse Fourier transform and apply it
to calculate a time domain waveform from its spectrum
• Derive the time and frequency shift theorems and apply them
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3.1 The Fourier transform
Many practical waveforms are, by their nature, aperiodic, e.g. a
single pulse, of pulse width  in the time domain. This can be
analysed as a pulse train of period T →. Then,  between
adjacent harmonics reduces to zero and the discrete amplitude
spectrum of the pulse train reduces to a continuous amplitude
spectrum. To generalise, aperiodic waveforms have continuous
amplitude spectra.
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A periodic waveform f (t ) of frequency 0 = 2 / T can be written

 T /2


1
f (t ) =  f (t )e − jn0t dt
jn0t
cn e , where cn =
n = −
T
−T / 2

For an aperiodic waveform f (t ) , let T →  so n0 is now a

continuous variable  the discrete Fourier coefficients cn reduce
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to a continuous Fourier transform F () (Appendices E, F),
defined by

F () = 
−
f (t ) e − jt dt Fourier

transform
Writing F () = F () e j() , F () is the amplitude spectrum of
f (t ) (symmetric about  = 0 , i.e. an even function of ), () is
the phase spectrum of f (t ).
The Fourier transform is linear, i.e. if f (t ) and g (t ) are any two
functions for which the FT exits, then for any two constants  and 
h(t ) = f (t ) + g (t ) → H () = F () + G()
Worked example 3.1
Calculate the Fourier transform
for the rectangular pulse shown,
of pulse width  in the time
domain and pulse height V0 .
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Examine how its amplitude
spectrum depends on .

 − / 2 /2 
F () = 
−
f (t )e − jt dt = 
−
0 e − jt dt +  V0 e − jt dt +
− / 2

/2
0 e − jt dt

/2
= V0 e
− j t
dt = −
j
e (
V0 − j / 2
− e j / 2 )
− / 2
2V0  1 
sin     V0  sinc  
1
=
 2  2 
(see ex_3_1.mcd)
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Here’s the amplitude spectrum of the pulse in the frequency domain

The full width of the main spectral lobe is  = 4 /   1 /  , so if the

pulse width  is reduced the spectrum broadens. For example, in the
plot below  has been reduced by a factor of 2.5 compared to above:
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Worked example 3.2
Calculate the Fourier transform for the
double pulse shown. Sketch its amplitude
and phase spectra for V0 = 1 and  = 3
units.
 0 
F () = 
−
 
f (t ) e − jt dt = V0 e − jt dt + − V0 e − jt dt
− 0

=−
V0
j
( )
V
j
( 2V
)
1 − e j + 0 e − j − 1 = j 0 (1 − cos  )

The amplitude and phase spectra are (using ex_3_2.mcd):
5 2

4
1

3
F ( )  ( ) 0
2

1
1

0 2
6 4 2 0 2 4 6 6 4 2 0 2 4 6
 
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Worked example 3.3
Calculate the Fourier transform of the
voltage waveform shown, where
v(t ) = V0 e − t cos 0t (t  0)
and plot its power spectrum V () .
2

This function is commonplace in Engineering, being the response of a

resonant system of natural frequency 0 subject to a damping
factor  , also quantified by the system’s quality factor Q  0 / 2  .
Its FT is
 
V () =   (
v(t )e − jt dt = V0 e −(  + j)t  12 e j0t + e − j0t dt )
− 0


 (e )
V0 − (  + j ( − 0 )) t − (  + j ( + 0 )) t V0  1 1 
= +e dt =  + 
2 2   + j ( − 0 )  + j ( + 0 ) 
0
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The power spectrum is defined as P() = V ()V * ()  V () . This
2

is calculated (using Mathcad) below, with resonances when  =  0 .

Only the positive frequencies are physically meaningful. Note the

effects (shown below) of increasing the damping factor  by 3 (blue
traces), equivalent to decreasing Q by 3.
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This increases the bandwidth of the power spectrum in the
frequency domain, but reduces the ring-down time in the time
domain. As usual with the FT, notice the reciprocal nature of time
and freq domains.
3.2 Time shift theorem for the FT
Suppose that F () is the FT of the waveform f (t ). If the waveform
is advanced in the time domain by an amount , i.e. f (t ) → f (t − ),
the FT of the time-shifted waveform is (on writing t' = t −  )
 


−
f (t −  ) e − jt dt = e − j 
−
f (t ')e − jt ' dt ' = e − j F ()

FT is F () FT is e − j F ()

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The FT of f (t − ) is simply the FT of f (t ) multiplied by the
phasor e − j ; this is called the time shift theorem. Since e − j = 1,
the FT of both f (t ) and f (t − ) have the same symmetric
magnitude spectra.
Worked example 3.4
Calculate the Fourier transforms of the two time domain waveforms:

The FT of the symmetric rectangular pulse is

T /2
F () = V0 
−T / 2
e − jt dt = V0Tsinc(T/ 2 )

The first waveform above is a symmetric pulse shifted in time by an

amount + 3T / 2 , so its FT is
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F1 () = e − j 3T / 2 F () = V0T e − j 3T / 2sinc(T/ 2)

Using the linearity of the FT, the second waveform above is the sum
of two symmetric pulses shifted in time by amounts  3T / 2 , so
F2 () = e + j 3T / 2 F () + e − j 3T / 2 F () = 2V0T cos(3T / 2) sinc(T/ 2)
3.3 The inverse Fourier transform
Whilst the Fourier transform takes a time domain waveform into the
frequency domain, the inverse Fourier transform takes us in the
opposite direction: i.e. it reconstructs a time domain waveform from
its frequency domain response. From Appendix E

1
f (t ) =
2 
−
F () e jt d inverse

Fourier transform
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For any waveform, the temporal width t and the spectral width
 are related by the approximate formula t   2 . Conditions
for the existence of the FT and its inverse are discussed in Appendix
F.
3.4 Frequency shift theorem for the FT
Suppose that F () is the FT of the waveform f (t ). If the waveform
is advanced in the frequency domain by 0 , i.e.
F () → F ( − 0 ), the inverse FT of the freq-shifted waveform is
(writing ' =  − 0 )
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 
1

1 j0t
F ( − 0 ) e  F (')e j't d' = e j0t f (t )
j t
d = e
2 2
− −
i.e. multiplication of f (t ) by e j0t
shifts its spectrum by + 0 ,
whereas multiplication by e − j0t shifts its spectrum by − 0 .

FT of f (t )
FT of f (t ) e j0t
This is the frequency shift theorem, which is closely related to the
time shift theorem met earlier; it forms the basis of modulation.
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Worked example 3.5 (amplitude modulation)
The waveform f (t ) is multiplied by a carrier signal cos c t to form
a new waveform g (t ) = f (t ) cos c t . Calculate its Fourier transform
G () in terms of that of the original waveform F ().

Since cos ct =

2
(
1 jct
e ) 1 1
+ e − jct → g (t ) = e jct f (t ) + e − jct f (t )
2 2
1 1
Hence, G () = F ( + c ) + F ( − c ).
2 2
The effect of multiplying the waveform by the carrier signal is to
modify its spectrum according to the following diagram:
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3.5 Summary of Section 3


 f (t ) e − jt dt = F () e j()

The Fourier transform of
F () =
an aperiodic waveform is:
−

1

The inverse Fourier transform
f (t ) = F () e jt d
of the waveform is: 2
−

FT and its inverse transform a waveform between  and t domains:

• The temporal and spectral widths are related by t   2

• FT time shift theorem: f (t  ) → e  j F ()
• FT frequency shift theorem: e  j0t f (t ) → F (  0 )