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Soil Mechanics and Classification: Objectives
Soil Mechanics and Classification: Objectives
and Excavation Operations
SOIL MECHANICS AND CLASSIFICATION
OBJECTIVES:
Upon completion of this section, the participant should be able to:
1. Understand the forces that hold the soil together and tear it apart.
2. Explain how environmental factors can affect soil stability.
3. Describe the characteristics of each of the soil texture types.
DEVELOPMENT OF SOIL
Soil is the byproduct of thousands of years of wearing rock down by water,
wind, and weather. Other organic and chemical components to the soil were
supplied by animal and plant life. Chemical and waste additions to the soil have
been made by man.
The base materials that a particular soil is composed of and the processes
which have given rise to that soil account for the strength and classification of the
soil, and will be the focus of this section.
FACTORS WHICH HOLD SOIL TOGETHER
There are two primary forces within the soil, which tend to hold it together:
cohesion and internal friction.
COHESION is the tendency for two particles to "stick" together.
When two surfaces are glued together, the glue has the ability to stick to
the surface to which it was applied. Likewise, the molecules that make up the
glue have the ability to stick to or link up with other glue molecules. So, an
"adhesive chain" is established between the two surfaces. This chain holds the
surfaces together.
In soil, thin films of water an act as
"glue". To explain this, we need to
look at a few chemistry principles.
First, water is made up of one
oxygen and two hydrogen atoms,
and they are chemically linked to
form a water molecule. This water
molecule is slightly charged due to
placement of electrons within the
molecule. Because the bonding
electrons spend more time around
oxygen than hydrogen, the area
around the oxygen atom
possesses a slight negative
electrical charge. It follows then
that the hydrogen atoms have a
slight positive charge. With these
positive and negative charges, a
water molecule is just like a small
magnet.
Like the water molecule, the molecules on the surface of soil particles are
charged as well. Some areas are positively charged and some areas are
negatively charged. Since unlike charges attract (like north and south poles of a
magnet), the water is attracted to the surface of these particles. Water molecules
too are attracted to other water molecules. Now, we have water (the "glue")
sticking to the surface of the soil particles and forming a cohesive bond within
itself.
This type of particle cohesion, which is based on capillary action and
surface tension of water, is dependent on a couple of things. Since it works only
on the surface of a soil particle, the more surface area there is (the more finely
divided the particles are), the more effective this type of cohesion will be. As we
will learn a little later, clay is made up of many very small particles (and therefore
a large amount of surface area) and is well suited to this type of bonding. A
mass of peasized gravel, however, is composed of larger particles (and
relatively less surface area) and is not effectively held together by this type of
process.
Particle cohesion is also dependent upon the amount of water present
between the particles. The greatest cohesion is seen when a very thin film of
water is present between the two surfaces. This thin film allows for maximum
"orderliness" of the water molecules. If you think of the water molecule as a
magnet, this is analogous having all of the magnets laying sidebyside and
parallel to each other. All of the magnets are pulling in the same direction.
When the amount of water between the particles increases, the effective
strength of the "glue" decreases. Remember that when you glue two boards
together, the strength of the resulting board is in the wood, not the glue. If you
had three inches of glue between the boards, the glue would fail before the
wood.) Further, when a particle is surrounded by relatively large amounts of
water, it can become mobile and slip.
In some soil types, this cohesive nature allows the soil to exhibit plasticity.
Plasticity: a property of a soil to be deformed or molded without cracking, or
appreciable volume change.
Soil in the plastic mass condition is puttylike and is easily deformed and
reshaped. The degree of plasticity is dependent upon the amount of moisture
within the mass, the particle size and type, and the amount of impurity within the
mass.
Some mineral deposits also act as a cohesive medium. These primarily
calciumcontaining deposits were left behind following water evaporation. The
deposit hardened and incorporated the soil particles in a rigid matrix. Caliche is
an example of a cemented soil.
Cemented soil: a soil in which the particles are held together by a chemical
agent, such as calcium carbonate, such that a handsize sample cannot be
crushed into powder or individual soil particles by finger pressure.
INTERNAL FRICTION
The other main factor, which holds soil together, is internal friction
between the particles within the soil. Geometric shape of the soil particles is of
great importance in determining whether soil can support itself. To illustrate, take
a bucket of cubic building blocks and a bucket of marbles. Quickly invert the
bucket. The piles of blocks and marbles are maintained as long as there is a
structure around it. Now, lift the buckets up. The cubic blocks will spill, but many
of them will still be left in a pile. The marble pile, however, will flatten out and
almost all of the marbles will end up on the same level.
Why? The geometric shape of the cubic blocks provided a flat surface for
the block on top of it to rest upon. This allowed more of them to remain piled up.
The marbles, however, had no such surface, and very little of a pile was
established.
It is quite apparent then that those soils whose particles form geometric
shapes with flat edges and sharp corners will be those soils whose structures are
interlocking and which are able to support themselves on the side of an
excavation. Those soils whose particles have rounded corners and surfaces will
be less able to support their own weight.
The weight resting upon the soil also influences how effective internal
friction is. Angular interlocking soil particles which have weight pressing down on
them are less likely to move than if the weight is removed. To see this, allow the
abrasive surfaces of two pieces of coarse sandpaper to contact each other. It is
easy to move the pieces back and forth as long as no pressure (weight) is
applied. After pressure is applied, the pieces are much more resistant to
movement.
FACTORS WHICH CAUSE SOIL TO FAIL
Operating in natural balance with those forces which hold soil together are
those forces which tend to cause the soil to fail. The determination of whether
the trench wall will stand or fall depends on the outcome of this struggle.
GRAVITY AND SHEAR FORCES
Gravity is the natural force that pulls everything toward the center of the
earth. It is also the force which gives everything weight. Soil weighs
approximately 100 pounds per cubic foot. Imagine the earth surface as an
infinite number of adjacent columns of cohesive soil. Stacking onefoot cubes of
soil atop one another makes each column. For every foot in height added, the
weight on the base of this column increases by approximately 100 pounds. So,
at a depth of 15 feet, the pressure on the bottom cube would be about 1500
pounds per square foot. This is surely enough pressure to compress the bottom
cube and cause some soil types to fail. Why doesn't it? The bottom cube is
being supported on all sides by the adjacent columns. The compressed soil has
no where to go, the base holds, and the column stands.
Now, dig a 15foot deep trench and expose one side of this column. The
weight of the soil is not buttressed on the exposed side. The lateral soil pressure
on the exposed side can be as much as 1/2 of the weight of the column at that
depth, and the only thing which will keep it from compressing and "squishing" out
the base of the column is the internal strength of the soil. But at a depth of 15
feet, the lateral pressure could be 750 pounds per square foot, quite enough
pressure to overcome the cohesive and internal friction strengths for some soil
types. We are setting the stage for a trench collapse.
A couple of things will happen to the soil, which illustrates the tension that
it is under. First, the soil is being stretched at the surface of the ground. This
stretches causes gaps called tension cracks to appear in the soil back from the
trench face. These fissures run parallel with the trench and may be as far from
the trench as the trench is deep. Also, the soil near the edge of the trench
subsides as the lower part of the wall sags.
These cracks isolate columns of soil from their supporting neighbors.
Finally, the weight is too much for the soil at the bottom of the trench, and a
portion of the lower trench face fails. (The point at which the soil fails is called it
Unconfined Compression Strength or UCS.)
Those forces that cause a mass of soil to slide on a slope are called shear
forces. Now that the base of the column has lost its strength, the only thing
holding the hanging column is the shear strength of the soil. This too will fail, and
the column falls into the trench. This further isolates the columns formed by the
stress cracks, and they too fall.
TRENCH DEPTH
As the depth of the trench increases, the ability of the soil to support itself
decreases. The amount of soil, which could potentially cave into the trench, is
also affected by depth. A rule of thumb says that if the depth of a trench is
doubled, the amount of material, which will enter the trench during a cavein, is
increased by four times.
LAYERED SYSTEMS
Layered system: two or more distinctly different soil or rock types arranged in
layers. Micaceous seams or weakened planes in rock or shale are considered
layered.
Soil systems that consist of layers of different strengths of soil or rock can
lead to two types of trench collapse. If a stronger soil is under a weaker soil, the
weaker soil may have a tendency to flow in. If the weaker soil is on the bottom,
the lower part of the trench wall fails and large sections of the stronger topsoil
enter the trench.
WATER
Water is the trencher's enemy. As we saw, water can weaken the
cohesive force that glues soil particles together. Water can fill void spaces and
add to the soil's weight. Seeping or flowing water can make the soil particles
mobile and therefore unable to support any weight. Seepage also has a drag
effect, which tends to pull soil particles out of the main body of the soil. This drag
effect is proportional to the velocity of the seepage flow. Water can undermine
the base of trench walls and cause them to fail. Finally, mud makes working in
the trench difficult and disagreeable. Whether the water comes from the surface
or from within the soil itself, the presence of water must be considered when
classifying the soil.
FROST
Alternate freezing and thawing will cause expansion and contraction of the
soil and possibly lead to wall failure. Also, frozen walls may become less stable
if the soil turns to mud. In many cases, the soil under a frost line will be soft and
weak as well. Occasionally, soil is made more stable by freezing it with carbon
dioxide or some other cryogenic material.
VIBRATION
Vibration of the soil is disruptive to the cohesive bonding process. It
mobilizes soil particles and allows movement to overcome the cohesive bonding
forces. This effect can be seen when a cement vibrator is inserted into a pile of
wet cement.
Significant vibration can come from heavy equipment, tamping devices, or
vehicle traffic. The protective measures needed will have to address the
vibration issue if the vibration source cannot be suppressed.
SOIL COMPACTION
Undisturbed soil has had thousands of years to settle and naturally
compact. Soil that has been previously excavated and back filled is not as
compact as before, even if tamping or rolling devices have been used. It has
been estimated that it takes centuries for a disturbed soil to regain its natural,
predisturbance compaction state.
SURCHARGE
Any additional weight close to the trench can increase the lateral soil
pressure on the exposed trench face. Spoil piles, vehicles, equipment, rocks, or
other heavy objects need to be placed at least 2 feet back from the trench
opening. Further, if sloping is used as the protective system, the surcharge
weight must be placed so that it does not encroach past the angle prescribed.
CAVEIN WARNING SIGNS
· Bulging at the bottom of the trench
· Bulging in the center of the wall or toe of the slope
· Spalling (large chunks of soil falling off of the trench face)
· Tension cracks
· Subsistence of the soil near the trench
· Water running from the soil
· Appearance of water from the bottom of the trench
· Sagging walls
· Raveling (small "crumbs" of soil falling from the face)
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
SOIL TYPES
Soil has been divided into four main texture categories: gravel, sand, silt,
and clay with the latter three being the most important to us. The texture of the
soil is usually an accurate reflection of particle size and shape.
It should be noted that in the following discussion, the physical
characteristics of each category are based on a pure, nonmixed sample.
Characteristics of mixed soils will be discussed later.
GRAVEL
Any soil where 1/2 of the constituent particles is greater than 3/16" in size
is considered to be gravel. In cases such pea gravel, the particle size is much
larger. Gravel exhibits essentially no cohesiveness or plasticity. It has little
ability to hold water. The shape of the particles can either be angular or rounded,
and this shape will determine its internal friction and particle interlocking
characteristics (how well this material will pile up).
Granular Soil means gravel, sand, or silt (coarsegrained soil) with little or
no clay content. Granular soil has no cohesive strength.
Some moist granular soils exhibit apparent cohesion.
Granular soil cannot be molded when moist and crumbles
easily when dry.
SAND
Sand is composed of individual mineral or rock fragments, which are in the
area of 0.05mm 2.0mm in size. At this size, the particles will be retained by a
#200 sieve. These fragments are usually made of silica and can have either
rounded (water borne) or angular (glacier borne) geometry. It too has little
plasticity and cannot be molded to any great extent. Because of the large void
spaces between particles, its ability to hold water is very limited, thereby making
it useful for drainage fill. Most of the individual sand particles can be seen with
the naked eye.
Unlike gravel, moist sand does exhibit apparent cohesion. This allows
damp sand to stand vertically unsupported for short periods of time. As would be
expected, the apparent cohesion is strongest when the sand is damp. If the sand
is dried out, the "glue" is removed and the vertical face will collapse. The
remaining pile will assume a slope angle similar to its natural angle of repose
(about 35 40 degrees to the horizontal). Then, to, if too much water is
introduced, the capillary action bonding becomes disrupted, the particles become
mobile, and the vertical face falls.
SILT
The classification of a soil as "silt" can be quite confusing since most
people associate that word with a thin, weak, fine soil found in a delta or quiet
lake. In the soil engineering sense however, the term "silt" refers only to the
particle size. With a particle size of 0.005mm 0.05mm, silt is still able to
respond fairly quickly to changes in wetting or drying conditions. In some
instances, however, particle size and compaction can restrict the flow of water
through the soil and make it very difficult to drain. Depending upon moisture
conditions, it has very limited plasticity and is somewhat cohesive. Most
individual silt particles cannot be discerned with the naked eye. Silt particles
usually have angular, irregular, and sometimes rodlike shapes. Because of this,
certain types of silt exhibit fairly strong shear strength under the right moisture
and compaction conditions.
Trenching in silt soil has always been considered risky because its
strength characteristics vary greatly with minimal changes in moisture content.
Further, the more mixed the soil is, the less strength it has. Then too, silt may
offer few visual clues prior to failure.
CLAY
Clay is the finest soil recognized with a particle size range less than
0.005mm. Significant plasticity and cohesion characteristics are found in clay
because the clay particles are so small and so numerous. This provides
maximum surface area for cohesive bonding activity to take place.
Cohesive soil means clay (fine grain soil), or soil with a high clay content,
which has cohesive strength. Cohesive soil does not
crumble, can be excavated with vertical sideslopes, and is
plastic when moist. Cohesive soil is hard to break up when
dry, and exhibits significant cohesion when submerged.
Cohesive solid include clayey silt, sandy clay, silty clay, clay
and organic clay.
Like "silt", most people have a mental idea of what "clay" is. They
envision the high degree cohesiveness and plasticity of the material, which is an
accurate portrayal of this substance under specific moisture conditions. Clay,
however, can manifest itself in other ways too.
Varying from liquidlike slurry to a rockhard mass, clay has the most
versatile texture range of any of the classes. The appearance variability of clay
is based upon the amount of moisture it contains. In its arid state, a mass of clay
is rock hard and is very difficult to break. Even though it looks absolutely dry, the
bonding power in the hard mass still comes from a thin film of water between the
clay particles. (When clay objects are baked in a kiln however, all moisture is
driven out. During this process though, the cohesive medium changes when
silica within the clay melt to form a glasslike matrix, which holds the individual
clay particles.) As moisture is added, the form of the mass is moldable when the
plastic limit has been reached. As moisture continues to be increased, the
caramel candies like mass transforms into a mass similar to drywall compound.
Swelling of the mass may also be seen. Further addition of water causes the
“liquid point" to be reached as the clay reaches a semiliquid slurry. Here, the
clay particles are mobile in the water. At this point, the clay exhibits neither
cohesiveness nor plasticity.
OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOIL
LOAM
Loam is a term used for soil composed of varying amounts of clay, sand,
and silt. It is soil similar to that found in farm fields and yards. The shear
strength, cohesiveness, and plasticity are all functions of the amount of clay in
the sample, its drainage qualities rely mainly upon its sand content, and its ability
to support plant life is a function of the amount of silt and organic matter within
the sample.
HARDPAN AND CALICHE
Hardpan and Caliche are examples of cemented soils that are impervious
to water. They generally lie at or below the surface of the ground, are impervious
to drainage, and cannot be crushed into powder with hand pressure. Hardpan
can either be a vein of clay or cemented soil bonded with compounds of calcium
or iron. Caliche is a cemented soil usually found on the surface of rocky soil.
The bonding agent is usually calcium carbonate, which was dissolved in water
and was left behind during evaporation.
Manmade cemented soils an also be produced by injecting cement grout,
clay slurry, or other chemicals into the ground. This process stabilizes the soil
and is commonly used to seal the bottom of sheet pile walls.
ORGANIC MIX SOILS
Most soil contains a varying amount of organic material. Generally, the
presence of this material weakens the soil since it cannot be significantly
compressed and serves as a barrier to particle cohesion. "Black dirt" or peats
are examples of soil, which contain high amounts of organic material.
MIXED SOILS
As the name suggests, this type of soil contains more than one soil
classification. Most natural occurring, nonsifted soil is a mixture of sand, silt,
and clay. The behavior of the soil will depend upon the relative quantities of the
three constituent groups. For example, we say that clean gravel has no
cohesion. If you mix it with clay and silt however, you end up with a concoction,
which is very difficult to get off of your boots.
Of a more serious nature are mixtures in the soil making up a trench wall.
These "contaminations" can drastically affect a soil’s cohesiveness and shear
strength. The presence of or very small silt and clay particles can greatly affect
the stability of gravel and sand beds.
Various schemes to classify mixed soil have been developed. Perhaps
the clearest is the use of the triangular classification chart. The percent by
volume of sand, silt, and clay is calculated after removal of the gravel. Plotting
the respective percentages yields a qualitative description of the soil type.
Percent Silt size Particles
SOIL MOISTURE STATE
OSHA describes the five following moisture states for soil (this is taken directly
from Appendix A):
Dry Soil that does not exhibit any visible signs of moisture content.
Moist Soil looks and feels damp. Moist cohesive soil can be shaped and rolled
moist granular soil shows some cohesion.
Wet Soil contains significantly more moisture than moist soil, but in such a
range of values that cohesive material will slump or begin to flow when
vibrated. Granular material that would exhibit cohesive properties when
moist will loose those cohesive properties when wet.
Saturated Soil in which the voids are filled with water. Saturation does not
require flow. Saturation or near saturation is necessary for the
proper use of instruments such as a pocket penetrometer or shear
vane.
Submerged Soil which is under water or freely seeping water
We have seen that the presence of water in varying amounts have either
increased or decreased the strength and cohesion of the soil. Depending upon
the soil type(s), the moisture conditions for the soil near the ground surface may
be vastly different from the soil at the bottom of the trench. How the Competent
person deals with moisture conditions will in large part determine how safe the
trenching operation will be.
SOIL TESTING
One of the most important jobs of the competent person is to classify the
soil type. All of the protective measures and systems decisions will hinge on this
classification.
As we have seen before, the lines between the textural classifications of
soil are by no means distinct. For example, the difference between "sandy loam"
and "loam" may be very subtle. For this reason, OSHA bases its soil
classification on the basis of visual and manual tests that are comparatively
straightforward. Further, they divide soils into only four classes: Stable rock,
TYPE A, TYPE B, and TYPE C.
STABLE ROCK
Rock is considered to be the "mother" of all soil. Accordingly, OSHA has
included Stable Rock into the soil classification scheme even though it is a very
distant relative to the other three groups. It is the most infrequently used
classification as well.
As the name implies, this material is made of solid mineral material, which
is not fissured or loose. It has the ability to be excavated leaving vertical walls
that will remain stable and vertical until backfilling. No protective systems are
required for trenches in stable rock.
Most rock formations do have seams, fissures or cracks that probably tell
of distinct layers within the formation. The stable rock classification cannot be
used for those formations where a layered system slopes toward a trench wall.
Seams of mica, shale, soil, or fissures between two rock surfaces may provide a
cleavage plane, and the stable rock classification cannot be used.
TYPE A SOIL
TYPE A soil is a soil which has an unconfined compressive strength of 1.5
tons per square foot (ft.) or greater. Many of the cemented, hardpan and clay
containing cohesive soils can be classified as TYPE A soil.
Containing high amounts of clay, the soil will be highly cohesive. In some
cases, the soil may be plastic when moist but very hard when dry.
Soils, which CANNOT be classified as TYPE A soil, are:
· Soil which is fissured;
· Soil subject to vibration;
· Soil in a layered system where the system slopes toward a trench wall;
· Soil which is seeping water or is submerged;
· Soil which has been previously disturbed;
· Soil which has been judged by a competent person as being less stable for
some other reason.
TYPE B SOIL
TYPE B soil has an unconfined compressive strength which is less than
1.5 ft. but greater than 0.5 ft. Soil mixtures, which have less clay (less cohesion),
and more sand and/or loam fall into this category. Angular gravel can also be
considered TYPE B soil.
Sometimes, the TYPE B classification is used for flawed soils, which meet
unconfined compressive strength standards for TYPE A soils. Examples include:
· Previously disturbed compacted soils (unless TYPE C);
· Fissured or layered soils (unless TYPE C);
· Rock which is not stable (fractured rock);
· Layered systems where the slope toward the trench is less than 1V:4H;
· Subject to vibration (unless TYPE C).
TYPE C SOIL
TYPE C soil has an unconfined compressive strength less than 0.5 ft.
This type of soil is the least stable and most prone to collapse. Therefore,
trenches dug in TYPE C soil requires the highest degree of protective measures.
TYPE C soil usually has a minimum of cohesion and clay content is usually low.
Soils are often granular and particle shapes are rounded rather than angular.
Often, this type of soil is saturated or submerged. Examples of TYPE C soil
conditions include:
· Sand, granular soils, and round gravel;
· Submerged soil;
· Soil freely seeping water;
· Disturbed soil not classified as TYPE B;
· Submerged unstable rock;
· Layered systems sloping toward the trench at a greater than 1V: 4H slope.
SOIL TESTING
OSHA says that the competent person is responsible for visually and
manually testing the soil. Soil testing is optional only when TYPE C soil is
assumed and the maximum level of protection is to be taken anyway. In all other
cases, the testing of at least one sample is required. Further, it is prudent to take
numerous samples from the excavation site especially when different soil
textures are visible. The tests used are either prescribed by OSHA in Appendix
A or are those adopted by the American Society for Testing Materials or the U.S.
Department of Agriculture.
The Competent person can test the soil in the trench face itself or can test
larger fresh clumps in the spoil pile. THE COMPETENT PERSON MUST NOT
ENTER THE TRENCH TO CONDUCT SAMPLING AND TESTING UNTIL THE
PROPER SAFETY PROCEDURES AND DEVICES ARE IN PLACE. If the soil
sample is dry, it may have to be rehydrated prior to testing.
If layered systems are present, the classification shall be based upon the
weakest layer if the weaker layer is under the stronger.
If the weaker layer is the top layer, then each layer can be classified individually.
This differential classification may allow for a trench wall with multiple slopes.
It is the responsibility of the competent person to test the soil at the
beginning of each workday and also after each event which might change the
classification of the soil. If the soil must be reclassified, the protective measures
must reflect that change. It is also a good idea for the competent person to keep
a log of the soil tests that they have performed. See the Supplementary
Materials section for a sample soil testing log form.
MANUAL TESTS FOR COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
The manual tests are used to determine the soil texture, plasticity, and/or
unconfined compressive strength of the soil. In most cases, the use of a pocket
penetrometer will yield the strength information that is needed for classification.
This instrument uses a graduated springloaded piston to compress the soil. The
tip of the piston is pushed into the soil sample until the tip has been buried to a
calibration mark. As the soil is compressed, a ring on the graduated cylinder
moves and stops at a point corresponding to the unconfined compressive
strength. For a more detailed operation description, please consult the operating
instructions.
Shear vane device uses torque to test the soil. A disk with vanes protruding
from it is imbedded in the soil. The other end of the device is a round handle with
a graduated dial. As the device is turned, torque pressure is applied to the soil
sample. An indicator moves around the dial until the soil fails. The corresponding
number is then multiplied by 2 to get the approximate unconfined compressive
strength of the soil in tons per square foot. Again, for a more detailed description
of the shear vane operation, please consult the operator's manual.
The approximate strength of the soil can also be determined without the
use of an instrument. OSHA recognizes the thumb penetration test as an
acceptable way of approximating soil strength.
The soil must be cohesive in nature. TYPE A soils can readily be indented
by the thumb; however, they can be penetrated by the thumb only with very great
effort. TYPE C soil can be easily penetrated several inches by the thumb, and
can be molded by light finger pressure. This test should be conducted on an
undisturbed soil sample, such as a large clump of spoil, as soon after excavation
as possible to keep to a minimum the effect of drying. If the excavation is later
exposed to wetting influences, then the classification must be changed
accordingly.
SOIL TYPE THUMB PENETRATION
A Soil indented with difficulty
B Soil indented up to cuticle with effort
C Soil indented to knuckle easily
Other tests such as the dry strength test, plasticity test, and drying test are
described below:
Manual test Manual analysis of soil samples is conducted to determine
quantitative as well as qualitative properties of soil and to
provide more information in order to classify soil properly.
Plasticity test Mold a moist or wet sample of soil into a call and attempt to
roll it into threads as thin as 1/8 inch in diameter. This
determines whether the soil is cohesive or noncohesive.
Dry test The basic purpose of the drying test is to differentiate
between cohesive material with fissures unfissured cohesive
material, and granular material.
It should be noted that "feeling” the soil with a piece of heavy equipment is
not an acceptable means of soil testing. So, the fact that the backhoe is having
difficulty digging through the soil does not necessarily correlate with the soil type.
VISUAL TESTS
Visual tests are conducted to determine qualitative information regarding the
excavation site. Factors such as the soil adjacent to the excavation site, soil
forming the sides of the trench, and excavated materials need to be evaluated by
the competent person.
· Observations of the soil that is excavated and the sides of the excavation.
Estimate the range of particle sizes. Soil that is primarily composed of fine
grained material is cohesive material. Soil composed primarily of coarse
grained sand or gravel is granular material.
· Observe the soil as it is excavated. Soil that remains in clumps when
excavated is cohesive. Soil that breaks up easily and does not stay in clumps
is granular.
· Observe the side of the open excavation. Cracklike openings such as
tension cracks could indicate fissured material. If chunks of soil spall off a
vertical side, the soil could be fissured. Small spalls are evidence of moving
ground and are indications of potentially hazardous situations.
· Observe the area adjacent to the excavation and the excavation itself for
evidence of existing utility and other underground structures, and to identify
previously disturbed soil.
· Observe the opened side of the excavation to identify layered systems.
Examine the layered systems to identify if the layers slope toward the
excavation. Estimate the degree of slope of the layers. Slope of the layers
may be approximately the slope of the ground around the trench site.
· Observe the area adjacent to the excavation and the sides of the opened
excavation for the evidence of surface water seeping from the sides of the
excavation, or the location of the level of the water table.
· Observe the area adjacent to the excavation and the area within the
excavation for sources of vibration that may affect the stability of the
excavation face.
With these manual and visual tests, the competent person should be able to
accurately determine the soil type. Once the type of soil is known, the protective
systems can be determined and designed.