The 7th International Conference on Modern Power Systems (MPS 2017)
Direct Monitoring of Axial Clamping Forces
in Power Transformers Revisited
Andrei MARINESCU, Ion BURCIU, Ionel DUMBRAVA, Ion PATRU, Adrian VINTILA
RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT, TESTING AND CALIBRATION DEPARTMENT
NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Craiova, Romania
amarin@icmet.ro
Abstract—Transformers are the most complex and costly
components of the electric power grid and that is why there are
monitoring systems for most operating parameters except for the
winding axial clamping forces. It has been demonstrated that
they vary in time as a result of stresses to which the transformer
is subjected. An objective assessment of the lifetime mechanical
stability can be made only by the direct measurement of the static
winding clamping forces which, irrespective of the operating
regime, must be greater than the associated electro-dynamic
forces. The measuring systems described in the paper have
evolved over time, thus fiber optic sensors for local or global
sensing are used exclusively nowadays. It has been proved that
the mechanical stresses resulting from the transformers
transport to the putting into operation place can be objectively
identified and precisely located using the method described. An
application program is being proposed, which is developed in
order to relate the measured clamping force to its initial value
based on models included in a global correction factor. The
system is already used for highly demanded transformers such as
those used for internal services in power plants or for short-
circuit tests in high power laboratories but can be used both in
new large power transformers or in on-site refurbished/repaired
ones.
Keywords—power transformers; axial clamping forces; fiber
optic sensor; monitoring systems;
I. INTRODUCTION
In the last decades, the production of power transformers
has benefited from the advances in the manufacturing of
magnetic and insulating materials, computer aided design for
electro - dynamic force determination in different operating
regimes, proven technologies for winding stabilization and
clamping during the windings manufacturing process [1,2,3,4]
and implementation of large scale monitoring of operating
parameters [5].
However, the assurance of power transformers mechanical
stability during their entire active lifetime (expected life span
of 25 - 30 years) in very different conditions during operation
(transportation, inrush currents, short – circuit forces, seismic
stresses, moisture content, thermal degradation and ageing of
paper-oil insulation a.s.o.) has not been completely solved so
far.
Today, a rigid clamping system is used in most
transformers, acting upon the insulating pressing rings from the
978-1-5090-6565-3/17/$31.00 ©2017 IEEE
upper part of the winding units with axial force adjustment by
bolts or wedges system. A description of this system, the
calculation and/or stabilization of the windings prior to their
assembly on the transformers magnetic core are described in
[6].
This static clamping level must be greater than the
associated electro - dynamic forces and must remain like this
throughout the entire active lifetime of the transformer.
Another common situation in practice consists in
revitalizing the insulation of the transformers in operating
conditions (extracting moisture from the insulation) when a
reduction of the axial clamping force always occurs, and if it is
not followed by controlled re-clamping, it will lead to
transformer damage on the first major event in operation.
Certainly, without the application of on-line and off-line
monitoring systems, the transformer remains a real ”black box”
[7].
In conclusion: allowing this rigid clamping system to be
unmonitored for the entire duration of the active life of
transformers without an objective measuring and localization
technique of the axial clamping static force level may lead to
unacceptable risks in the current state of the art.
An objective assessment of the lifetime mechanical stability
can be made practically, only by the direct measurement of the
static winding clamping forces irrespective of the operating
regime.
The paper aims to present the evolution of such systems
used beginning with the 90’s, based on magneto-elastic
tensometry [8,9]. Both older systems and new ones based on
optical sensors are achieved so that they can be easily
integrated in the transformer construction with no change to its
mechanical/dielectric design.
The price to performance ratio was taken into account when
the optical sensors were chosen, depending on the
measurement capabilities: only static clamping forces or static
and quasi-static forces generated in different operating regimes;
do not neglect the fact that the increasing number of
applications results in lower prices.
The measuring systems described in the paper use different
types of fiber optic sensors [10, 11, 12] for local sensing (FBG
or micro - bending) or global sensing (multipoint FBG), the support axial clamping forces as in any power transformer (Fig.
latter using longitudinal or transversal sensitivities. 1). In Fig. 2, S1….S4 represent the areas where independent
compression sensors could be placed in the force flux.
Recalculation the measured value of the clamping force to
its initial value is done based on application software
containing correction factors depending on temperature,
moisture of paper – oil insulation, thermal ageing, transformer
stress event history, a.s.o.
Some experiments and applications are presented for
monitoring short-circuit behavior of large transformer units.

II. THE METHODS USED TO DETERMINE THE MECHANICAL

CONDITION OF A POWER TRANSFORMER
The assessment of the mechanical condition of a
transformer is necessary both to establish the result of a sudden
short-circuit type test in the laboratory and also to detect
windings’ clamping force drop following the mechanical
Fig. 1. Classical axial clamping system for a 5-column high power
stresses in operation due to short-circuit and inrush currents, transformer. Detail “A”-classic pressing ring used for axial clamping with
the pure mechanical stresses appearing during the shipment to screw bolts.
the transformer site or following the thermal–oxidative ageing
of the paper insulation.
At present, the most used non-intrusive methods are the off-
line methods all related to an initial reference, namely:
- transformer leakage reactance measurement;
-distorsion of low voltage impulse (LVI) applied to the
transformer;
-frequency response analysis (FRA/SFRA) for the
transformer considered as a quadrupole, by far the most
common method currently [13,14].
Other non-intrusive methods that can be applied on-line, Fig. 2. Isometric view of a pressing ring with areas where the controlled
also related to an initial reference, are: axial clamping forces are applied (explanation in text).

- vibro-acoustic analysis (VAA) of the transformer [15]; The evolution of the direct measurement systems used in
practice is presented below.
- transient oil pressure (TOP) in transformer tank [16].
In Fig 3 magneto-elastic force transducers mounted under
As shown in [9,10], the above presented methods can be
the usual clamping bolts were used [20].
and are applied for the mechanical condition assessment of
power transformers but, the accurate fault location is
practically impossible.
The on-line intrusive methods applied so far are:
-winding displacement [17] or acceleration [18]
measurement;
-continuous recovery of the initial clamping forces values
by hydraulic and/or mechanical systems [19];
-direct measurement of clamping forces with transducers or
sensors mounted directly in the flux of clamping forces [8].

A. The direct measurement of clamping forces-a short history

All the direct measurement methods described further on
allow the transmission of information on the level of the
clamping forces on each column of the transformer for online
processing, analysis and decision.
The first time, the method was used by one of the authors in
the 90’s [9]. For this, the thick insulating pressing ring [12]
Fig. 3. Direct measurement of clamping forces with magneto-elastic
transducers (1977-2000). 1-screwed bolt with key head, 2-transducer, 3-
magneto-elastic sensor, 4-transformer pressing ring.
In Fig.4 the original clamping bolts from Fig.1 have been
replaced with strain-gauge bolt transducers having the same
dimensions [10].

Fig. 4. Direct measurement of clamping forces with strain gauge bolt
transducers (2001-2008). 1-measuring screwed bolt, 2-strain-gauge sensor, 3-
steel pill, 4-transformer pressing ring.
Another high-impact constructive solution employed is the
one presented in Fig.5 which uses a washer transducer (Fig. 6).
The operating temperature (max 200ºC) is much beyond the
temperature limits occurring in power transformers.
Due to its small size, the washer transducer represents the
solution for the transition from the strain gauge sensors to the
fiber optic sensors.
Fig. 5. Direct measurement of clamping forces with strain gauge washer
transducers (2008-present). 1-screwed bolt with key head, 2-mounting plate,
3-washer sensor, 4-pressing ring, 5-steel pill.
Fig. 6. Stainless steel washer transducer for 250 kN (45x24x10 mm).
The monitoring systems entirely based on optical fiber
introduced into power transformers are presented further on.
III. THE DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF CLAMPING FORCES
USING FO TRANSDUSCERS
Of the many types of FO sensors-based transducers
described in the literature [21,22] those using micro-bending
[23], FBG (Fibre Bragg Grating) with strain transverse
sensitivity [24,25] or strain transverse to longitudinal
sensitivity conversion [26,27] could be used for the axial
clamping monitoring systems.
A. FO Transducers for Local Measurement
This optical transducer for compression forces is located in
the areas marked S1 – S4 indicated in Fig. 2 and is based on
the micro-bending phenomenon [28] through which local
mechanical stresses of a FO leads to the proportional light
transfer process. Such a washer type transducer is very similar
to the one in Fig.6 and, if it is followed by a light-voltage
digital converter, it can have a resolution of 4000 digits.
This transducer has a non typical output characteristic
(Fig.7) [29]: up to about 20% of the measuring range (domain
1), the characteristic slope is higher than the rest of the
characteristic (domain 2), but both domains are linear.
The use of two slope characteristic of the washer transducer
does not affect the measurement of axial forces in transformers,
because such decrease of the clamping force cannot appear in
any actual situation.
The maximum deviations from the average characteristic
resulted from repeated experiments is 2.5% FS, and the
extended measurement uncertainty is 3%.
The domain 2 characteristic from Fig. 7 can be simply
converted in a characteristic like that from Fig. 8.
Readings (mA)
Force (kN)
Fig. 7. Real output characteristic. 1-initial domain, 2–useful domain.
Readings
(mA)
Force (kN)
Fig. 8. Output characteristic for practice.
 The described solution was used for the rehabilitation of the
80/370 MVA [9,20].
These transformers are provided with the possibility of
periodical re-clamping without untanking for recovering the
initial pressing force after a number of short-circuits.
B. FO Transducers for Global Measurements. FBG Smart
Pressing Ring
Based on the solution from Fig.2, the fiber optic is
subjected to compression stress in the areas where the normal
clamping force is created on the pressing ring and, to a small
extent, to bending stress in the space between these areas [30].
These conditions could be fulfilled only by the quasi-
distributed FBGs which exploit the FO transverse strain
sensitivity instead of the usual axial (longitudinal) strain
sensitivity [24]. For this, the original pressing ring is divided in
two superimposed identical rings, between which the fiber
optic sensor is inserted, as shown in Fig.9.
The procedure for placing the FO and fixing the two rings
one against the other is patented [31].
a)
b)
Fig. 9. Smart Pressing Ring. a-exploded view, b–isometric view. FOS-quasi-
distributed strain sensitive FBG optical sensor.
A cross section through the pressing ring where the FO
fitted with a Bragg grating was embedded is shown in Fig. 10.
Fig. 10. FBG embedded in the pressing ring. Z-the longitudinal direction; X,
Y-the transverse directions; Y-the direction on which the pressing force is
applied.
The Bragg grating represents a periodical alteration of the
FO core refractive index, achieved on a limited section of it, so
that the strain could be considered constant there. The grating
will reflect light with a peak in amplitude or transmit the light
signal as a deep of light both centered at the Bragg wavelength
λB according to [21]:
λB = 2nΛ (1)
where n is the FO refractive index and Λ is the Bragg
grating pitch.
When input of FBG sensor is connected to a wide
bandwidth light (white light) source (super luminescent diode
a.s.o.), the free end is closed in an antireflective manner and the
optical grating is transversely stressed, the grating generates a
reflection of the light which has two maxima, in other words a
splitting of the fiber grating spectral profile. The spectral span
between maxima is proportional with the strain and then with
the transverse force applied to the FO [24].
Additionally, the spectral location of the two maxima could
be used, if necessary, for calculating the local temperature.
In our application there are many Bragg gratings (at least in
the S areas, where the concentrated clamping force is applied)
with different Bragg wavelength λB1…. λB4 on a single mode
circularly symmetrical, cheap FO used in telecommunications
(Corning SMF 28), which has the advantage that the fiber
symmetry leads to a transverse sensitivity independent from the
stress direction, which simplifies the mounting in the pressing
ring. A disadvantage is that for low transverse loads, the
splitting of spectral maxima could be extremely difficult to
measure due to being covered by noise [22]. In our experience,
it results that this sensitivity threshold is below 10% of the
measurement range, which could be accepted in this case.
The best accommodation of an optical sensor is the open
loop design enabling the existence of only one input/output for
the optical signal.
The measuring system was experimented on a linear model
put into a compression mechanical test machine [12].
 Under the conditions offered by this experiment, a
sensitivity of about 30 pm/MPa and a measurement uncertainty
of 1 pm (3%) associated to a temperature error of 1% in the
range 20-100ºC are achieved. The low strain insensitivity
domain could be reduced depending on the specific process of
FO embedding in the pressing ring.
Thus, a smart pressing ring is achieved, which besides the
pressing force transmission to the windings also has the role of
measuring these forces.
C. The Measuring System with Smart Pressing Ring
Fig. 11 presents a simplified diagram of the measuring
system applied to one smart pressing ring. The arrows indicate
the mono- or bidirectional information transmission in the
system, as the case may be.
The equipment contains a wideband light source (laser or
LED), an optical coupler enabling the separation between the
incident light transmitted to the FBG sensors and the light
reflected by Bragg gratings depending on the strain they are
subjected to, and a digital processor for optical signals (optical
spectrum analyzer) which assure, based on the WDM
(Wavelength-Division Multiplex) technology, the separation of
the optical signals reflected with a view to determining the
transverse strain in each zone of the smart pressing rings where
a Bragg grating is inserted.
Fig. 11. Principle diagram of the axial forces measuring system in a power
transformer using smart pressing ring. Explanation in text.
At the output of the optical processor, electric signals are
obtained, proportional to the distribution of the compression
force on the pressing ring circumference, which are processed,
stored and displayed on PC and transmitted through an
interface IEC 61850 to the global monitoring system of the
transformer. The optical signal processing equipment can be
placed in the proximity of the monitored transformer or
remotely, in the substation control room, in which case it can
process optical signals coming from one or many transformers
from the transformer substation. Information on the time
variation of axial forces can be recorded on-line for the entire
life of the transformer or off-line, at longer or shorter intervals
depending on the monitoring technology. In this last case, the
measuring system can be used in other transformers from that
substation or from other substation, by an adequate setting.
D. Calculating the Remnant Clamping Force
The values measured at a certain moment during the
transformer operation should be correlated with the oil and
winding temperatures, paper-oil insulation moisture and ageing
[32,33]. In order to relate the (remnant) measured clamping
force (FS)m to its initial value (FS)in used by the manufacturer,
a dedicated software was developed [34] based on models
included in a global correction factor
Kcorr = f(KT, Kh, Ka, Km) (2)
where KT, Kh ,Ka and Km–model coefficients for
temperature, moisture, thermal ageing and manufacturer
technology influence on clamping force variation. The global
correction factor Kcorr can have values below/above unit. The
re-calculated value is:
FS = Kcorr ∗ (FS)in (3)
which should be compared with (FS)m. If
(FS)m < FS (4)
this means, that the clamping force was modified due to
certain events: poor transport [35,36,37], moisture [38],
thermal ageing, short-circuits [39] a.s.o.
E. Experimental Results
An experiment in real conditions on the 80/370 MVA
single-phase short-circuit transformer used in High Power Lab
is given in Fig.12. It shows a typical recording of the variable
force Fd generated by the short circuit current i(t) superposed
on the static clamping force FS.
Fig. 12. Static & Dynamic Axial Force Measurement for an 80/370 MVA
single phase Short-Circuit Transformer.
The clamping force has a negligible variation before and
after the short-circuit shot because special measures were taken
during the design, material selection and preliminary winding
mechanical stabilization; it also remains low after a certain
number of short-circuits at the same level of the currents (about
80 % of the limit dynamic current of 125 kA max.). The initial
decreasing rate of the axial clamping force after a certain
number of short-circuits is an important criterion characterizing
the respective construction. So, in this case the decreasing rate
after 5 shots was about 3 % and after 10 shots it reached about
5 %; afterwards, the clamping force got stabilized at that value
and a re-clamping was necessary only after a large number of
shots (depending on current values).
 In exchange, in a 50 MVA 110/10 kV internal services
transformer, the initial decreasing rate was 7 % after 5 shots of
0.5 s. That transformer was declared “Passed” after repeating
the dielectric & leakage reactance tests and after the visual
inspection.
The experiments performed up to the present cannot be
considered as conclusive.
The testing and implementation program is in progress,
developed together with some companies interested in the
measuring and monitoring technique for power transformers.
CONCLUSIONS
Direct monitoring/measurement of the axial clamping
forces is a valuable warning tool that the transformer has been
subjected to excessive mechanical forces which may also result
in damage of insulation or structural components.
After a short development history of this technology, two
innovative FO technical solutions are presented.
A first solution uses independent FO washer transducers,
which can be easily introduced under each axial clamping bolt,
in new designs or for on-site rehabilitation of transformers.
A second solution introduces the FO smart pressing ring as
an entirely dielectric compression force transducer which can
be separately characterized and calibrated and which does not
influence the mechanical stability and the main designed
insulation of the transformer. This solution can be applied
irrespective of the used clamping system (bolts or wedges).
The dedicated software enables the comparison of the
measurements with the initial clamping forces practiced in the
manufacturing factory.
The developed system is already used for highly demanded
transformers such as those used for internal services in power
plants and in short circuit laboratories but can be used both in
new large power transformers and in on-site refurbished/
repaired ones. The results presented above point out that
continuous monitoring of the clamping forces could become
more and more affordable as a new function of the modern
global monitoring system of power transformers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank ICMET Craiova for
supporting the development and implementation of the
clamping force monitoring system in its facilities.
We would also like to express our gratitude to the Jury of
European Exhibition of Creativity and Innovation
EUROINVENT Iasi for awarding the Gold Medal in 2016 to
our power transformer on-line monitoring system.
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