CSP IN NON-ELECTRICAL

APPLICATION
 A study produced by the project
Este estudo
DKTI-CSP foi elaborado
(German no âmbito
Climate Technology
do Projeto
Initiative onEnergia Heliotérmica,
Concentrating Solar
gerido através do Ministério
Power), which is managed by the da
Ciência, of
Ministry Tecnologia e Inovaçãoand
Science, Technology
(MCTI) e da(MCTI)
Innovation Gesellschaft
and thefür Interna-
Gesellschaft
tionale Zusammenarbeit
für Internationale Zusammenarbeit
(GIZ)GmbH.
(GIZ) GmbH.The O Projeto
projectEnergia
focusses on
Heliotérmica tem o objetivo de
the promotion of climate technologies,
estabelecer
in os pré-requisitos
particular Concentrating para
Solar
a aplicação
Power. e disseminação
Its objective dathat
is to ensure
Geração Heliotérmica no
required conditions to implement Brasil.
and disseminate Concentrating Solar
Power are established in Brazil.

Ministério da
Published by:
Projeto Energia Heliotérmica

Contact GIZ: Contact MCTI:

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH
SCN Quadra 1 Bloco C Sala 1402
Ed. Brasília Trade Center
70711-902 Brasília - DF, Brasil
T +55 (61) 3963-7524
Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação
Secretaria de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico e Inovação
Coordenação-Geral de Tecnologias Setoriais
Esplanada dos Ministérios Bloco E Sala 382
70067-900 Brasília - DF, Brasil
T +55 (61) 2033-7800/7817/7867

Authors and Co-Authors:

Dr. Christoph Müller, Christoph Rau, Johannes Schrüfer

IA Tech GmbH
Karl-Heinz-Beckurts-Str. 13
52428 Jülich
Germany

Project coordination:
Eduardo Soriano Lousada (MCTI), Torsten Schwab (GIZ)
Editor:
Florian Remann (GIZ), Ute Barbara Thiermann (GIZ)
Design:
Barbara Miranda

June 2014

This study has been elaborated by the project DKTI-CSP which is working in the
context of the German Climate Technology Initiative. The project is realized by
close cooperation between the Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology and In-
novation (MCTI) and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenar-
beit (GIZ) GmbH. The project aims at the creation of the necessary prerequisites
for the successful application and dissemination of Concentrating Solar Power
(CSP) in Brazil.
CSP IN NON-ELECTRICAL
APPLICATION

Ministério da
CONTENT

1 INTRODUCTION 8
2 OVERVIEW: CSP AND INDUSTRIAL
PROCESS HEAT 9
2.1 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF CSP TECHNOLOGIES  10
2.2 HEAT TRANSFER MEDIA AND STORAGE OPTIONS  12

3 PARABOLIC TROUGH 14
4 FRESNEL REFLECTOR 16
5 CENTRAL RECEIVER 17
6 DISH 18
6.1 FIX FOCUS DISH  18

7 INDUSTRIAL STEAM PROCESSES 20

8 SPECIAL CSP APPLICATIONS 21
8.1 SOLAR FURNACE  21
8.2 SOLAR CHEMISTRY  21
8.3 SOLAR WATER DESALINATION  21
9 CONCLUSION 23
ANNEX24
 1 INTRODUCTION

Process heat plays an important role in industrialized
countries. In 2007 German industry was responsible
for 28% of the countries total energy consumption,
of which 76% were used to produce heat.
Brazil’s industrial sector energy consumption grows
by an average of 1.7 percent per year from 2010 to
2040 in the IEO2013 Reference case. In Brazil the
industrial sector energy consumption accounted
for 60 percent of Brazil’s total delivered energy con-
sumption in 2010 and remains at roughly that share
through 2040. A large share of delivered energy
consumption in Brazil’s industrial sector (more than
40 percent in 2010) comes from renewable sources,
with biomass often the fuel of choice for heat gen-
eration in the industrial sector¹.
Process heat in industrial applications needs a big
range of temperature levels, starting at tempera-
tures as low as 30°C and ending at high temperature
levels of over 1300°C (cf. fig. 1). About 30% of the
energy is needed in a temperature range between 0
and 200°C another 8% at temperatures up to 400°C.
CSP can easily supply temperatures up to 400°C.
This temperature range can for example be found
in food, tobacco, pulp and paper industry. Tempera-
tures over 400°C mainly are used in metal, mineral
and chemical industry. Temperatures above 400°C
can be achieved by CSP, but until now, almost no
practical experience exists in supplying such indus-
trial processes.

Estimated industrial heat demands by quality for EU25 = ACC4 + EFTA3 during 2003

PJ
2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
Basic Chemicals Non-Metallic Transport Machinery Mining and Food and Pulp and Others
Metals Minerals Equipment Quarrying Tobacco Paper

High, over Medium, Low, below

400º c 100-400º C 100º C

Figura 1: Estimated industrial heat demands and temperature ranges in European countries²

¹http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo/industrial.cfm
²Ecoheatcool, Workpackage 1, The European Heat market, Final Report, Ecoheatcool and Euroheat & Power 2005-2006

8
2 OVERVIEW: CSP AND
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS HEAT

In industrial processes, concentrating solar plants
(CSP) can partially or fully replace a conventional
heat source depending on the process heat load
case. An overview of different CSP technologies,
incl. the various heat transfer fluids and heat stor-
age possibilities, and the possible industrial pro-
cesses that can be supplied by solar thermal heat
are shown in fig. 2. As the energy density of solar
radiation is limited to about 1000 W/m², big areas
are often needed to collect the required amount of
solar radiation with CSP collectors. Each CSP system
consists of a reflective surface, which reflects and
concentrates the incoming sunlight onto a smaller
receiver. The receiver then absorbs the irradiation
and transforms it into heat.

CSP
Heat transfer Heat storage Industrial
medium (optical) process

Parabolic Stream Ruths storage Evaporation

trough Sterilization
Melting
Thermo oil Thermo oil 2 tank Washing/
degreasing

Cooking
Fresnel and boiling
trough Hot water Molten salt 2 tank
Drying
Pasteurization
Molten salt Ceramic blocks Extraction/
Pebblebed destillation
Central Refrigeration
receiver
Solid storage Air conditioning
Direct/optical
(cement) Desalination
Bleaching
Biochemical
reactions
Dish Hot air Thermochemical
storage Surface tratment

Detoxification

Figure 2: Schematic overview of CSP systems and possible industrial processes for which heat can be supplied (IA Tech 2014)

9
 A tracking mechanism is needed to maintain the fo- 2.1 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF CSP
cus on the receiver, as the sun is changing position TECHNOLOGIES
during the day and the season of the year. Accord-
ing to the technology, the tracking requires move- There exist a great variety of construction types of
ment around one or two rotation axis. The gained concentrating solar collectors (cf. fig. 3), reaching
heat must then be transported from the receiver in back to first systems at the beginning of the last
the field to the location where the heat is needed century. In this chapter, the different CSP technolo-
or to a temporary heat storage. As the solar radia- gies and their systems are briefly outlined.
tion is subject to daily and seasonal fluctuations, a
heat storage can cover the heat demand for several
hours in case of weather worsening or for nighttime
operation. In addition, the combination with a con-
ventional heat source is advisable with a back-up fir-
ing system to make the system 100% reliable if this
Central receiver Parabolic trough
is needed by the envisioned application.

Due to the concentrating nature of CSP only light

from one direction can be focused onto the receiv-
er. Sunlight, which is scattered diffusely by clouds
gets absorbed by the atmosphere and cannot be
used. So CSP is best applied in climates which have Fix focus dish Fresnel reflector
a high share of direct solar irradiation. However, also Figure 3: Schematic overview of concentration types (IA Tech 2014)
in moderate and humid climates parabolic trough
collectors can have a higher yield then flat-plate The most well-known collector type is the para-bol-
or vacuum tube collectors when operating tem- ic trough, which until now is the standard collec-
peratures above 130°C are required. At lower tem- tor type in big solar thermal power plants due to its
peratures the efficiency of flat-plate and evacuated very long operational experience facilitating system
tubes gets better and their ability to use diffuse so- bankability. Aiming at the heat market, a number
lar radiation might result in a higher energy yield of smaller parabolic troughs has been developed in
than that of a concentrating system. For this reason, the last decade. Mainly designed for temperatures
a careful system design is required, taking into ac- above 100°C, these collectors do not compete di-
count operating temperatures, load case character- rectly with flat plate collectors, which mostly are de-
istics and climate data. In addition, the complexity signed for temperatures below 100°C.
of CSP, maintenance needs and moving parts have
to be taken into account, when the feasibility of a Fresnel reflectors have been improved constantly
CSP system is investigated during the last decades. The simplicity of their con-
struction is attractive for small-scale projects and
In the further chapters the CSP technologies, their roof top installations, but they have less output per
heat transfer media and storage possibilities are square meter, as their daily response curve is similar
described. to the one of a flat plate collector.

10
Central receivers are increasingly coming into
interest in large-scale power plants, as the heat
transfer from the heliostat field to the receiver is
accomplished only by optical means, avoiding com-
plicated and expensive heat transfer fluids. At the
same time, the higher concentration offers higher
temperatures and efficiencies. Small-scale central
receivers are still rare and under development.
Dish receivers are well known since several de-
cades. Unlike parabolic and Fresnel troughs the
focus has the shape of a spot (as a central receiver)
and so can reach higher concentrations. As tracking
and the mechanical structure become more com-
plicated with size, the dishes are limited in size to
about 100 m² (with an exception of the so called Big
Dish from Australian National University and Wiz-
ard Power). For more power, several dishes have to
be installed in parallel. Some simplifications were
achieved with the Scheffler dish, which -in contrary
to most other dishes- possesses a fixed focus posi-
tion. The fixed focus facilitates the construction of
the receiver, the hook up of the heat transfer medi-
um and the possibility to locate a thermal storage
mass near or in the focus.
All the above-mentioned CSP technologies are used
in electricity producing solar thermal power plants,
where the geometric dimensions of the collectors
are usually 5 to 10 times bigger then in typical solar
process heat applications. This is mainly due to the
fact, that process heat systems often are designed for
smaller thermal power ranges as from 100 kW to a few
MW, as heat only can be used locally. These systems
often are placed on the rooftop of industrial buildings
to lower the investment costs. This means, that specif-
ic weight and wind load have to be kept low.
Concentrating systems have to turn with the sun to
keep the focus on the receiver. Parabolic troughs and
Fresnel reflectors can be tracked on a single axis, as
the focus shape is a line. Concentrating dishes and
the heliostats in a central receiver plant focus on a
single spot and for this reason have to be tracked
on two axes. Smaller CSP devices have shorter focal
lengths and so keep the tracking effort low and are
less demanding regarding the tracking precision.
The reflective material used in the CSP collector
to reflect and concentrate the sunlight plays a key
role. Mainly glass mirrors and aluminum reflectors
are used. As the sunlight passes two times through
the glass -in and out from the reflective surface on
the back of the glass- the use of highly efficient mir-
rors is recommended. These consist of very even,
thin (2-4 mm thick) glass with a low content of iron
to keep absorption losses low. The long-term water
protection of the highly reflective but sensitive met-
al surface is crucial, as intruding water from the cut-
ting edges will lead to fast corrosion of the reflect-
ing surface. Some designs use highly polished and
surface protected aluminum sheets. These avoid ab-
sorption of light in the glass and are simple to han-
dle, but on the other hand are less scratch proof, less
stiff and can be subject to corrosion in a humid and
aggressive environment (as at the seaside).
The absorber tube, which is collecting and trans-
forming the concentrated light in the receiver of
a parabolic trough or Fresnel reflector, is normally
only a few centimeters wide. For thermal improve-
ment, the absorber tube is located inside a glass
tube (can also be evacuated), which reduces natu-
ral convection and wind impact. The absorber of-
ten possesses a selective coating. Especially at high
temperatures, a selective coating optimizes the
ratio of energy absorbed to the energy emitted by
heat radiation. Selective surfaces can absorb 96% of
the incoming sunlight while emitting only 7% infra-
red heat radiation. A widely used selective coating
is the electro-chemically deposited black chrome,
which offers good performance and durability at
high temperatures.
11
 2.2 HEAT TRANSFER MEDIA AND
STORAGE OPTIONS
All the CSP technologies have in common, that they
can be combined with a variety of heat transfer me-
dia, which will be outlined briefly with their corre-
sponding storage in this chapter.
The most known heat transfer media is water, which
has very advantageous properties regarding the
heat capacity, availability and environmental safe-
ty. On the other side, process temperatures above
100°C will result in a high operational pressure,
which requires special engineering. Pressurized
water storages are applied for example in district
heating applications. Hot water and steam storag-
es are known for centuries and are available on the
market. Except of the high pressure, steam systems
have the disadvantage that they require water treat-
ment to avoid scaling in the system. First parabolic
trough and Fresnel systems are in operation, which
directly produce the steam in the receiver. This new
technology improves efficiency as the energy is
transformed directly into steam without the need of
a heat exchanger. Greatest disadvantage is the lack
of cost-effective storage availability. The only way to
store steam is with a so-called Ruths storage, where
the steam is stored under high pressure and tem-
perature, for example at 50 bar, 285°C.

Storage type Proven Estimative Advantages Disadvantages

temperature volumetric
range heat capacity
Ruths storage 0 – 300°C 20-30 kWh/m³ • Short response time • Only for steam processes
• Only storage possibility for • High pressure
steam • Temperature and pressure
decrease constantly
Two tank thermo oil 0 - 300°C ~ 0.6 kWh/m³K • Pressure-less • Low volumetric heat
• Constant temperature outlet capacity= big volume
• Environmental aspects
• Durability
Two tank molten salt 145 - 540°C ~ 0.8 kWh/m³K • Pressure-less • Backup heating necessary
• Constant temperature outlet to prevent solidification
• High temperatures
Ceramic blocks 0 - 1000°C ~ 0.34 kWh/m³K • Pressure-less • Own consumption
(commercial)/ • High temperatures
pebble bed • High security
(Research Level) • Environmentally friendly
• Very high reliability
• Cost-effective
Solid block (cement) 0 - 400°C ~ 0,67 kWh/m³K • Pressure-less • Power density limited
(Research Level) • High security economically
• Environmentally friendly
• High durability

Table 1: Storage types being commercially applied or being still in research level

12
Another possibility is, to use the steam to heat up a
solid storage made of cement; however, this is still
at research and development level. This has the ad-
vantage to be pressure-less, but has limitations in
the power density (cf. tab. 1).
Thermo oil is used in many solar power plants with
parabolic troughs or Fresnel reflectors. The oil can
work at temperatures of up to 400°C without in-
creasing the pressure in the circuit. The disadvan-
tage is, that the mass flow must be almost twice
times higher than the mass flow of water to trans-
port the same amount of energy. Thermo oil has a
limited lifetime and has to be replaced every few
years (5-8 years) depending on the absorbed ther-
mal stress during plant operation. Special care must
be exercised to avoid leakages, as most thermo oils
are toxic. Thermo oil can be used to store heat in
a two-tank (hot and cold) storage system. This is a
very reliable storage system.
Molten salt (fluorides, chlorides and nitrates) has
been used in big scale power plants as heat transfer
fluid. Molten salt has a big advantage, as the salt is
liquid at atmospheric pressure, provides a low-cost
medium to store thermal energy, is non-flammable,
pressure-less and nontoxic. Industry has experience
with molten salts, as it is already used in the chem-
ical and metal industry to transport heat. Technical
calcium nitrate salts are stable at more than 500°C.
Like thermo oil, molten salt can be used in two tank
heat storage systems, where energy can be stored
up to one week. In comparison to thermo oil the
molten salt has a slightly better volumetric heat
capacity and higher temperatures can be reached
without affecting long term stability. However, the
salt has to be kept warm above freezing point tem-
perature during the whole plant lifetime in order to
avoid crystallizing of the molten salt.
Air as heat transfer medium is still seldom in CSP
and can only be found in central receiver plants and
a newer development of a parabolic trough plant
that utilizes air as heat transfer medium. Due to the
very low heat capacity, big air ducts are necessary to
achieve the required mass flow at an acceptable fan
power. The big advantage is that there is no tem-
perature limit, no pressure increase and that air is
nontoxic. In addition, thermal storage can be real-
ized easily in form of ceramic blocks or pebble beds,
which transfer heat to or from the hot air passing
through. Advantage of this system is that it is specif-
ically cheap, scalable, robust and reliable. Ceramic
heat storages are commercially applied in the in-
dustry since many years.
As the above-mentioned heat transfer media are al-
ready used in industry, the most suitable CSP tech-
nology can be chosen to facilitate the integration of
the solar heat source. The CSP can act as preheating
device with a conventional heating system in series.
The conventional heat source then only has to pro-
vide heat for the missing temperature difference to
reach the required temperature level. In case, the
process uses steam, the solar generated steam can
be injected in parallel to a steam flow, which is gener-
ated by traditional means. The conventional energy
source will then be regulated to add the amount of
steam, which is needed to cover the current demand.
13
 3 PARABOLIC TROUGH

A parabolic trough consists of a reflecting surface,
which is bent in a parabolic shape in one direction
(cf. fig. 4). A tracking mechanism keeps the central
axis of the parabola parallel to the sun incidence
angle. This way all sunlight is focused on a line at
the focal height above the reflecting surface. Inside
the focus line the receiver is placed, which absorbs a
high degree of the incoming light and transmits the
energy in form of heat to a transfer fluid circulating
inside. The heat transfer fluid then transports the
heat directly or over a heat exchanger to the loca-
tion, where the energy is needed, as for example to
a steam turbine or an industrial process.
tween 100°C and 250°C. These troughs are easier to
install, are less demanding in tracking and have less
weight. These parameters allow the integration of
CSP on industrial building roofs and help to lower
investment costs. Some of the smaller troughs are
encapsulated with a flat glass on top of the trough.
The encapsulation acts as a weather protection,
which reduces soiling and corrosion, which impact
reliability and efficiency of the solar thermal system.
Proven applications of small parabolic trough col-
lectors are:
• Industrial processes where steam or thermo oil
is needed above 100°C. The steam can be
generated directly in the trough receiver or
indirectly in a separate steam generator. The
steam can be fed easily into existing steam
distribution systems, which are widely used in
industry.

• Single or double staged absorption chillers.

Figure 4: Schematic description of the concentration in a parabolic Double staged absorption chillers reach a
trough collector (IA Tech 2014) higher efficiency than single-stage absorption
chillers and are used for solar cooling processes
Parabolic troughs are already operating in big power due to their lower operating temperature.
plants since the 80’s. The most known solar thermal
power plants are the Kramer Junction SEGS plants Process heat application examples:
in California with 354 MW. These plants are in oper- In 2013 Abengoa handed over to Minera El Tesoro/
ation since 1984. With the aim to make the technol- northern Chile the first big solar thermal plant in
ogy more cost competitive, trough size augmented South America. The 10 MWt (thermal) installation
constantly. Current power plant trough designs as was built to supply heat needed for the copper elec-
the Eurotrough reach a length of 150 m per module tro-extraction process in the mining production.
with a width of 5.77 m whereas the first troughs in The solar thermal plant is expected to substitute
the 80`s had 50 m length and 2.5 m width. more than 55 % of the diesel fuel currently used for
the heat production. This turnkey solar heat process
In industrial process heat applications often exists a system consists of 1.280 PT-1 solar thermal collector
smaller heat demand than in electricity production, modules and covers approximately 6 hectares.
as the use of the thermal energy is limited to the
local consumers and cannot transported over large The parabolic troughs have been designed and
distances. The typical thermal power range in indus- developed by Abengoa specifically for industrial
try lies between 100 kW and a few MW. To cover this thermal processes. The solar plant will deliver heat
market, the trend goes to smaller troughs, which are around the clock by using thermal energy storage,
under development since about a decade. Smaller ideal for the mining industry and industries with
parabolic troughs, with concentration ratios be- similar energy needs. The use of solar energy will re-
tween 10 and 15, can operate at temperatures be- duce CO2 emissions by about 10,000 tons per year.

14
Figure 5: Abengoas PT-1 troughs can be connected in series and/or in parallel to form larger collector arrays¹

Another example is the Tresert Tri Generation proj-

ect in Thailand. With the help of 928 m² of Solarlite
parabolic trough collectors SL 2300 and SL 4600 a
thermal peak power of 500 kW is provided. The en-
ergy is used in combination with a biomass boiler.
Additionally to the parabolic trough, the project in-
cludes a converter for electricity and heat produc-
tion, an absorption-cooling machine and a biomass
boiler for back-up heat generation. Project aim is to
demonstrate the innovative technology for decen-
tralized provision of electrical energy, heat and air
conditioning².

¹ http://www.abengoa.com/export/sites/abengoa_corp/resources/images/galerias_prensa/Electricidad_Solar5.jpg
² http://www.solarlite.de/en/project_phitsanulok.cfm
15
 4 FRESNEL REFLECTOR

A linear Fresnel reflector uses long, narrow, flat or
slightly curved mirrors to focus light onto a linear
receiver running parallel to and located above the
mirrors. Each of the mirror segments is inclined in a
different angle to reflect the incoming sunlight on
the same focus line. The Fresnel reflector is capa-
ble of concentrating the sunlight to approximately
30 times its normal intensity. A secondary reflector
can be placed on the receiver for further light con-
centration. As in the parabolic trough design, only
a one-axis tracking is necessary to keep the line
focus on the receiver. This is different from central
receivers and dishes, which have to be tracked on
two axes. The receiver position is fixed, so flexible
fluid couplings as for parabolic trough collectors are
not required. The receiver is not fixed to the mirror
structure, so the mechanical construction is much
simpler. Another big advantage is, that the lying
reflector construction has a highly efficient ground
usage and a very low wind load. A compact linear
Fresnel reflector (CLFR) is a specific type of linear
Fresnel reflector (LFR) technology. As opposed to
traditional LFR’s, the CLFR utilizes multiple absorb-
ers within the vicinity of the mirrors.
m above the ground. The saturated steam at the out-
put reaches 270°C and at a pressure of 55 bar. Due to
a new receiver design developed by Novatec Solar,
since September 2011 superheated steam with tem-
peratures above 500°C can be produced.
Process heat application examples:
Smaller Fresnel reflectors were developed for exam-
ple by PSE AG to serve the industrial process heat
and absorption chiller market. The company offers
modules with a length of 4 m, an aperture width
of 5.5 m and an absorber height of 4 m. The weight
load is 40 kg/m² and the peak output per square me-
ter reaches 500 W/m². Plants with a thermal power
between 44 kW and 176 kW have been build, for
example to power a NH3/H2O absorption chiller in
Bergamo, Italy or a double effect H2O-LiBr Chiller at
the University of Seville, Spain, which is powered by
a Fresnel reflector with an aperture of 352 m² and a
peak heat generation of 176 kW.

Figure 6: Schematic description of the concentration in a Fresnel

collector (IA Tech 2014)

A few bigger Fresnel power plants have been built

in the past decade for electrical power generation,
as for example Puerto Errado 1 (PE 1) of the German
company Novatec Solar, which is in commercial op-
eration in southern Spain since 2009. The plant is
based on standard linear Fresnel reflectors and has
an electrical power capacity of 1.4 MW. The steam is
generated directly in the absorber tube, which is 7.40

16
5 CENTRAL RECEIVER

A central receiver power plant is using a fixed receiv-

er on top of a tower to capture the focused sunlight
of hundreds or thousands of mirrors distributed on
the plain field surrounding the tower. The flat, mov-
able mirrors are part of so-called heliostats, which
consist of a metallic substructure to support the mir-
ror, a two-axis tracking system with motors, control
electronics and a cement base. The heliostats are
controlled by a central computer, which calculates
the angles of each heliostat mirror in such a way,
that the incoming sunlight is reflected exactly onto
the focus on top of the tower (cf. fig. 7). The receiver
is stationary and so flexible fluid couplings are not
required. Early designs used the focused sunlight to
directly generate steam to power a turbine. Newer Figure 8: Aora 170 kWt plant in Israel ¹
designs are now in operation, which use molten
salt (40% potassium nitrate, 60% sodium nitrate) as In the last years there have been first steps to-
heat transfer fluid. The molten salt has a high heat wards small scale central receiver systems, as for
capacity and can be used to store the heat in a two example first prototypes by Israeli company Aora.
(hot and cold) tank system, which can supply heat at One of their central receiver modules produces
constant temperature during cloudy weather. 100 kWe and 170 kWt of heat energy that can be
used for heating, cooling (absorption chillers), hot
air/water for industrial and domestic processes,
dehumidification of bio-waste and desalination².

Also the North American company eSolar has de-

Figure 7: Schematic description of the concentration of a heliostat
field on a central receiver (IA Tech 2014)
signed heliostats that are smaller than the industry
norm, allowing for pre-fabrication, mass-manufac-
turing, and easy installation, thereby reducing pro-
duction and installation costs. Their central receiv-
er technology is designed for both, electric power
and process heat applications. Direct steam gen-
eration in the receiver enables delivery of process
heat temperatures up to 565°C³.

The heliostats are potentially simpler and cheaper in

construction then parabolic troughs, as flat mirrors
are easier to produce. On the other hand, the sys-  
tem to control the heliostat positions is more com-
plex and demanding. Also a high degree of know
how is involved in the receiver technology, as very
high light concentration, high power density and
temperatures above 1000°C are reached.
¹ http://aora-solar.com/news/#1
² http://aora-solar.com
³ http://www.esolar.com
17
 6 DISH

A dish system uses a large, reflective, parabolic dish. The focus is located on the same rotation axis, so
It focuses all the sunlight that strikes the dish up it rotates only around its centre during the day but
onto a single focus point above or near the dish, stays at the same position. In the course of the sea-
where a receiver captures the heat and transforms sons the incident angle of the solar radiation varies
it into a useful form. The advantage of a dish system +/- 23.5°. The parabolic section has to be seasonally
is that it can achieve much higher temperatures due adjusted to keep the focus on the rotation axis. This
to the higher concentration of light, similar to cen- is only possible by giving the reflector a different
tral receivers. However, there are also some disad- parabolic shape for each seasonal inclination-angle
vantages. The receiver in most dish designs is part of of the sun. The reflector-frame is build for equinox.
the moving structure, which requires a rigid frame By inclining and elastically deforming the reflec-
and strong tracking system. Furthermore, parabolic tor-frame, all other parabola shapes are achieved
mirrors are used instead of flat mirrors and tracking with sufficient accuracy. In the focal point a receiver
must be dual-axis. can be placed, which generates steam. As the re-
ceiver is stationary, flexible fluid couplings are not
required. The steam can further be stored in a Ruths
6.1 FIX FOCUS DISH storage. Another option is the heat storage in a big
solid mass placed in the focus, as being realized in a
A special dish variant is the fix focus dish, which of- 1.5 MW power plant presumably starting operation
fers the advantage, that the focus is not part of the in Rajasthan/India in 2014.
moving structure but stays on a fixed position. The
best-known variant of this construction type is the Process heat application examples:
Scheffler reflector. The Scheffler reflector represents
a small lateral section of a much larger parabolic In 1998 WRST’s Department of Renewable Energy
through. The inclined cut produces a typical ellipti- constructed a solar steam generating CSP plant
cal shape. The sunlight that falls onto this parabol- at Abu Road/Rajasthan/India. The system consists
ic section is reflected sideways to the focus located of 84 Scheffler reflectors with a surface of 9.2 m²
at some distance of the reflector. The daily rotation each, shell type receivers and large diameter header
axis must be located exactly in north south direction, pipes, which serve as treated water storage as well
parallel to earth polar axis (cf. fig. 9). as steam reservoirs (Ruths storage) (see fig. 10). Each
reflector has a maximum heat output of 4 kW and
reaches focus temperatures of up to 800°C. Steam
is collected in six header-pipes with 0.35 m diam-
eter and 24 m length. The steam is fed through in-
sulated pipes directly to the cooking vessels in the
kitchen (see fig. 11). The system uses the thermo-si-
phon principle so that each reflector’s header pipe
itself acts as a steam reservoir, obviating the need
for a separate steam generator, heat exchanger or
electrical back up for circulation pumps. This way,
efficiency is increased and function is guaranteed
during electrical power cuts. Further features in-
Figure 9: Schematic description of the concentration in a fix focus cluded in the system are a water-softening system
dish (IA Tech 2014) to prevent salt formation in the header pipes and

18
receivers, a pressure reducer station to maintain
consistent steam flow and a diesel-fuelled back-up
system for days of low solar radiation. The system,
through all six of its modules, can generate 3.500
kg of steam per day, which is used for cooking and
Figure 10: Solar steam generation for a big kitchen in Abu Road, Rajasthan, India
Figure 11: Kitchen with solar steam as heat source
¹ http://solarcooking.wikia.com/wiki/Brahma_Kumaris
²Picture: C.Müller
water sterilization. Although originally designed
to supply the energy for cooking 20,000 meals per
day, the system’s output has been sufficient to cook
up to 38,500 meals per day during periods of peak
solar radiation¹.
19
 7 INDUSTRIAL STEAM
PROCESSES
The integration of solar generated steam into an
existing steam supply is straightforward. A feed
pump supplies distilled water to the CSP system.
To achieve this, the pump has to overcome the va-
por pressure inside the steam system. The steam is
then generated directly inside the receiver tubes or
in an external steam generator supplied by the pri-
mary solar circuit (e.g. with thermal oil). If saturated
steam is produced, water has to be separated from
the water steam mixture to supply pure steam to
the process. The hot liquid water returns to the feed
separator
water/steam mix
feed pump
Figure 12: Integration of solar steam to a conventional steam system (IA Tech 2014)
20
pump, where it is mixed with the incoming distilled
water, which replaces the evaporated water. The so-
lar steam is then added to the conventionally gen-
erated steam. According to the demand, system de-
sign and solar radiation the fossil-fueled boiler must
be capable to deliver between 0% and 100% of the
steam demand. To reduce the necessity of fossil fu-
els and to provide a more constant supply, the solar
steam can be stored in a Ruths storage, before feed-
ing it into the local distribution system.
Steam
Solar steam
P const
120-500°C
conventional
steam generator
fossil fuels
distilled water in
8 SPECIAL CSP
APPLICATIONS
8.1 SOLAR FURNACE
A solar furnace is a structure that uses concentrated
solar power to produce high temperatures, which
can be of interest for special industrial processes
and tests. The largest solar furnace is installed at
Odeillo in France, where it began operation in 1970.
It consists of an array of plane mirrors, which reflect
onto a larger curved mirror. The rays are then fo-
cused onto a spot with about 0.3 m diameter. The
temperature in the focal point can be adapted to
the requirements of the process:
• 1,000°C for testing metallic receivers producing
hot air for solar towers¹
• 1,400 °C to produce hydrogen by cracking
methane molecules
• 2,500 °C to test materials for extreme
environments, such as nuclear reactors or space
vehicle atmospheric reentry
• 3,500 °C to produce nanomaterial by solar
induced sublimation and controlled cooling, such
as carbon nanotubes or zinc nanoparticles
Further tests, which can be offered in combination
with a solar furnace, are stress tests of solar cells for
satellite power supplies and material testing at high
heating/ cooling rates and high temperatures in
an oxidizing atmosphere². There are no limitations
regarding heating elements or walls like at conven-
tional ovens.
8.2 SOLAR CHEMISTRY
The main focus of solar chemistry lies on the pro-
duction of hydrogen by thermo-chemical and pho-
to-electrochemical processes. One way to obtain
storable and transportable fuels from solar energy is
by thermo-chemical means. Some potentially viable
processes for the production of hydrogen with solar
thermal energy have already been proven success-
fully in pilot-scale demonstrations projects. Direct
¹ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_furnace
² http://www.dlr.de/sf/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-8558/14717_read-28267/
³ http://www.dlr.de/sf/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-7159/11923_read-28158/
thermal water splitting is not likely to be feasible
because of material issues, but thermo-chemical cy-
cles can offer future opportunities. The efficiencies
of those cycles make it likely, that the capability to
provide large amounts of hydrogen will be tested
in future demonstration plants. The future compet-
itiveness of solar fuel production is closely related
to two factors though, the future cost of fossil fuels
and the regulation of CO2 emissions. The economic
feasibility of large scale solar hydrogen production
has been investigated in numerous studies, which
indicate that the solar thermo-chemical production
of hydrogen can be competitive compared with the
electrolysis of water using solar-generated electric-
ity. Following processes for solar thermal hydrogen
and fuel production have realistic chances to come
into application one day³ :
• Solar thermo-chemical cycles
• Solar reforming of methane
• Solar heated high temperature electrolysis of
water
• Photo-catalytic water splitting
8.3 SOLAR WATER DESALINATION
A series of conventional, thermal desalination plants
on the basis of a Multi-Stage-Flash (MSF)- and Mul-
tiple-Effect Desalination (MED)- process have been
powered by solar thermal power plants. First plants
already have been in operation since 1970. The en-
ergetic efficiency of conventional MED- and MSF-
plants can be improved by increasing the number
of stages. This way the space requirement and cost
on the solar side are kept low. The higher financial
effort on the improvement of the efficiency on the
desalination side has to be compared with the cost
savings on the solar side. The water costs of MED
plants powered by solar thermal energy lies accord-
ing to its size between 2 to 7 €/m³ (5000 m³/d and 80
m³/d). Following table 2 shows a list of solar thermal
driven desalination units:
21
 Location Solar plant type Desalination process Daily production [m³/d]

El Paso, Texas/USA Solar Pond MSF 16

La Paz, Mexico Flat plate & MSF 10

concentrating

Yanbu, Saudi Arabia Dish Freezing 200

Gillen Bore, Australia PV Brackish water RO 1,2

La Desired Island Vacuum tube MED 40

Abu Dhabi, UAE, 1985 Vacuum tube MED, 18 stages 120 (8$/m³)

Kuwait, 1987 MSF + RO 25 + 45

Kuwait, 1980 Parabolic trough, 220 m² MSF, self-regulating 100

Arabic Golf, 1987 Parabolic trough MED 6000

Al-Ain, UAE Parabolic trough MED 55 stages 500

MSF 75 stages

Takami Island, Japan Parabolic trough MED 16

PSA, Almeria, Spain Parabolic trough 2672 m² ME-heat pump 72 (3,5 Euro/m³)

Margarita de Savoya, Italy Solar Pond MSF 50 - 60

Kap Verde Solar Pond Atlantis “AutoFlash” 300

Universidad Ancona, Italy Solar Pond MED - VC 28

Dead sea Solar Pond, 250.000m² MED 3000

Lampedusa, Italy Low concentrating MSF 72 + 48

Gran Canaria, Spain Low concentrating MSF 10

Table 2: List of solar powered desalination units

Especially attractive is the co-generation of elec-
tricity and distilled water in a solar thermal power
plant, using the waste heat for a subsequent MSF-
or MED-process. By using the waste heat of the va-
por turbine a double benefit is created, which can
help to accelerate the introduction of solar thermal
power plants. With this double benefit the relatively
high investment costs of solar thermal power plants
become economically feasible even at low feed in
tariffs (<0.07- 0.08 US$/kWh). The increase of the
condenser temperature and the lower temperature
difference in the turbine cycle will cause a reduction
in the electricity production though. According to
the location, the specific water costs for solar de-
salinated water in combination with solar electricity
generation lies between 0.74 und 1.79 US$/m³ in
the Mediterranean region¹.

¹ Trieb, F., „Solarthermische Kraftwerke mit Meerwasserentsalzung“, Vortrag DME, 4/2005

22
9 CONCLUSION

CSP can play an important role in industrial process

heat applications. About 40% of the heat needed
for example in European industry is located in a tem-
perature range of up to 400°C, a range in which CSP
technologies can contribute a significant amount
of energy. Nevertheless, it has to be evaluated from
case to case, if CSP is economically feasible. Many
factors like process temperatures, amount and year-
ly distribution of direct radiation and space require-
ments have to be evaluated, to be able to decide if
CSP is the preferred technology compared to non
concentrating solar technologies. The complexity
and big variety of industrial processes still require a
high effort in planning, integration and installation
of CSP systems. As CSP in industrial processes is still
in the early stages, subsidy programs and demon-
stration projects could help to overcome inhibitions
and information deficit. With increasing experience,
planning effort and costs will be reduced and the in-
tegration of CSP systems will be simplified. Positive
examples from all over the world show already, that
CSP can offer a sustainable and economic solution
for heat supply.

23
 ANNEX
TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CSP TECHNOLOGIES

PARABOLIC TROUGH
Size small (1-2m small (1-2m medium (2- medium (2- medium (2-5m big (5-8m
width) width) 5m width) 5m width) width) width)
Heat transfer thermal oil hot water/ thermal oil direct steam molten salt thermal oil
media steam
State of art commercial commercial commercial commercial commercial demonstration
since 2008 since 2004 since 1984 since 2012 since 2010 plant since 2009
Tmin [°C] <0 100 <0 100 142 <0
Tmax [°C] 390 250 390 500 535 390
Pressure [bar] 15 40 (vapour 30 110 (vapour 1 30
(pressuredrop) pressure) (pressuredrop) pressure) (pressuredrop)
Space 3000 3000 3600 n.a. 4000 3100
requirement
[m²/MWth]
Roof top Yes Yes No No No No
Thermal power 0,05 to 20 0,05 to 20 20 to 1000 20 to 1000 20 to 1000 200 to 1000
[MWth]
Storage water/Ruths water/Ruths molten salt Ruths tank molten salt molten salt
tank tank
Products or Polytrough PTC 1100/ Kramer TSE 1 plant Archimede "Heliotrough by
Demoprojects 1200/ PTC1800 Junction by Solarlite plant by Enel Flagsol,
Polytrough by Solitem, power plant Ultimate Trough
1800 by NEP SOLARLITE by SBP"
solar 2300 by
Solarlite

FRESNEL REFLECTOR
Size small (<10m width) small (<10m width) big (>10m width) big (>10m width)
Heat transfer media thermal oil hot water/steam steam molten salt
State of art Commercial since Commercial since Commercial since 2008 Demonstration plant
2005 2006 2013
Tmin [°C] <0 100 100 142
Tmax [°C] 390 300 400 535
Pressure [bar] ~15 (pressuredrop) 45 (vapour pressure) 106 (vapour pressure) 1
Space requirement 2400 2400 1600 n.a.
[m²/MWth]
Roof top Yes Yes No No
Thermal power 0,05 to 5 0,05 to 5 5 to 50 5 to 50
[MWth]
Storage Ruths tank Ruths tank molten salt
Products or PSE AG PSE AG , Solar Kimberlina plant by Novatec solar, Areva
Demoprojects Euromed (AF1) Areva Solar, Novatec Solar
Solar (Nova-1)

24
CENTRAL RECEIVER
Size small medium medium medium
Heat transfer media compressed air steam molten salt ambient air
State of art Commercial since Commercial since Commercial since 2011 Demonstration
2009 2007 plants since 2008
Tmin [°C] 500 100 150 500
Tmax [°C] 1000 300 565 680
Pressure [bar] n.a. 45 (vapour pressure) 1 n.a.
Space requirement n.a. 45 (vapour pressure) 1 n.a.
[m²/MWth]
Roof top n.a. No No No
Thermal power 0,3 to 10 10 to 200 10 to 200 10 to 200
[MWth]
Storage pressurized water molten salt ceramic heat sink
Products or Aora Solar PS 10 Gemasolaire by Torresol Solarturm Jülich by
Demoprojects Energy KAM

Dish
Size small
Heat transfer media hot water/steam
State of art Commercial since 1997
Tmin [°C] 100
Tmax [°C] 255
Pressure [bar] 41 (vapour pressure)
Space requirement [m²/MWth] 3700
Roof top Yes
Thermal power [MWth] 0,05 to 30
Storage Ruths tank, solid mass
Products or Demoprojects WRST power plant, Simply Solar
Ministério da