Lecture 2

Signal conditioning Circuits

• Sensor output does not take the form of an electrical
voltage in many cases.

• Therefore need to have a means of converting sensor

outputs that are initially in some Non voltage form into a
more convenient form. This can be achieved by putting
various types of variable conversion elements into the
measurement system
1
fetene
 Bridge Circuits:
Bridge circuits are used very commonly as a variable
conversion element in measurement systems and produce an
output in the form of a voltage level that changes as the
measured physical quantity changes.
They provide an accurate method of measuring resistance,
inductance, and capacitance values and enable the detection
of very small changes in these quantities about a nominal
value.
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GENERAL BALANCE EQUA TION FOR FOUR-ARM BRIDGE
An ac bridge in its general form is shown in Figure 6.1, with the
four arms being represented by four unspecified impedances Z1,
Z2, Z3 and Z4.

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Balance in the bridge is secured by adjusting one or more of
the bridge arms. Balance is indicated by zero response of
the detector. At balance, no current flows through the
detector, i.e. there is no potential difference across the
detector , or in other words, the potentials at points B and C
are the same. This will be achieved if the voltage drop
from A to B equals the voltage drop from A to C, both in
magnitude and phase.

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Combining Eqs. we have

When using admittances in place of impedances

Re-writing the expressions in polar form, impedances can be

expressed as

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1. Null-Type dc Bridge (Wheatstone Bridge)

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A null-type bridge with d.c. excitation, known
commonly as a Wheatstone bridge, has the form shown
in Figure. The four arms of the bridge consist of the
unknown resistance Ru, two equal value resistors
R2and R3, and variable resistor Rv. A d.c. voltage Vi is
applied across the points AC, and resistance Rv is
varied until the voltage measured across points BD is
zero. This null point is usually measured with a high
sensitivity galvanometer.
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To analyze the Whetstone bridge, define the current flowing in
each arm to be I1....I4 as shown in Figure
Normally, if a high impedance voltage-measuring instrument is
used, current Im drawn by the measuring instrument will be very
small and can be approximated to zero. If this assumption is
made, then, for Im=0, I1=I3 and I2=I4.
Looking at path ADC, we have voltage Vi applied across
resistance Ru + R3 and by Ohm’s law:

Similarly, for path ABC,

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Now we can calculate the voltage drop across AD and AB:

By the principle of superposition,

Thus,

At the null point Vo = 0, so

Inverting both sides,

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 that is,

Or

Thus, if R2 = R3, then Ru = Rv. As Rv is an accurately known

A null-type bridge is somewhat tedious to use as careful adjustment of
variable resistance is needed to get exactly to the null point. However,
it provides a highly accurate measurement of resistance, leading to
this being the preferred type when sensors are being calibrated.

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2. Deflection-Type d.c. Bridge

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A deflection type bridge with d.c. excitation is shown in Figure.
This differs from the Wheatstone bridge mainly in that variable
resistance Rv is replaced by fixed resistance R1of the same value
as the nominal value of unknown resistance Ru. As resistance Ru
changes, so output voltageV0 varies, and this relationship
betweenV0 and Ru must be calculated.
This relationship is simplified if we again assume that a high
impedance voltage-measuring instrument is used and the current
drawn by it, Im, can be approximated to zero.

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The analysis is then exactly the same as for the preceding example of
the Wheatstone bridge, except that Rv is replaced by R1.

When Ru is at its nominal value, that is, for Ru = R1, it is clear that
V0 = 0 (sinceR2 = R3). For other values of Ru, V0 has negative and
positive values that vary in a nonlinear way with Ru.

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The deflection-type bridge is somewhat easier to use than a null-

type bridge because the output measurement is given directly in

the form of a voltage measurement. However, its measurement

accuracy is not as good as that of a null-type bridge.

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Example

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16
A.C bridges
Bridges with a.c. excitation are used to measure unknown impedances
(capacitances and inductances). Both null and deflection types exist.
As for d.c. bridges, null types are more accurate

1. Null-type impedance bridge

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A typical null-type impedance bridge is shown in Figure above.
The null point can be detected conveniently by monitoring the
output with a pair of headphones connected via an operational
amplifier across points BD. This is a much less expensive
method of null detection than application of an expensive
galvanometer required for a d.c. Wheatstone bridge
Referring to Figure, at the null point, I1R1=I2R2; I1Zu=I2Zv
Thus,

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2. Maxwell bridge
A Maxwell bridge is shown in Figure. The requirement for a
variable inductance box is avoided by introducing instead a
second variable resistance. The circuit requires one standard
fixed-value capacitor, two variable resistance boxes, and one
standard fixed-value resistor, all of which are components that
are readily available and inexpensive.

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Referring to Figure, we have at the null output point:

The quantities in Equation have the following values:

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Substituting the values in to Equation,

Taking real and imaginary parts:

quality factor ( Q value) of the coil:

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Example

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Deflection-type a.c. bridge

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 Deflection-type a.c. bridge
A common deflection type of a.c. bridge circuit is shown in Figure

For capacitance measurement:

For inductance measurement
Analysis of the circuit to find the relationship betweenV0andZuis
simplified greatly if one assumes that Im is negligible.

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25
Example

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Example

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Instrumentation Amplifier
Many industrial and medical applications use instrumentation amplifiers (INAs)
to condition small signals in the presence of large common-mode voltages and
DC potentials.

Differential Amplifier

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Most instrumentation amplifiers are actually built with 3 op amps.

vo

Consider a simplified case in which all resistors are the same

(except Rgain) and vref = 0.

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Front End of Instrumentation Amplifier

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Back End of Instrumentation Amplifier

Using the results from the previous page,

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 A/D and D/A converters
Analogue-To-Digital Converters
Important factors in the design of an analogue-to-digital converter
are the speed of conversion and the number of digital bits used
to represent the analogue signal level.
In order to change an analog signal to digital, the input analog signal is
sampled at a high rate of speed.
The amplitude at each of those sampled moments is converted into a
number equivalent – this is called quantization.
These numbers are simply the combinations of the 0s and 1s used in
computer language – this called encoding.

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33
 2-Step Process of Analogue-To-Digital Converters

• Quantizing- breaking down analog value to set of

finite states
• Encoding - assigning a digital word or number to
each state

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 Step 1: Quantizing
Example: a 3 bit A/D , N=23=8 (no. of steps)

Output Discrete Voltage

0-10V signals.
Separated into discrete
states with 1.25V
increments.
Analog quantization
size:
Q=(Vmax-Vmin)/N =
(10V – 0V)/8 = 1.25V
States Ranges (V)
0 0.00-1.25
1 1.25-2.50
2 2.50-3.75
3 3.75-5.00
4 5.00-6.25
5 6.25-7.50
6 7.50-8.75
7 8.75-10.0
 Encoding
give value to each state

Output Output Binary Equivalent

States
0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
 A/D Conversion - Types
• Can be classified in four groups:
– Integrator:
• Charges a capacitor for a given amount of time using the analog
signal.
• It discharges back to zero with a known voltage and the counter
provides the value of the unknown signal.
• Provides slow conversion but low noise.
• Often used in monitoring devices (e.g., voltmeters)

– Flash: uses multiple comparators in parallel.

• The known signal is connected to one side of the comparator and the
analog signal to be converted to the other side of the comparator.
• The output of the comparators provides the digital value.
• This is a high-speed, high cost converter.
 A/D Conversion
• Flash Converter
– The circuit consists of 4 comparators
whose inverting inputs are connected
to a voltage divider.
– A comparator is basically an
operational amplifier used without
feedback.
– The outputs of the comparators
correspond to a digital word.
– When the input rises above Vn1 , the
first comparator will switch to a high
output voltage causing the LED to
light up, indicating a (0001).
– For larger input voltages the output of
other comparators will switch high as
well. For large input voltages (above
Vn3) all comparators will be high
corresponding to (1111) digital
output.
 A/D Conversion
– Successive approximation: Includes a
D/A (digital to analog) converter and a
comparator. An internal analog signal
is generated by turning on successive
bits in the D/A converter.

– Counter: Similar to a successive

approximation converter except that
the internal analog signal is generated
by a counter starting at zero and
feeding it to the D/A converter.
 Sample and Hold
Circuit
• If the input voltage to an A/D converter is variable,
the digital output is likely to be unreliable and
unstable. Therefore, the varying voltage source is
connected to the ADC through a sample and hold
circuit.
• Basic Operation: ADG1211 Switch

– When the switch is connected, it samples the input

voltage.
 When the switch is open, it holds the sampled voltage by charging the capacitor.
 Acquisition time: time to charge the capacitor after the switch is open and settle
the output.
 Conversion time: total time needed from the start of a conversion (turning on the
MSB in the SAR) until the end of the conversion (turning on/off Bit0 in the SAR)
- TAD: conversion time per bit.
 Digital to Analog (D/A, DAC, or
D-to-A) Conversion
• Converting discrete signals into discrete
analog values that represent the magnitude
of the input signal compared to a standard
or reference voltage
– The output of the DAC is discrete analog steps.
– By increasing the resolution (number of bits),
the step size is reduced, and the output
approximates a continuous analog signal.
 Digital to Analog Conversion
• The resolution of a DAC is
defined in terms of bits—the same
way as in ADC.
• The values of LSB, MSB, and
full-scale voltages calculated the
same way as in the ADC.
• The largest input signal 111 is
equivalent of 7/8 of the full-scale
analog value.
 D/A Converter Circuits
• Can be designed using an operational amplifier
and appropriate combination of resistors
• Resistors connected to data bits are in binary
weighted proportion, and each is twice the value
of the previous one.
• Each input signal can be connected to the op amp
by turning on its switch to the reference voltage
that represents logic 1.
– If the switch is off, the input signal is logic 0.
 D/A Converter Circuits (2 of 4)
• 3-bit D/A Converter
Circuit

The transfer function of the summing amplifier :

vo = -(v1/R1 + v2/R2 + … + vn/Rn)Rf
Thus if all input resistors are equal, the output is
a scaled sum of all inputs.
If they are different, the output is a weighted
linear sum of all inputs.

Summing amplifier
• R/2R Ladder Network for D/A Converter
 D/A Converter Circuits
• If the reference voltage is 1 V, and if all switches are
connected, the output current can be calculated as
follows:
VREF VREF VREF VREF  1 1 1 
Io  IT  I1  I 2  I3          0.875 mA
R1 R2 R3 1k  2 4 8 
• Output voltage
VO  Rf IT  (1k)(0.875mA)  0.875 V  7 V
8
 D/A Converters as Integrated
Circuits
• D/A converters are available
commercially as integrated circuits
• Can be classified in three categories.
– Current output, voltage output, and
multiplying type
• Current output DAC provides the current IO
as output signal
• Voltage output D/A converts IO into voltage
internally by using an op amp and provides
the voltage as output signal
• In multiplying DAC, the output is product of
the input voltage and the reference source
VREF.
– Conceptually, all three types are similar
 Vref = 5V

Example

• What will be the analog equivalent of 1001 0001?

 What is a Multiplexer (MUX)?
• A MUX is a digital switch that
Multiplexer
has multiple inputs (sources) and Block Diagram
a single output (destination).
• The select lines determine which
input is connected to the output. 2N 1

MUX
Inputs Output
(sources) (destination)
• MUX Types
 2-to-1 (1 select line)
 4-to-1 (2 select lines) N
 8-to-1 (3 select lines)
Select
 16-to-1 (4 select lines) Lines

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 Typical Application of a MUX
Multiple Sources Selector Single Destination

MP3 Player
Docking Station

D0
Laptop

MUX
D1
Sound Card Y
D2

D3

Surround Sound System

Digital B A Selected Source

Satellite
0 0 MP3
0 1 Laptop
1 0 Satellite
Digital
1 1 Cable TV
Cable TV
4-to-1 Multiplexer (MUX)
D0

MUX
D1
Y
D2

D3

B A

B A Y

0 0 D0

0 1 D1

1 0 D2

1 1 D3

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 4-to-1 Multiplexer Waveforms
D0

D1
Input
Data
D2

D3

A
Select
Line
B

Output
Y Data
D0 D1 D2 D3 D0 D1 D2 D3 51
 Medium Scale Integration MUX
4-to-1 MUX 8-to-1 MUX 16-to-1 MUX

Inputs Output (Y)

(and inverted output)

Select
Enable

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What is a Demultiplexer (DEMUX)?
• A DEMUX is a digital switch Demultiplexer
with a single input (source) and Block Diagram
a multiple outputs
(destinations).

DEMUX
• The select lines determine 1 2N
Input Outputs
which output the input is (source) (destinations)

connected to.
• DEMUX Types N
 1-to-2 (1 select line) Select
 1-to-4 (2 select lines) Lines
 1-to-8 (3 select lines)
 1-to-16 (4 select lines)
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Typical Application of a DEMUX
Single Source Selector Multiple Destinations

B/W Laser
Printer

Fax
Machine

D0

DEMUX
X D1

D2 Color Inkjet
Printer
D3

B A Selected Destination
0 0 B/W Laser Printer Pen
Plotter
0 1 Fax Machine
1 0 Color Inkjet Printer
1 1 Pen Plotter
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1-to-4 De-Multiplexer (DEMUX)
D0

DEMUX
D1
X
D2

D3

B A

B A D0 D1 D2 D3

0 0 X 0 0 0

0 1 0 X 0 0

1 0 0 0 X 0

1 1 0 0 0 X

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 1-to-4 De-Multiplexer Waveforms
X Input
Data

S0
Select
Line
S1

D0

D1
Output
Data
D2

D3
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 Medium Scale Integration DEMUX

1-to-4 DEMUX 1-to-8 DEMUX 16-to-1 MUX

Select
Outputs
(inverted)
Input
(inverted)

Note : Most Medium Scale Integrated (MSI) DEMUXs , like

the three shown, have outputs that are inverted. This is done
because it requires few logic gates to implement DEMUXs
with inverted outputs rather than no-inverted outputs.
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Data Acquisition System
A data acquisition system is a device or an integrated system used to
collect information about the state or condition of various parameters
of any process.
Now a days, most data acquisition systems are integrated with
computer, sensors, signal conditioning devices, etc. and the function
of these kind of data acquisition systems varies for simple recording
of process parameter to control of industrial system.
These kinds of systems basically have a hardware and a software
part. The hardware part consists of a sensor, signal conditioning,
analog-to-digital converter, memory, processor, switches, digital-to-
analog converter, etc. and the software part consist, of operating
system, editor, graph display program and data processing software,
etc.

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Data acquisition is the process by which physical
phenomena from the real world are transformed into
electrical signals that are measured and converted into a
digital format for processing, analyzing, and storage by a
computer
DAS is used in the most of the mechatronics applications,
automation, automobile applications, biomedical high accuracy
measurement and monitoring devices, etc.
DAS is made of three major components: transducer, signal
conditioner and processor. 59
 BASIC COMPONENTS OF DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
The basic elements of a data acquisition system
 Sensors and transducers
 Field wiring
 Signal conditioning
 Data acquisition hardware
 PC (operating system)
 Data acquisition software

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We can think of a data acquisition system as a collection of
software and hardware that connects us to the physical world.
A typical data acquisition system consists of these components.

Data acquisition hardware

The main function of this hardware is to convert analog signals to
digital signals, and to convert processed digital signals to analog
signals.
Sensors and actuators (transducers)
Transducer/Sensor converts input energy from one form to another
form. For example, a thermocouple converts heat energy into
electrical. An actuator also converts energy from one form to
another, which is often connected at the output of a data acquisition
system in order to manipulate The final control element.

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Signal conditioning
Sensor signals are often not compatible with data acquisition
hardware. T o overcome this incompatibility, the signal must be
conditioned. For example, we may need to condition the thermocouple
output signal by amplifying it or by removing unwanted frequency
components. Output signals may also need conditioning.
Computer
The computer provides a processor, a system clock, a bus to
transfer data, and memory and disk space to store data.
Software
It allows exchanging information between the computer and the
hardware. For example, typical software allows us to configure the
sampling rate of our board, and acquire a predefined amountof data.

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