Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Heat Transfer Through Building Envelope
Heat Transfer Through Building Envelope
Heat gain or loss in buildings is due to heat transfer through walls, roof, ceiling, floor, and
glass etc., i.e., the building fabric or envelope. The load due to such heat transfer is often
referred to as the envelope heat gain or loss. In this connection, it is to be considered whether a
particular wall or roof is exposed (normal or severe exposure) to the sun or not. In the case of a
sunlit wall or roof, the heat gain of the room will be more in comparison to a shaded one, as the
outside surface temperature of the wall or roof will increase above the outside air temperature
due to the incident solar radiation. The major components of heat load in buildings are due to
the direct solar radiation through the west glass, transmission through the building fabric or
structure and fresh air for ventilation. In the case of theater and auditoriums the occupancy load
is predominant. The maximum temperature may occur outside at 1 or 2 p.m., the maximum
heat gain of the room may occur at 3 or 4 p.m. due to the time lag for the heat transfer through
the structure.
Majority of Heat transfer takes place in buildings through building envelope. Building
envelope consists of walls, roof, and fenestrations (openings). Heat transfers through walls and
roof is by conduction and is through conduction and radiation in glazing materials. Heat loads
are generated through convection which is termed as ventilation load. There are also internal
loads inside the building due to occupancy, lighting and heat loads due to air conditioning
equipment if any, to maintain indoor comfort. Fig 3.1 shows the heat transfer in buildings.
Heat transfer through a material takes place by conduction from warm to cold side. The
same process takes place in a building. Generally the thermal conductivity of the building
materials will be much lower. In solid bodies including building components, thermal
conduction takes place when one part of the component is subjected to higher temperature and
Most cases of thermal conduction are usually analysed and treated in their simplified form
as one dimensional heat flow cases, i.e. heat flow in directions other than the main direction is
neglected. Similarly, if the changes in atmospheric conditions (inside and I or outside) are
assumed to be very slow, neglecting these changes, the process of heat transfer can be assumed
When heat is transported by a fluid, like air or water, this is called convection. The extent of
convective heat transfer depends on a number of things, like the position of the surface
(horizontal or vertical), but mainly on the speed of the passing air. The speed in outdoors is
determined by wind speed and direction. When the air is driven by an outside wind force, this
When there is no wind, convection will occur by temperature or density differences. This is
called "free convection". The example of the hot air ascending above a radiator is an example
of free convection. Room air is heated by the radiator and ascends because the density of the
hot air next to the radiator is lower than the density of the cooler air in the rest of the room.
This results in the warmer air rising, and being displaced by the cooler air. The heat transfer
through forced convection is higher than that due to free convection, because of higher air
speed.
electromagnetic waves. Unlike conduction and convection, radiation heat transfer is not bound
with material, it can even occur through vacuum. Every body whose temperature is above
absolute zero radiates energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The spectral distribution
of the energy radiated from any body depends on the temperature of its surface. The higher the
temperature of the body, the lower is the wavelength of the radiation that makes the major
Since the temperature of most building components and their surroundings are much less as
compared to heat of the sun, the spectral distribution of their emitted radiation has more share
of larger wavelength. It means radiation emitted from such bodies is thermal radiation. In heat
transfer due to radiation the rate of heat flow depends on the temperatures of the emitting and
receiving surfaces and on certain qualities of these surfaces: the emittance and absorbance.
Radiation received by a surface can partly be absorbed and partly be reflected. Heat is
transferred into the building through radiation from the glass provided for fenestrations
(openings).
Sensible Heat is defined as the heat energy stored in a substance as a result of an increase in
Latent Heat is defined as the heat which flows to or from a material without a change to
temperature. The heat will only change the structure or phase of the material. E.g. melting or
boiling of pure materials. The heat is released or absorbed per unit mass by a system in a
(or condensation), fusion (melting), and sublimation of water substance are of importance.
3.2 Heat loads in the interior of the building:
Steady state conditions do not occur in nature. The equation and calculation methods given
below are valid if and only if, both out-door and indoor temperatures are constant. The basis of
the below mentioned methods is the assumption of steady state conditions. This is an obvious
simplification of the actual situation but the results can be taken as reliable if the fluctuations of
temperature do not exceed f 3 deg. C. Such a situation may prevail in the winter of moderdte
climates when the interior is heated and kept at a given temperature or in a warm-humid
Calculations based on steady state assumptions are useful to determine the rate of heat loss
or heat gain, also for the purpose of establishing the size and capacity of heating and cooling
installations. The steady state calculation methods can also be considered as preliminary
studies, to lead up to the understanding of the more complex non-steady-state heat transfer
problems.
Conduction heat flow rate through a wall of given area can be calculated using
A = surface area in m2
For a building, enclosed by various elements and a possible temperature difference varying
from side to side, the above equation is solved for each element and the results are added.
U value (transmittance coefficient) is air to air transmittance and its unit of measurement is
wlm2. This is the quantity most often used in building in heat loss and heat gain problems as its
use greatly simplifies the calculations. Some of the values are listed in Appendix A.1. If the
construction is different from the type of construction given in A.1, then the U value (refer 3.4)
Convention heat flow between the interior of a building and the open air, depends on the
rate of ventilation i.e. air exchange. This may be unintentional air infiltration or may be
There are two methods of estimating the infiltration into buildings. They are
Crack method
In the crack method the estimate is based on measured leakage characteristics and the width
and length of the crack around the windows and doors. The air change method assumes a
certain number of air changes per hour for each space depending on its usage, 'I'he crack
method is generally regarded as more accurate method and is used in case of windows. The air
change method is more convenient to use in case of doors. The leakage of air in this case is a
hction of the wind pressure Ap which can be determined by knowing the wind velocity C
pressure difference between the outside and inside air to evaluate the infiltration rate.
guide publishes data that indicates that wind pressure causes a leakage of air even through brick
and concrete walls. Its numerical value is, however, very small. For example, for a 21.5cm
plastered brick wall at 24kmph wind velocity, it is only 0.000356 cmm.sqm of the wall area
The ventilation air requirements, depending on individual applications are given in Table3,l
The minimum requirement is taken as 0.2 cmm (cubic meter per minute per person). This is
based on population density of 5 to 7.5 sqm per person and a ceiling height of 2.4m. When
people are smoking, the minimum ventilation requirement is 0.4 to 0.7 cmm per person.
In air conditioned buildings as pressure inside the building is more when compared to out
doors, infiltration doesn't take place and hence this load is neglected. Instead of this the heat
Direct Gain: Qs = A I 0
A = area of window in m2
The values of I (solar radiation) are computed from tables A 3 provided in appendix.
'0' is the solar gain factor which varies from material to material and is detined as the heat flow
rate through the construction due to solar radiation expressed as a fraction of the incident solar
radiation.
3.2.4 lnternal Heat Gains:
The sensible and latent heat gains due to occupants, lights, appliances, machines, piping,
etc., within the conditional space, form the components of the internal heat gains.
Occupancy Load
The occupants in a conditional space give out heat at a metabolic rate that more or less
depends on their rate of working. The relative proportion of the sensible and latent heats given
out, however, depends on the ambient dry bulb temperature. The lower the dry bulb
Typical values of heat given out are given in Table 3.2 .The values for restaurants include
the heat given out by food as well. It will be seen that the sensible heat (SH) gain does not vary
much with activity, more and more heat being liberated as latent heat (LH), thus making up for
total heat.
Electric lights generate sensible heat equal to the amount of the electric power consumed.
Most of the energy is liberated as heat, and the rest as light which also eventually becomes heat
Lighting manufacturers give some guidance as to the requirement of power for different
may be stated that the electric power absorbed at the fitting is about 25 percent more than
necessary to produce the required lighting. Thus, a 60 W tube will need 75 W at the fitting.
As a rough calculation, one may use the lighting load equal to 33.5 w/m2 to produce a
lighting standard of 540 lurnens/m2 in an ofice space; minimum wattage required is 20 wlm2.
After the wattage is known, the calculation of the heat gain is done as follows.
Appliances Load
Most appliances contribute both sensible and latent heats. The latent heat produced depends on
the function the appliances perform, such as drying, cooking, etc. Gas appliances produce
additional moisture as product of combustion. Some of the heat loads generated by appliances
The effect of the bypass factor is such as to add some arnount(X) of the outside air directly
to the room and remaining air (I-X) to pass through the apparatus. Thus we can say that a part
of the ventilation load forms a component of the room load. This bypassed outside air load is
proportional to the bypass factor. It has both sensible and latent heat components. The other
part which is proportional to (1 - X) has both sensible and latent, which is bypassed around the
SH = (OASH) (BPF)
LH = (OALH) (BPF)
SH = sensible heat
These loads are imposed on the room in exactly the same manner as the infiltration load.
Infiltration
Supply duct heat gain, supply duct leakage loss and fan horsepower.
The sum of items above gives the effective room sensible heat (ERSH).
Infiltration
a Vapour transmission.
The sum of above items gives the effective room latent heat (ERLH)
The sum of effective room sensible heat and effective room latent heat gives the total heat
The conduction heat transfer through the wall or roof will depend on the thickness and the
thermal conductivity of the material used. In addition, there will be convection and radiation
from both the outside and inside surfaces. Hence, the steady-state heat transfer is expressed in
terms of as overall heat transfer coefficient U and the overall temperature difference between
the outside and inside AtE = (fO - ti) as given by Eq.(3.1). Also, the wall may consist of
composite layers of different materials including insulation. In that case, U will incorporate the
In the first instance, therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the value of the overall heat-
transfer coefficient U. Further, since the outside air temperature and solar radiation vary almost
periodically over the 24 hours, it is required to establish a method to evaluate the transient heat
transfer instead of using Eq.3.1 which is only applicable to steady-state heat transfer.
insulating materials. Also, the outside and inside wall surfaces may exchange heat by
convection and radiation with the surrounding atmosphere. Thus, there will be more than one
thermal resistance to heat transfer. Taking into account the number of layers of different
materials with varying thickness Ax and thermal conductivity k, we have for the overall heat
At
q = UAt = -
R
So that the overall heat-transfer coefficient may be calculated from the relation
In Eq.3.9, conductance C has been included which are equivalent to the value of k I Ax for a
material. For some materials such as plaster, hollow tiles, etc., data is available in the form of
conductance C instead of the thermal conductivity k. These values of C are only applicable to
coefficients for combined convection and radiation for the outside and inside wall surfaces
respectively. These terms are also referred to as surface conductance and available in appendix
A.4
The properties of thermal conductivity, conductance, specific heat, density, etc., are referred
to as thermo physical properties. The same for the common building and insulating materials
Following example is worked out to understand how to calculate U value for any composite
Concrete 24000 ~ / m ~
Plaster 18850 ~ / m ~
U = 0.63 W mS K'
Occupancy : 100No
fo = 23 w m" K-I
fi = 7 ~ r n - ~ ~ '
Outside wall
Partition wall
Roof
Floor
The position of the sun is described by its altitude and azimuth angles. These angles can be
The solar chart is a graphical representation of the paths of the sun in the sky for various days
in the year. Fourteen such charts, one for each of the 14 latitudes, viz. 9", 1 lo, 13", 15", 17",
19O, 21°, 23", 2S0, 27O, 2g0, 31°, 33" and 35" N covering India are presented in the Climatic
hand book published by CBRI, Roorkee. Figure 3.2 shows the sun path diagram for Bangalore
The radial lines depict the solar azimuth and the concentric circles indicate the solar altitudes.
The center of the chart represents the zenith and the outermost circle, the horizon. The radial
graduations marked on the circumference denote the azimuth angles measurcd from north.
Series of curved lines running from east to west depict the sun's path for selected days of each
month, including the days of solstices and equinox. These lines are crossed by another series of
curved lines which represent the hour lines. The hours are integral values by the local solar
time. The point of intersection of the sun's path line and the hour line shows the position of the
sun at that hour of that particular day. The figure marked on the concentric circle passing
through this point gives the altitude of the sun and the reading of the point where the radial line
through the aforesaid point meets the scale marked on the perimeter will be the azimuth of the
sun. The position of the sun for dates other than those given in these diagrams can be
determined by interpolation.
Solar radiation values for different latitudes are given in table A.3. The values are listed for
latitudes OOto50°1atitude. The places lying in the intermediate latitudes can be interpolated to
get the solar radiation at that place. Table A3(Appendix) also shows the values for different
surfaces like north ,east, west and south walls as well as north east, south east, south west and
north west walls too. The radiations on roof (horizontal surface) are also listed.
Meat transmission through the walls and roofs of building structures is not steady and is
therefore, difficult to evaluate. The two principal factors causing this are:
r The variation of the solar radiation intensity that is incident upon the surface over a
period of 24 hours.
The phenomenon is M h e r complicated by the fact that a wall has a thermal capacity due to
which a certain amount of heat passing through it is stored and is transmitted to the outside
In nature the variation of climatic conditions produces a non-steady state. Diurnal variations
The effect of this on a building is that in a hot period, heat flows from the environment into the
building where some of it is stored, and at night during the cool period, heat flow is reversed
fiom the building to the environment. As the cycle is repetitive, it can be described as periodic
heat flow.
The diurnal variations of external and internal temperatures during the day occur in a
periodically changing thennal regime. In the morning, as the out-door temperature increases,
heat starts entering the outer surface of the wall. Each particle in the wall will absorb a certain
amount of heat for every degree of rise in temperature; depending on the specific heat of the
wall material. Heat to the next particle will only be transmitted after the temperature of the first
The out-door temperature will have reached its peak and started decreasing, before the inner
surface temperature has reached the same level. From this moment the heat stored in the wall
will be dissipated partly to the outside and only partly to the inside. As the out-door air cools,
an increasing proportion of this stored heat tlows outwards, and when the wall temperature falls
below the indoor temperature the direction of the heat flow is completely reversed.
The two quantities characterizing this periodic change are the tie-lag (or phase shift,+) and
the decrement factor (or amplitude attenuation,^). The latter is the ratio of the maximum outer
and inner surface temperature amplitude taken from the daily mean.
The maximum temperature usually occurs just 2 - 3 hours after solar noon while the
minimum temperatures occur just before sunrise. The outside air temperature to follows nearly
a harmonic variation. The combined effect of the solar radiation and outside air temperature
can be incorporated into a single effective temperatwe. The problem requires a solution of the
Where t is the temperature at any section of the wall at a distance x from the surface at time (z)
Where k is the thermal conductivity and pC is the capacity of the wall, in which p and C are
density and specific heat respectively. Equation 3.10 is to be solved with the boundary
condition of periodic variation of the outside air temperature and solar radiation. The analytical
For calculation of heat transfer through structures, it has been found convenient to combine
the effect of the outside air temperature and incident solar radiation intensity into a single
quantity as was introduced by Mackey and Wright (1943). For the purpose, an expression for
the rate of heat transfer (qd from the environment to the outside surface of the wall may be
written as
surface, a absorptivity of the surface and I the total radiation intensity, as shown in fig.3.3.
Introducing an equivalent temperature t, the heat transfer rate equation may be re-written as
40 = fdtc- t s o ) 3.13
This temperature t, is called the sol-air temperature which is also equivalent temperature and
can be considered as an equivalent outside air temperature such that the total heat transferred is
the same as due to the combined effect of the incident solar radiation and outside air and the
There are two approaches to empirical calculations of heat transfer through walls and roofs.
Both these methods use analytical and experimental results for their formulations. The
engineers as it is also applicable to sunlit walls and roofs and is also less cumbersome.
If the thermal capacity of the wall is ignored, then the instantaneous rate of heat transfer
m C = pCV = pC (AAx)
ti = indoor temperature
It has been seen that there is a two-fold effect of thermal capacity on heat transfer:
There is a time lag between the heat transfer at the outside surface q, and the heat
There is a decrement in the heat transfer due to the absorption of heat by the wall and
subsequent transfer of a part of this heat back to the outside air when its temperature is
lower.
The use of the rigorous analytical method to determine the time lag 4 and decrement factor
h is quite complicated. The use of finite difference approximation for each wall, roof, etc., for
each building is also time-consuming from the point of view of a practicing engineer. Hence
an empirical approach based on the determination of 4 and h for standard wall construction,
It is observed that the specific heat of most construction materials is about 0.84 kJI kg. K.
The thermal capacity of most materials, therefore, essentially depends on their density and
thickness. Fig.3.4 gives values of time lag for three different densities, while in Fig.3.5 the
effect of thickness on the decrement factor has been considered insignificant. In addition to
these figures, Tables 3.5 and 3.6gives values for h and 4 for certain constructions taken from
Consideringthe effect of thermal capacity, the actual heat transfer at any time t is
when te,is the sol -air temperature at timer - 4 i.e. 4 hours before the heat transfer is'to
be calculated.
depending on whether &+ is greater or less than t, I$ hours before. The second term in
Eq(3.18) therefore, represents the periodic component which is equal to the sum of all such
component harmonics.
It is evident that if the wall is thick, the decrement factor will be small as is also seen from
Tables 3.5 and 3.6. For example, from Table 3.5 the decrement factor for a 150mm concrete
roof is 0.48 whereas for a 50mm concrete roof, it is 0.83. Thus in the case of a very thick wall,
the second term on the right hand side in Eq. (3.18) can be ignored so that Eq. (3.16) holds.
This implies that the heat transfer across the wall remains uniform at its mean value
throughout the day. It is, therefore, advantageous to provide thicker walls in buildings that are
not air conditioned. Such buildings will not become excessively hot in summer or extremely
cold in winter.
Opposite conditions prevail when the wall is too thin. In the limiting case, when the wall
thickness approaches zero, the decrement factor h tends to unity and the time lag 9 tends to
i.e., the heat transfer through the wall is equal to its instantaneous value.
Accordingly, for thick wall, the heat gain does not vary much, whereas for thin walls, it
varies considerably over 24 hours, The effect of the type of construction on heat gain is shown
in fig.3.6. It is seen that a light wall with a low thermal capacity having a time lag of about 3
hours has a maximum heat gain at 3 pm., and great variation in heat transfer over a 24 hour
period. A heavier wall with high thermal capacity has a reduced and more uniform heat gain.
The peak value occur much later, say at 12 midnight, with a corresponding t i e lag of 12
hours. A still heavier construction may result in very small and uniform heat-transfer rate.
'nermal Capacity
x ----/---
- -- 1-
8 I2 4 8 12 4 8
N Solar rime, -M
Thus in a locality where the daily range of variation of the outside air temperature is small,
it is immaterial what thickness of wall is provided. But in a locality where the daily range of
temperature is large, it is desirable to have thick walls so as to cut the cooling load in summer
and the heating load in winter. Moreover, such walls will not allow the inside temperature to
rise very much during the day and drop at night, and thus maintains a reasonably uniform and
moderate inside temperature even without air conditioning. Also, in buildings that are not
conditioned, night ventilation helps to maintain them cooler during the day.
Table 3.5 Amplitude Decrement Factor and Time Lag of Shaded Walls
Equation (3.18) for heat transfer through walls and roofs can also be expressed in terms of an
= UA A t ,
So that
Thus AtE when multiplied by AU gives the heat transfer rate. It can be seen that A ~ depends
E
on:
r Decrement factor h and time la&, which in turn depend on the thermo physical
Thus, the equivalent temperature differential approach takes care of the exposure of the wall
or roof to the sun. Tables for AtE are prepared for fixed values oft, and ti, for different types of
constructions, and as a h c t i o n of latitude and t i e for roofs, and latitude, time and orientation
for walls. It will be noticed from these tables A.5 in Appendix, that the effect of density and
wall thickness is incorporated by specifying the mass of the wall per unit area of its cross-
section. Further, it must be pointed out here that these tables have been established from
calculations made on an analogue computer using Schmidt's method( Arora C.P,2000) based
Latitude 40' N, but normally suitable for latitudes 0 to 50° N, for the hottest summer
period.
When there is a departure from these conditions, the following corrections may be applied.
The values of b and ti are additive to A ~ E .Hence add or subtract the difference of t, - ti and
8.3" C.
If the daily range is different from 11.lo C, then apply effective corrections as follows:
c) Maximum correction 2" for medium and 3" for heavy Construction.
Ax = 0.25 m
p = 24000 N lm2
The following table gives the values of equivalent temperature differentials from Table A.5
(Appendix) and those obtained after correction by adding to the values from the table. The
table also gives the calculated values of the heat flux from the relation.
115
In the present study heat loads due to conduction, radiation, transmission gain, and
internal heat gain in the form of both latent heat and sensible heat are accounted for.
(ETD) method.
Heat loads due to infiltration, transmission gain through partition walls, ceiling, floor,
a Infiltration is ignored as pressure inside the building is more and the leakage due to
outdoor air entering the conditioned building does not happen. There is actually no
There is however exfiltration which is equivalent to exhaust of room air. When the
doors are operated it is the indoor conditioned air which goes out.
a Supply duct heat gain and losses in the duct, fan horse power are also ignored as this
heat load remains constant for all the simulations. A factor of safety of 5% of the total
r To calculate internal heat gain, human occupancy is calculated based on the assumption
that 5.5sqm area (as recommended by Time Savers Standard) is required per person,
and one light fixture is required for this area. As the plan area increases the occupancy
and number of light fixtures also increases. This is considered while calculating heat
r lOOW per person is assumed as heat load generated by the appliance the person uses.
75 W per person is the sensible heat and 65W per person is the latent heat assumed in
In the present study heat loads are calculated for different volumes, ranging from
east-west orientations, and percentage fenestrations on each of the walls and varying
Length to Breadth ratios for the same orientation and plan area. Approximately 850
combinations of the above parameters are considered and heat loads are computed.