Module 2: Mathematical

Expressions

Section 1: Polynomial expressions

Prepared by Albert Tang

Part I:
Revisions – Polynomial
expressions

Prepared by Albert Tang

Learning outcomes
i. Adding and subtracting polynomials
ii. Multiplying two polynomials
iii. Special products
What is a polynomial?
• A polynomial is a single term or the sum of two or
more terms containing variables with whole-number
(non-negative) exponents. The term is in the form of
axn, where a and n are constant. In mathematics, whole
numbers are the basic
counting numbers 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, … and so on.
• 4x7 – 7.8x5 + 98x2 – 0.85x + 12

• This “one-variable” polynomial contains five terms,

with the highest degree of five.
What do you think???
Is an integer or a constant
• Polynomials are used in diverse areas as science, considered as a term?
business, medicine, psychology and sociology.
What is a polynomial?
Identity which of the following equations are polynomials.

4x7 – 7.8x5 + 98x2 – 0.85x + 12

4 𝑥 – 7.8x5 + 98x2 – 0.85x + 12

4x7 – 7.8x-2 + 98x2 – 0.85x + 12

12
4 𝑥 – 7.8x5 + 98x2 – + 12
𝑥2

7
4x7 – 7.8x5 + 98x2 – 0.85x + 112
What is polynomial?

• The standard form of a polynomial is written in the order of decreasing degree.

• Polynomials with one, two, and three terms are called monomials, binomials, and
trinomials, respectively.

Polynomial Standard Form Special Name Degree

3x4 – 9x2 + 6x9 +12 6x9 + 3x4 – 9x2 + 12 Polynomial (4 terms) 9
7y – 8y2 + 3 – 8y2 + 7y + 3 Trinomial (3 terms) 2
8z3 + 99 8z3 + 99 Binomial (2 terms) 3
–33k12 –33k12 Monomial (1 term) 12

• All these polynomials are “one-variable” polynomials as they have only one
variable, such as k, x, y and z, based on the examples given.

What do you think???

What about if we have two or more variables?
What is polynomial?

• When two variables are in a polynomial, it is “two-variable” polynomial.

Polynomial Standard Form Degree

x4y2 – 9x2y + 0.55x9 +7.88 0.55x9 + x4y2 – 9x2y + 7.88 9
7y – 6x4y2 + 3x2 + 88 – 6x4y2 + 3x2 + 7y + 88 6
8z3 + 65t8 + 12t2z4 + 50 65t8 + 12t2z4 – 8z3 + 50 8
–9k12s2 + 12k4s2 + 0.22 –9k12s2 + 12k4s2 + 0.22 14
Adding polynomials

(3x3 – 9x2 + 15x +12) + (7x3 – 11x2 + 7x +8)

= (3x3 + 7x3) + (–9x2 – 11x2) + (15x + 7x) + (12 +8) i. Group like terms.
= (10x3) + (–20x2) + (22x) + (20) ii. Combine like terms.
= 10x3 – 20x2 + 22x + 20 iii. Solve.
= 2(5x3 – 10x2 + 11x + 10) iv. Simplify.
Subtracting polynomials

(8x3 – 9x2 + 9x +12) – (2x3 – 11x2 + 7x – 8)

= (8x3 – 9x2 + 9x +12) + (–2x3 + 11x2 – 7x + 8) i. Rewrite subtraction as addition of the addition inverse.
= (8x3 – 2x3) + (–9x2 + 11x2) + (9x – 7x) + (12 + 8) ii. Group like terms.
= (6x3) + (2x2) + (2x) + (20) iii. Combine like terms.
= 6x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 20 iv. Solve.
= 2(3x3 + x2 + x + 10) v. Simplify.
Multiplying polynomials

(–2x2 + 4)(7x3 – 11x2 + 7x +8)

= (–2x2 )(7x3 – 11x2 + 7x +8) + 4(7x3 – 11x2 + 7x +8) Multiply the polynomial by each term of the binomial

= (–2x2 )(7x3 ) – (–2x2 )(11x2) + (–2x2)(7x) + (–2x2)(8) + 4(7x3) – 4(11x2) + 4(7x) + 4(8)
= (–14x5) – (–22x4) + (–14x3) + (–16x2) + (28x3) – (44x2) + (28x) + (32) Follow the adding/subtracting
= –14x5 + 22x4 + 14x3 – 60x2 + 28x + 32 operations.
= 2(–7x5 + 11x4 + 7x3 – 30x2 + 14x + 16)
Special products
Special Product
Sum and Difference of Two Terms
A2 – B2 = (A + B)(A – B)
A3 – B3 = (A – B)(A2 + AB + B2)
A3 + B3 = (A + B)(A2 – AB + B2 )
Squaring a Binomial
(A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B2
(A – B)2 = A2 – 2AB + B2
Cubing a Binomial
(A + B)3 = A3 + 3A2B + 3AB2 + B3
(A – B)3 = A3 – 3A2B + 3AB2 – B3
Example
16x2 – 9 = (4x + 3)(4x – 3)
125t3 – 8x6 = (5t)3 – (2x2)3 = (5t – 2x2)[(5t)2 + (5t)(2x2) + (2x2)2]
= (5t – 2x2)(25t2 + 10tx2 + 4x4)
125t3 – 8x6 = (5t)3 + (–2x2)3 = [(5t + (–2x2)][(5t)2 – (5t)(–2x2) + (–2x2)2]
= (5t – 2x2)[25t2 – (–10tx2) + 4x4]
= (5t – 2x2)(25t2 + 10tx2 + 4x4)
(s + 7)2 = s2 + 2(s)(7) + 72 = s2 + 14s + 49
(3y – 2)2 = (3y)2 – 2(3y)(2) + 22 = 9y2 – 12y + 4
(2x + 7)3 = (2x)3 + 3(2x)2(7) + 3(2x)(7)2 + 73
= 8x3 + 84x2 + 294x + 343
(w – 3)3 = (w)3 – 3(w)2(3) + 3(w)(3)2 – 33
= w3 + 9w2 + 27w + 27
Special products – Common mistakes

(A + B)2 ≠ A2 + B2

(A – B)2 ≠ A2 – B2
Part II:
Quadratic equations

Prepared by Albert Tang

Learning outcomes
i. Identify the form of quadratic equations and their graphs.
ii. Factoring quadratic equations.
iii. Completing square.
iv. Quadratic formula.
v. Roots of quadratic equations.
vi. Equations reducible to quadratic in form.
What do you think???
Have you ever observed the movement of a football when it is being
kicked?
What is the shape of the movement?
Do you know that this shape has its own equation?
Forms of quadratic equations

• A quadratic expression in one variable is an expression

whereby the highest power for the variable is two.
• The general and vertex forms of a quadratic expressions is as
follow.
ax2 + bx + c General/Standard form
a(x – h)2 + k Vertex form
where
a, b, c, h and k are constant and a ≠ 0,
x is the variable.

What do you think???

Can constants “b”, “c”, “h” and “k” be zero?
Characteristics of quadratic equations
Shape of graph
Consider a quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c. The value of a determines the shape of
graph.
• If a > 0 (positive) then the parabola opens upward, i.e. minimum curve.

Minimum point

• If a < 0 (negative) then the parabola opens downward, maximum curve.

Maximum point

Both the maximum and minimum points

are also known as vertex.
Characteristics of quadratic equations
Shape of graph
Consider a quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c. The smaller the a value, the wider
the curved shape of the graph.

a1 < a2 a1 < a2
Characteristics of quadratic equations
Axis of symmetry
Consider a quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c.
𝑏
• A straight line x = − , that is parallel to the y-axis.
2𝑎
• Divide the graph into two parts of the same size and shape.
• Pass through the vertex of the graph of the function. Vertex is a coordinate and it
has to present as (x,y).

𝑏
x=−
2𝑎

Both the maximum and minimum points

are also known as vertex.
Characteristics of quadratic equations
Position of the axis of symmetry – if a > 0
Consider a quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c.
For a minimum graph, i.e. a > 0;
• If b > 0, then the axis of symmetry lies on the left of the y-axis.
• If b < 0, then the axis of symmetry lies on the right of the y-axis.
• If b = 0, then the axis of symmetry is the y-axis.
Characteristics of quadratic equations
Position of the axis of symmetry – if a < 0
Consider a quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c.
For a minimum graph, i.e. a < 0;
• If b > 0, then the axis of symmetry lies on the right of the y-axis.
• If b < 0, then the axis of symmetry lies on the left of the y-axis.
• If b = 0, then the axis of symmetry is the y-axis.
Characteristics of quadratic equations
Determination of y-intercept
Consider a quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c. The value of c determines the position of
the y-intercept.
Characteristics of quadratic equations
Vertex form of quadratic equation
Consider a quadratic expression a(x – h)2 + k. (h,k) is the vertex of the graph.
• If a > 0 (positive) then the parabola opens upward, i.e. minimum curve.

Minimum point (h,k)

• If a < 0 (negative) then the parabola opens downward, maximum curve.

Maximum point (h,k)

Both the maximum and minimum points

are also known as vertex.
Characteristics of quadratic equations
Vertex form of quadratic equation
Determine the vertex for the following equations. Identify if the vertex is a
minimum or a maximum point.
i. y = (x – 1)2 + 1
ii. y = (x + 2)2 – 3
iii. y = –2(x – 3)2 + 4
iv. y = (x + 6)2 – 8
v. y = – 2(x + 2)2 + 3
vi. y = –0.455(x + 0.75)2 – 0.88

Remember:
A vertex form of quadratic expression a(x – h)2 + k has a vertex of (h,k).
Characteristics of quadratic equations
Relation of vertex and standard form of quadratic equations
Comparing vertex and standard form of quadratic equations.

a(x – h)2 + k = ax2 + bx + c

ax2 – 2ahx + (ah2 + k) = ax2 + bx + c
Compare coefficient of x: Compare coefficient of constant:

–2ah = b ah2 + k = c
𝑏 k = c – ah2 Since h = –b/2a
ℎ=−
2𝑎 k = c – a(–b/2a)2
𝑏2
𝑘=𝑐−
4𝑎
Recall:
Vertex is also located at the axis of symmetry, and hence the axis of symmetry x = –b/2a.
Characteristics of quadratic equations
Relation of vertex and standard form of quadratic equations
Determine the vertex of the quadratic function f(x) = 2x2 – 6x +7. Then rewrite this
equation in vertex form.
−𝑏 −6 6 3
ℎ= =− = =
2𝑎 2 2 4 2
2
3 3 3 5
𝑘=𝑓 ℎ =𝑓 =2 −6 +7=
2 2 2 2

3 5 Reminder:
Vertex: ,
2 2 Vertex is a point and it is written as a coordinate form of (x,y).

2 Reminder:
3 5
Vertex form of quadratic equation: 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 𝑥 − + General form: ax2 + bx + c
2 2 Vertex form: a(x – h)2 + k
Characteristics of quadratic equations
Determination of root(s)
Consider a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. The roots of the values of the variable x
that satisfy the quadratic equation.
• The roots are the points of intersection of the graph.
• The roots are also known as x-intercepts.
Characteristics of quadratic equations
Summary

(Roots)

References: https://openstax.org/books/college-algebra/pages/5-1-quadratic-functions#Example_03_02_07
Factorisation method
• Say if a quadratic equation has the factor of A and B.
• If the product of factors (i.e. AB) is zero, then at least one of the
factors has to be zero, and it is called zero-product property.
Consider:
f(x) = x2 – x – 12.
What are the factors if f(x) = 0?
f(x) = x2 – x – 12 = (x – 4)(x + 3) = 0.
• The zero-product property says that x – 4 = 0 or x + 3 = 0, which leads to the
solutions of x = 4 or x = –3.
• By substituting x = 4 or x = –3 into f(x), we will obtain 0, which satisfies the
quadratic equation.

Reminder:
Special products are useful for factorisation method.
Factorisation method – Example

Solve the following:

a. c.
2y2 – 8y = 0 3x2 = 2x +8
a. 2y2 – 8y = 0
2y(y – 4) = 0 3x2 – 2x – 8 = 0
(3x )(x )=0
b. t2 – 6t = 16

c. 3x2 = 2x +8 Answer: Answer:

b. d.
d. 5w3 – 5w2 – 10w = 0 5w3 – 5w2 – 10w = 0
t2 – 6t = 16 5w(w2 – w – 2) = 0
e. k2 – 169 = 0 t2 – 6t – 16 = 0 5w(w )(w )=0
(t ) (t )=0
f. 16a2 = 3
Answer: Answer:
Completing square
• If the quadratic equation cannot be factored, zero-product principle is not
applicable.
• Completing square is then introduced.
• The idea is to transform the standard quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
into the form of (x + A)2 = B, where A and B are constants and the left side,
(x + A)2 , has the form of a perfect square.

Solving a quadratic equation by completing square:

Express the quadratic equation in the following form.

Divide b by 2 and square the result, then add the square to both sides.

Write the left side of the equation as a perfect square.

Then solve it.
Completing square – Example
Solve the quadratic equation x2 = 3 – 8x by completing square.
x2 + 8x = 3
x2 + 8x + 42 = 3 + 42 𝑏
𝑏 = 8 and =4
2
(x + 4)2 = 19
Procedure of using completing square:
x + 4 = ± √19
x = – 4 ± √19

Solve x2 – 6x + 4 = 0 by completing square.

x2 – 6x = –4
𝑏
x2 – 6x + (–3)2 = –4 + (–3)2 𝑏 = −6 and = −3
2
(x – 3)2 = 5
x – 3 = ± √5
x = 3 ± √5
Completing square – Example
Solve the quadratic equation 2x2 – 6x – 3 = 0 by completing square.
2x2 – 6x = 3
3
x2 – 3x = 2
3 3 3 𝑏 3
x2 – 3x + (–2)2 = 2 + (–2)2 𝑏 = −3 and =−
2 2
3 15
(x – 2)2 = 4
3 15 1
x– =± =± 15
2 4 2
3 1
x=2±2 15
1
x = 2 3 ± 15
Quadratic equation
The completing square can be further derived to solve all the quadratic equations.

ax2 + bx + c = 0

−𝑏 ± 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

b2 – 4ac is the discriminant.

Quadratic equation – Examples
Solve 7y2 = 6 – 19y

7y2 = 6 – 19y
7y2 + 19y – 6 = 0
a = 7, b = 19, c = – 6
−𝑏 ± 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑦=
2𝑎

−19 ± (19)2 −4(7)(−6)

=
2(7)
−19 ± 529
=
14
2
𝑦 = , −3
7
Quadratic equation – Examples
Solve 0.05x2 – 0.24x + 0.07 = 0.

0.05x2 – 0.24x + 0.07 = 0

a = 0.05, b = 0.24, c = 0.07
−𝑏 ± 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

−0.24 ± (0.24)2 −4(0.05)(0.07)

=
2(0.05)
−0.24 ± 0.0436
=
0.1
= −2.4 ± 0.0436 or x = –0.312, – 4.488

Rounding on the square root is acceptable (depends on the question).

Roots of quadratic equations
• Consider a quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c. This can be solved
using quadratic formula.

−𝑏 ± 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

• b2 – 4ac is the discriminant, and it is used to determine the

solution of quadratic equations.

• There are three solution set.

i. Two real distinct solutions, where b2 – 4ac > 0.
ii. A double root, where b2 – 4ac = 0.
iii. Two complex solutions (irreducible), where b2 – 4ac < 0
Equations reducible to quadratic in form
• Some higher order equations are reducible to quadratic in form.
• Techniques of solving quadratic equations can be used.
• Here are some examples of such equations.

2 1
𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 15 = 0
3 3

𝑥 −6 − 9𝑥 −3 + 8 = 0

𝑥 − 9 𝑥 + 14 = 0
Equations reducible to quadratic in form
2 1
𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 15 = 0
3 3
1
Substitute u = 𝑥 ,
3 𝑥 −6 − 9𝑥 −3 + 8 = 0
u2 – 2u – 15 = 0 Substitute u = x-3,
(u – 5)(u + 3) = 0
Answer: x = 1, x = 0.5
u = 5, u = –3

1 1
u=𝑥 =5
3 u = 𝑥 = –3
3
1 1 𝑥 − 9 𝑥 + 14 = 0
𝑥 =5
3 𝑥 = –3
3

x = 53 Substitute u = √x,
x = (–3)3
x = 125 x = –27 Answer: x = 4, x = 49