PREFACE

We know the general rule of world that “Reading makes man ready, Writing
makes man every day, but practice makes man perfect”. Only theoretical knowledge is
not enough for an E.E. student. Project is one of the subjects in that we have to develop an
electronic project. In which we have to not only theoretically analyse the system but have
to design a system, after that we have to implement and test the system. From this project
we can get opportunity for real implementation of theory concept of “SCR
CONTROLLED EMERGENCY LIGHT” in the practical filed. In this subject student get
experience of a SCR switching and circuit connection etc.

This documentation contains the report about “SCR CONTROLLED EMERGENCY

LIGHT”. From this documentation we can understand how the electronics concept can be
implemented to real problem.
 CONTENT

1. ABSTRACT
2. INTRODUCTION
3. COMPONENT LIST
4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
5. COMPONENTS WORKING
6. THEORY
7. ADVANTAGES
8. LIMITATION
9. APPLICATION
10. PROCEDUR
11. OBSERVATION
12. PRECAUTIONS
13. CONCLUSION
14. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 ABSTRACT

Emergency light is an illumination device specially designed to work in the event of

power failure. It normally works on low voltage d.c. the lamp should glow only
when a.c. power is not available. A single –phase steps down transformer of proper
rating is used to step down the single-phase a.c. voltage to the required rating and
the n the voltage is rectified to d.c. which is used for charging the d.c. source. This
d.c. source is battery is a used in the circuit for supplying power to the lamp in case
of failure of a.c. power.
 INTRODUCTION

The emergency light circuit is so designed that in presence of a.c. power, the SCR
remains in the OFF state, the lamp is not connected in the circuit. During this period
the battery gets charged by receiving d.c. through a rectifier circuit. Instead of one
diode, in this circuit, three diodes have been purposely used in parallel for
increasing the current rating for the purpose of charging. At the time of failure of
a.c. power the SCR connected in the circuit gets gate staggeredand start conducting
instantly. As the SCR start conducting, it connects the lamp in the battery circuit.
The lamps gets supply from the battery and start glowing immediately. The
instantaneous triggering of the SCR is assured by properly designing the ciruit. This
circuit has been designed for a 6V lamp. The working of the circuit is as follows.
 COMPONENTS LIST

Reno. 1 Name of the Range/Rating

component SCR Quantity One
4 A,600V(TYN
604 or any other equivalent)
1.2 A,220V (BY 127or any other equivalent) 12V,250µF
2 Diodes 1) 5Ω ,10W Four
2) 22 Ω,2W
3) 440 Ω,1/2W
3. Capacitor Resistor
4) 1 Ω,1W One One One One Three One
4. 220/6V,2A
Step-down transformer

5.

6. High intensity fog lamp 6V One

7. D.C. source (battery) CRO 6V One

8. 0-10MHz One
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Circuit diagram for SCR controlled emergency light

 COMPONENTS WORKING

1. SCR

2. DIODES

3. CAPACITOR

4. TRANSFORMER

5. BATTERY

6. RESISTORS

7. TRANSISTOR
 1. SCR

SCR

SCR are mainly used in devices where the control of high power, possibly coupled
with high voltage, is demanded. Their operation makes them suitable for use in
medium to high-voltage AC power control applications, such as lamp dimming,
regulators and motor control.
 2. DIODES

DIODES
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric transfer
characteristic, with low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high
(ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today,
is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p-n junction connected to two electrical
terminals. A vacuum tube diode. now rarely used except in some high-power technologies and
by enthusiasts, is a vacuum tube with two electrodes, a plate (anode) and cathode.
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction
(called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the
reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve.
This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to
direct current, including extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receivers—these
diodes are forms of rectifiers.
However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on–off action.
Semiconductor diodes do not begin conducting electricity until a certain threshold voltage is
present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be forward-biased). The
voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a
function of temperature; this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or voltage reference.
DIODE -1N4007:

Features:
• Reverse voltage 50 to 1000 Volts; forward current -1.0 Ampere
• The plastic package carries Underwriters Laboratory Flammability Classification
94V-0
• For surface mounted applications
• Low reverse leakage
• Built-in strain relief, ideal for automated placement
• High forward surge current capability
• High temperature soldering guaranteed: 250℃/10
seconds at terminals.
• DO214AC package, open junction
 3. CAPACITOR

Capacitor

A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting f\of a pair of conductor separated

by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the conductors, an
electric field is present in the dielectric .this field stores energy and produces a mechanical
force between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat,parallel, narrowly
separated conductors.

When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field
develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative
charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is
characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of
the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of
construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in
the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission
systems for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes.
 THEORY OF OPERATION
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-
conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical
insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a
semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is
assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from
any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their
facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one
farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across
the device.

The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal
capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge
±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:
Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary.
In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Series and parallel capacitor:

Capacitors in parallel:
Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same applied voltage. Their capacitances
add up. Charge is apportioned among them by size. Using the schematic diagram to visualize
parallel plates, it is apparent that each capacitor contributes to the total surface area.
Capacitors in series:

Connected in series, the schematic diagram reveals that the separation distance, not the plate
area, adds up. The capacitors each store instantaneous charge build-up equal to that of every
other capacitor in the series. The total voltage difference from end to end is apportioned to
each capacitor according to the inverse of its capacitance. The entire series acts as a capacitor
smaller than any of its components.
4. TRANSFORMER

Transformer

1) Transformer: Transformeris a static device which increase and Decrease the

voltage level.
2) Here input is given to primary winding and output is taken from secondary
winding.
3) Here Transformer is used of 12-0-12 (2A) is to used for step down voltage
220 V to 6 V antedlimit the current up to 2A.
5. BATTERY

Battery

1) Here battery is used of rating 6V

2) This Battery which is used in this system is rechargeable battery so when main
supply is ON this battery will charge and when supply gets OFF this battery will
automatically connect to the system.
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
A voltaic cell for demonstration purposes. In this example the two half-cells are linked by salt
bridge separator that permits the transfer of ions, but not water molecules.

.
A voltaic cell

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of
a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half-cells connected in series by a
conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and
the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative
electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively
charged ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers
the battery, cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized
(electrons are removed) at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are
electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-cells with different
electrolytes. A separator between half-cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of the
electrolytes.
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric
current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference
between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta.[12] Therefore, if the electrodes
have emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the difference between
the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.
The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage
(difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging
nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of
internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude
than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the
open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a
constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained
1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5
joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge, and the open
circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against
time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the
chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release
of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have
different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH
cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the other
hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give
lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

Classification:

Batteries are classified into two broad categories, each type with advantages and
disadvantages.
• Primary batteries irreversibly (within limits of practicality) transform chemical energy
to electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be
readily restored to the battery by electrical means.
• Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions
reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, restoring their original composition.
Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were restored to
operation by replacing the components of the battery consumed by the chemical reaction.
Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials,
loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion.

6. Resistor
 Resistor

1) A resistor is a passive two terminal electrical component that implements

electrical resistance as a circuit element.
2) The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across
the resistor’s terminals. This relationship is relationship is represented by
Ohm’s law V=I*R

Thus, the ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current
through the circuit is called resistance. This relation is represented by Ohm's law:

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in
units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant,
independent of the current. Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and
electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made
of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity
alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits,
particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial
resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. When
specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may
require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its
specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in
some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power
rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular
circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher
power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit,
attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.
Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these
specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or
pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance,
excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in
manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular
family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A family of discrete
resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and
the position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of
circuits using them.
 THEORY OF OPERATION

OHM'S LAW:

The behaviour of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where
the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

This formulation states that the current (I) is proportional to the voltage (V) and inversely
proportional to the resistance (R). This is directly used in practical computations. For
example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a
current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40 mill amperes) occurs across that resistor.
Series and parallel resistors:
In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage
across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage)
seen across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as
the sum of those resistances:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance
R, is given by NR.
Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference
(voltage), however the currents through them add. The conductance of the resistors then add
to determine the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of the
network can be computed:
The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as
in geometry) as a simplified notation. Occasionally two slashes "//" are used instead of "||", in
case the keyboard or font lacks the vertical line symbol. For the case of two resistors in
parallel, this can be calculated using:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in parallel, each of the same
resistance R, is given by R/N.
 RESISTOR MARKING

Most axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance. Surface-mount
resistors are marked numerically, if they are big enough to permit marking; more-recent small
sizes are impractical to mark. Cases are usually tan, brown, blue, or green, though other colors
are occasionally found such as dark red or dark grey.
Early 20th century resistors, essentially uninsulated, were dipped in paint to cover their entire
body for color coding. A second color of paint was applied to one end of the element, and a
color dot (or band) in the middle provided the third digit. The rule was "body, tip, dot",
providing two significant digits for value and the decimal multiplier, in that sequence. Default
tolerance was ±20%. Closer-tolerance resistors had silver (±10%) or gold-colored (±5%) paint
on the other end.
 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962,[4] early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern
versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high
brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine
with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is
called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the
photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are often small in area
(less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation
pattern.[5] LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, and faster switching.
LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise
current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive
lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video
displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in
advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units
of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic
appliances.
Electronic symbol:

Types:

Pin diagram:
TECHNOLOGY

The LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a p-n
junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or
cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers—electrons and holes—flow into the
junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a
lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon.
The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its color depends on the band gap
energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons
and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition, which produces no optical emission,
because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct
band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet light.
LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances
in materials science have enabled making devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, emitting
light in a variety of colors.
LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer
deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many
commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.
Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means that
much light will be reflected back into the material at the material/air surface interface. Thus,
light extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to much research
and development.
 TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
power. It is composed of a semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection
to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals
changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output)
power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal.
Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in
integrated circuits.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is
ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its development in the early 1950s the
transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper
radios, calculators, and computers, among other things.

Bipolar junction transistor:

Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority
carriers. The bipolar junction transistor (BJT), the first type of transistor to be mass-produced,
is a combination of two junction diodes, and is formed of either a thin layer of p-type
semiconductor sandwiched between two n-type semiconductors (an n-p-n transistor), or a thin
layer of n-type semiconductor sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors (a p-n-p
transistor). This construction produces two p-n junctions: a base–emitter junction and a base–
collector junction, separated by a thin region of semiconductor known as the base region (two
junction diodes wired together without sharing an intervening semiconducting region will not
make a transistor).
The BJT has three terminals, corresponding to the three layers of semiconductor – an emitter,
a base, and a collector. It is useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and
collector are controllable by a relatively small base current." In an NPN transistor operating in
the active region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased (electrons and electron holes
recombine at the junction), and electrons are injected into the base region. Because the base is
narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the reverse-biased (electrons and holes are
formed at, and move away from the junction) base-collector junction and be swept into the
collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base, which is the
dominant mechanism in the base current. By controlling the number of electrons that can
leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can be controlled. Collector
current is approximately β (common-emitter current gain) times the base current. It is
typically greater than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors
designed for high-power applications.
Unlike the FET, the BJT is a low–input-impedance device. Also, as the base–emitter voltage
(Vbe) is increased the base–emitter current and hence the collector–emitter current (I ce) increase
exponentially according to the Shockley diode model and the Ebers-Moll model. Because of
this exponential relationship, the BJT has a higher transconductance.
 BD140

Features:
• Collector-Emitter Volt (Vceo): 80V
• Collector-Base Volt (Vcbo): 100V
• Collector Current (Ic): 1.5A
• hfe: 63-160 @ 150mA
• Power Dissipation (Ptot): 1.25W
• Type: PNP
 THEORY

The circuit diagram is shown in the presence of a.c. voltage is stepped down to
6 V and rectified by the three diodes (BY-127) used in parallel. The idea using
three diodes is to the current rating required for charging the 6 V batteries. This
D.C. through the 5 Ω, 10 W limiting resistor will start charging the 6 V battery
connected in the circuit. The current will flow through the secondary winding of
the transformer. In this condition the 250µF capacitor will charged with its upper
plat being positive and the lower plate being negative. The negative polarity of
the lower plate will make the gate of SCR negative which will put the device in
its non-conducting mode. The battery will be continuously charged a long as the
arc. power is available. The moment a.c. fails the SCR comes on conducting
mode (be-cause the capacitor start discharging through the diode, 5 Ω resistor and
440 Ω its conduction mode ) and is triggered by getting the required
amount of gate current from the battery . As the SCR start conducting, it
connects the lamp in the circuit with battery. Thus, the lamp starts glowing
instantaneously by drawing current from the battery. The moment a.c. power
appears the negative polarity is again obtained at the gate of
the SCR which commutates it immediately. The lamp is also
switched OFF and the battery starts getting changed again. The duration for
which the lamp can glow without a.c. power depends on the ampere- hour
rating of the battery.
 ADVANTAGES

1) Circuit is simple as all components are easily available in market.

2) Cost is less
3) Can be implemented anywhere.

LIMITATION

1) Only 6V load can be used.

2) The charging of battery is continuous which reduce the life of Battery.

 APPLICATION

1) It can be used to drive 6 volt lamp, D.C. motor etc.

2) It circuit is modified to 12V or 24V other electronic equipment can bedriven in

case of emergency.
3) It can be implemented to domestic application and certain Publicplaces
like hospital, bus station etc.
 PROCEDURE

1. Make connection as per the circuit diagram.

2. Switch ON the a.c. supply and observe whether the lamp glows Or not.
3. Switch OFF the a.c. supply and observe wither lamps glow or Or not.
4. Observe the wave patterns across the SCR terminals with the help of CRO.

OBSERVATION

1. Glow of the lamp when a.c. power is switched ON

a. Yes
2. Glow of the lamp when a.c. power is switched OFF
a. Yes
 PRECAUTIONS

1. Value of the limiting resistor used for charging the battery should be
chosen correctly.
2. Value of the resistance used for gate triggering of the device should be
chosen exactly as per the design requirement.
3. All the components should be checked before connecting them in the circuit.
 CONCLUSION

1. Study the control of an emergency light control using SCR/.

2. Design a 6V emergency light circuit by incorporating the required
modification in the circuits desired in this project.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

By using the following sites we have taken concept of this project and getting some
new ideas about this project and complete our project.

1) www.google.com
2) www.wikipedia.com
3) Indusrtialelecronic& control by chattergy
4) www.electronic project.com
5) www.alldatasheets.com
6) www.electronicsforu.com
7) Basic Electronics by V.K.Mehta