OXFORD

DC ELECTRICS

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

Cu, Ag and Al good conductors

Wood, rubber, glass and plastics are insulators

Using ‘conventional flow’, current flows from positive to negative

Electrons flow from negative to positive

An electrical charge can be produced by

 Friction
 Chemical action in cells
 Magnetism using generators and alternators
 Application of heat to thermocouples
 Light in photoelectric cells
 Applying pressure to piezoelectric crystals

UNITS of ELECTRICITY

Electromotive force or potential difference is the VOLT (V)

Current (I) is ampere or amp (A)
Resistance is (R) or Ohm (Ω)
Ohm’s Law V=IR
Power in Watts (W)
 W=VI
 W= I2 R
 W V2 / R

COMPLEX DC CIRCUITS

Series Circuit RT = R1 +R2 + R3

Parallel Circuit 1/R = I/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

Q5. /18. Resistors in parallel – the total current consumed is sum of currents
taken by the resistors
 Chapter 2: SWITCHES

Toggle and Rocker Switches can be two or three position

Switch lights combine the functions of a switch and an indicating light

Toggle switches, rocker switches and switch lights can be momentary action type
or they may remain in the selected position until another selection is made

Both toggle switches and switch lights can be guarded to prevent inadvertent
operation

AUTOMATIC SWITCHES

Micro switches, are mechanically operated by a striker plate, on the component

being monitored

Bimetallic switches are temperature sensitive switches, which operate when a

certain temperature is reached

Proximity detectors are electrical or electronic sensors that respond to the

presence of a material. They have no moving parts. Inductive and magnetic
respond to proximity of ferrous materials but capacitive sensors respond to all
materials

Time switches or relays can be initiated electrically or mechanically to activate a

circuit after a specific time interval has occurred

Centrifugal switches can be set to activate or deactivate a circuit as the rotational

speed of the device increase or decreases
 Chapter 3: CIRCUIT PROTECTION

Blown fuses have to be discarded. A tripped CB may be reset once the fault has
been rectified

Fuse and CBs are rated in amperes

An operator shall not operate an aeroplane unless spare fuses at least 10 % of each
rating or 3 whichever is greater

FUSES

Fuses cannot be reset and must be discarded and replaced if they blown or are
ruptured

Are rated in amperes

Current limiters can carry a considerable overload current for a short period of
time before blowing or rupturing

Dummy fuses are red with corrugated sides; they should have a red streamer
attached

CIRCUIT BREAKERS (CBs)

CBs are rated in amperes

Flt deck CBs are usually trip free thermally tripped CBs, which need to be reset
manually

A trip free CB can be reset once the fault has cleared. Holding the reset button
will not make the circuit live.

In the event of CB trip only one reset should be attempted before the defect is
investigated

Small CBs fitted in flight deck are sometimes used as switches

Reverse current CBs prevent large reverse current flows in DC circuits

Q 8/p47. Non trip-free CB cannot be reset – but can be held in and circuit
made operational – dangerously.
 Chapter 3 (continues): CAPACITANCE

A capacitor stores electrical energy in the electrical field that can be created
between two conductors that are separated by an insulator

In a DC circuit a capacitor blocks current flow

A capacitor appears to allow current to flow freely in an AC circuit

Units of capacitance are farad, microfarad, nano-farad and pico-farad

Capacitance varies with the plate area

Capacitance varies inversely with the distance between the plates

Different dielectrics materials give different values of capacitance

Capacitance in Parallel: C (Total) = C1 + C2 + C3 etc.

Capacitance in series: 1/C (Total) = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 etc.

 Chapter 4: BATTERIES

A battery is made up of a number of cells, which convert chemical energy into

electrical energy

Primary cell batteries cannot be recharged and need to be discarded once their
chemical energy ha s been used up

A secondary cell can be discharged and recharged many a times

The capacity of a cell is a measure of how much current it can provide for a
specific period of time. It is measured in ampere-hours

Series connection - Total voltage is Sum of individual cells or batteries but

Capacity of a single cell or battery

Parallel connection – Voltage of one cell or battery, but the capacity is sum of
individual cell or battery capacities

ADVANTAGES OF NI-CD OVER LEAD ACID

Not susceptible to spillage

Specific Gravity does not change

Voltage remains constant throughout discharge cycle

Low internal resistance allows high discharge currents

More compact for same capacity

Greater environmental temperature range

Longer shelf life (can be stored charged or discharged

DISADVANTAGE OF NI-CD OVER LEAD ACID

Greater cost

More complex charging procedure to avoid thermal runaway

 Electrolyte Neutralising Specific Cell Storage Charging
Agent Gravity Voltage
Le Sulphuric Sodium Charged 2.0 –2.2 Charged Charging
ad acid bicarbonate 1.27 Voltage exceeds
Ac and water Battery Voltage
id by 2 v for every
12 v of Bat
NI KOH Boric Acid 1.24 - 1.30 1.2 Charged / Via a dedicated
- Discharged battery charger
Cd (pulse charging
up to 85%
charge

A battery test is carried out every 3 months

A battery must display an efficiency of 80 % or more to remain in service

f electrolyte

Q 9/p62. Battery is checked for serviceability by measuring specific gravity of

electrolyte

A flight deck battery check is carried out on load, which is a load applied.

Q4/p63. Nominal voltage 24 v. Full charged without load 26 v (12 cells *2.2)

If one cell fails the battery is unserviceable and must be replaced

Q3/p66. The voltage of Secondary cells is determined by the active materials

on the plates.

Q7/p65. The capacity of L-A battery is determined by the area of the plates.
 Chapter 5: MAGNETISM

A magnet is an object, which has a magnetic field, which behaves like a magnet

Magnetic flux from North to South pole

Like and Un-like poles attract and repel

Ferromagnetic materials are attracted towards N and S poles of magnet

Ferromagnetic with some internal micro-magnets pointing in same direction –

behaves like a magnet

Magnetically soft material has micros – magnets, which are easy to realign

Magnetically soft material is easy to magnetize and demagnetize than a

magnetically hard one

An external magnetic field can induce a ferromagnetic object to become a magnet

Heating a magnet or physically shocking it or placing it inside a solenoid which is

supplied with AC can cause the internal micros to become unaligned stopping it
from acting as a magnet

ELECTROMAGNETISM

Any flow of electric charge will produce a magnetic field

Magnetic field around a wire will be in concentric circles around the wire

Direction of field by corkscrew rule

Magnetic field similar to bar magnet

Direction of N-Pole by using RH Grasp rule

Strength of magnetic field can be increased by

 Adding a soft iron core
 Increasing current flowing through it
 Increasing the number of turns on the coil

A relay is remotely operated electro-magnetic switch with a fixed cote

A solenoid is remotely operated electro-magnetic switch with a moving core

If a current carrying conductor is placed between two opposite magnetic poles, a
force will be produced which will try to move the conductor

Electrostatic effect is transfer of electrical energy by a magnetic field, but no

current flow (Q32 / p189.)

Q6/p78. Electromagnetic effect is a product of current flow, which creates a

magnetic field.
 Chapter 6: SIMPLE GENERATOR

EMF can be induced in a coil by causing it to cut through Lines of Flux in a

magnetic field
(Electromagnetism).

The magnitude of EMF will vary with

 The rate of cutting of lines of flux
 The strength of magnetic field
 The number of turns on coil

A field coil is used to control the voltage of the generator at a fixed value
irrespective of the drive speed

The output of a simple generator is AC

The output can be changed to DC by using a commutator

GENERATORS & ALTERNATORS

The output or terminal voltage of a series wound generator varies (reduces) with
applied load

Q8/p101. A generator is governed so that the EMF is constant and the rate of
flow (amperage output) varies

Q9/p101. The Voltage Regulator (VR) senses generator output pressure

(voltage) and adjusts the field current

Q9/p103. The a/c generator (maximum current) electrical output is

controlled by sensing the generator output pressure (voltage) and adjusting
it.

Q10/p101. The Generator master switch is normally in the field circuit –

which is connected in parallel with the generator output. (p-128 and p-132).

The voltage output of a shunt wound generator reduces slightly as the load
increases.

The output of a compound wound can be constant with a varying load

The output voltage of a generator, is controlled by placing a variable resistance in
series with field coil

A DC generator has a rotating armature and a stationery field

An alternator has a stationery armature and a rotating field

The AC output of an alternator is converted to DC using Diode rectifier

Advantage of an alternator over DC generator:

 Much lighter weight for same power output

 More stable output at low engine speed
 No commutator problems

GENERATOR CONTROL

Output voltage of a DC generator or Alternator is maintained constant during load

and drive speed changes by a Voltage Regulator (VR) controlling a variable
resistor in series with a shunt coil.

In parallel generator system the load sharing or equalizing circuit maintains both g
generator voltages by sending signals to individual VRs. This ensures that each
generator takes equal share of applied load.

Q4/p102. An a/c having a battery with nominal voltage of 24v, the generator
output would be 28 volts.
 Chapter 7: DC MOTORS

If a wire carrying a current is placed at right angles to a magnetic field, the wire
experiences a resultant force

Fleming’s LH Rule enables us to determine the direction in which the force acts

The second finger – direction of conventional current flow

The direction of the mag field by the first finger

The thumb in the direction of resultant motion

A commutator reverses the current flow every 180 degrees

The direction of a DC motor can be reversed:

 By reversing the direction of supply current
 By reversing the direction of the Stationary field

PRACTICAL MOTORS

Back EMF is
 Proportional to field strength
 Proportional to armature speed
 Opposes applied EMF

Series Wound Motors

 Very high torque on start up
 Runs slowly with heavy loads
 If the load is completely removed the motor can dangerously over speed
and disintegrate

Shunt Wound Motors

Considered to be constant speed motor

Compound wound motor

 Has a high starting torque
 Will not over speed under light loads
 Will maintain a reasonably constant speed under varying load conditions
 Sometimes used on Gas Turbine Engines as combined starter – generator
 Questions from the book (P 119/120)

Q1 Rotary actuators are for operation of fuel cocks

Q2. Actuator travel is controlled by limit micro switches

Q7. An inching control is used in conjunction with linear actuators

Q8. Friction clutches are fitted to actuators for protection against

mechanical loads

Q3. On twin-engine DC a/c load sharing achieved by EQUALISING

CIRCUIT to sense and equalize voltage of the two generators
 Chapter 8: AIRCRAFT Electrical Power system
(DC GENEERNATOR SYSTEMS)

A dipole or two wire electrical system used in aircraft made of non-conducting

material

Unipole, single pole or Earth return system

Metal airframe used as negative conductor
Significant weight reduction
Increased short circuit risk

VR maintains output voltage at constant value irrespective of engine rpm or

electrical loads

Overvoltage protection protects against output voltage rising dangerously high

Opening the generator or alternator master switch breaks the field circuit

Generator cut-out / reverse current relay

 Permits generator voltage to build up to preset figure before putting
generator on line
 Prevents battery feeding current back in to the generator

In an alternator Diode rectifiers provide reverse current protection

AC is produced by use of inverter(s)

Static inverters use solid-state electronic components to convert DC into AC

Rotary inverters convert DC to AC using constant speed DC motor to drive an

alternator

Busbars are the collection and distribution points for gene or alternator supply

The battery switch allows the pilot to connect the battery to, or to disconnect the
battery from the Bus bar

SYSTEMS MONITORING

Ammeter
Moving coil instrument

Measures current flow

Battery ammeters are center zero

After engine start, battery ammeter shows a high charge rate for a short period

Generators or Alternator ammeters or loadmasters are left zero instruments

Voltmeter

Moving coil instruments

Measures voltage applied in electrical circuit

One voltmeter switchable to measure voltage in various parts of the circuit

The gene or alternator warning light indicates that the gene or alternator voltage
has fallen below battery voltage

In the event of in-flight generator failure, non-essential loads should be shed

ASAP to conserve battery power

Multiple Generator Systems

Each generator or alternator has sufficient capacity to carry the extra load in the
event of single gene or alternator failure

System having more than one BB, any of which can be isolated from the supply in
event of a fault

Consumer services are usually categorized as vital, essential and non-essential

Vital services are connected directed to the battery by hot battery bus bar

In the event of a gene or alternator failure the other unit must be able to take the
entire load

The battery must be able to supply the vital and essential loads for a min of 30 /
60 minutes

Load shedding is a term used to describe the switching off of certain electrical
loads to prevent overloading a generator or alternator
 Questions Generator Cut-out (P 137)

Q3/p119. On twin-engine DC a/c load sharing achieved by EQUALISING

CIRCUIT to sense and equalize voltage of the two.

Q6/. To prevent recirculating currents when more than one generator on the
same bus-bar DIFFERENTIAL CUTOUTS are used.

Q3/p155. Differential cut-outs close when a differential voltage exists between

the generator bus and the battery bus. (and allow the generator to come on-
line the battery bus-bar).

P 128. (The on coming generator cannot switch on-line until its voltage is 2%
more than the voltage of generator, which is already on-line. The 2 %
difference in potential is between the oncoming generator output and the
battery bus-bar).

Q7. A generator cut-out / (reverse current relay) is fitted in series with

generator output (Load current).

Q 8 On a/c with. 28 volt battery the cut-out close at approximately 26 volts (2

volts more than battery voltage).

Questions Generator Circuit – 1 (p 139)

Q1. In twin engine a/c with two gene there would be individual ammeters for
each generators but only one switchable voltmeter to indicate generator or
battery voltage

Q2. A generator cut-out is provide to prevent discharge of battery through

the generator.

Q5. In the event of a cut-out sticking in the closed position then with the
engine stopped would result in a burnt-out generator

Q6. A generator warning light is illuminated when battery voltage exceeds

generator voltage and the cut-out has opened

Questions Generator Circuit 2 (p 142)

Q9. A field switch in the generator circuit is to “shut-off” the generator field.
 Questions Generator Distribution System (p143)

Q1. A short circuit in “single pole” electrical circuit would be caused by

when wiring from source of supply goes down to earth (before the
equipment)

Q5. If on a single pole circuit the positive conductor is shorted the FUSE will
blow
 Chapter 9: BONDING & SCREENING

Bonding of the Airframe components reduces the possibility of interference in the

form of static noise or crackling in a/c radio equipment

Q7/p150. The purpose of electrical bonding on an aircraft is to provide a low

resistance path for earth return circuits and safely dissipate local static
charges and lightning strikes.

Static Dischargers or wicks are fitted to the tips of the engine and tail

They discharge static electricity back to the atmosphere

They reduce the possibility of static interference in a/c radio equipment

Chapter 10: SPECIMEN QUESTIONS

Q3/p155. Differential cut-outs close when a differential voltage exists between

the generator bus and the battery bus. (and allow the generator to come on-
line the battery bus-bar).

P 128. (The on coming generator cannot switch on-line until its voltage is 2%
more than the voltage of generator, which is already on-line. The 2 %
difference in potential is between the oncoming generator output and the
battery bus-bar).
 OXFORD

AC ELECTRICS

BASIC AC THEORY

AC generator – simpler, robust;

Lighter for same power output. P/W ratio better;
100 % Step/Up down Transformer
Any AC or DC voltage can be obtained using transformers and rectifiers
3-phase AC motor more useful than DC motor
No commutator problem so more reliable at high altitude
Less maintenance required
Operated at higher speed, producing higher voltage output
Simple AC motors can be used. Thinner, lighter cables can be used

Summary – Terms

A cycle is one complete series of values One cycle represents from zero to 360
degrees of phase

The number of cycles occurring in each second is the frequency of AC. Frequency
is measured in cycles/second or Hertz

The period is the time it takes for one cycle to occur

The amplitude or peak value is the maximum value attained in one cycle

RMS value = .707 * Peak value

Number of Poles / 2 * RPM / 60 = Frequency (Hz)
Nature of AC
Electrons move back and forth about mean position. Current flows back/forth
about mean position.

Loop of wire (armature) rotated in magnetic field. Flux is continuously changing.

AC voltage is induced as long as rotation continues

Diagram

Flux is continuously changing. Maxima and minima. Polarity of induced voltage

is changing continuously – Zero – then direction of current flow reverses as other
side of armature is reversing.
 Diagram

RMS is the effective value of AC compared to DC. It is based on heat produced

under identical conditions

RMS = Peak value / sin 45 = Peak Value / √1/2 = PV*.707

AC instruments are calibrated in RMS values.

Relationship of Current and Voltage in AC circuit

AC Current and Voltage have same frequency and wave form (cycle) –
sinusoidal.

In DC Ohms Law (V = IR). In resistive circuit Voltage and Current are in phase.

But n AC circuit current flow is influenced by magnitude and electrostatic effect

of inductance and capacitance. Thus V and I are out of phase.

That is frequency is same but values of Voltage and Current are not in phase. That
is they not Zero at the same time. They differ in phase angle.

DIAGRAMS

Fig 11.7 and 11.8

Resistance
Inductance
Mutual Induction
Self Induction

Lenz’s Law

The self-induced voltage will oppose any oppose any change of current in circuit.
This self-induced voltage is called BACK EMF. It is proportional to number of
turns; intensity of flux using iron core; frequency (rate of change) of alteration

Inductance
Unit Henry.
One amp/sec induces Back EMF of 1volt.
Current LAGS Voltage by 90º.

Inductive Reactance (XL opposes current flow (like resistance) – only its value
depends on frequency and value (turns). XL = 2πf L
If FREQ increases Inductive Reactance (OHMS) shall increase and Current flow
will decrease.

Capacitance in AC

Unit is FARAD.
If 1 amp/sec current flow enables it to store 1 volt Potential difference then it
is a 1 Farad capacitor.

It is the ability to store electric charge by a device called Capacitor ≈ Area,

Distance, and Dielectric.

Fitted in AC circuit it gets charged/discharged as applied voltage increases and

reverses As applied voltage falls – it discharges. Now it builds up in reverse
direction – and recharges and re-discharges.

Capacitive reactance XC = 1/2πf C (OHMS). It also also opposes current flow. If

FREQUENCY is reduced its value reduces and current flow will increase.

IMPEDANCE
It is vector sum of REACTANCE (Inductance XL and Capacitive XC) and pure
Resistance measured in OHMS = √R2 + (XL + XC).

Power in AC Circuits

Only REAL Power is used (called REAL or TRUE Power)

Only Inductive Circuit:.
+ve Power = -ve Power.
True Power = ZERO.
Only the power required to overcome Inductive Reactance is used and absorbed.

Reactive Power = Volts (reactive) * Ampere (reactive). VA (R) or KVA (R)

Capacitive Power – Power required to overcome XC

Practical Power in AC Circuit

A Circuit having equal Resistance and Inductance, the Ø angle diff will be 45 º.
Now the amount of +ve power and –ve power will not be equal.
The excess +ve power in the circuit is the USEFUL Power (WATT) consumed in
operating a GADGET.

It is TRUE POWER, which is charged by the supplier.

Apparent (A) power is the amount of power used to overcome INDUCTIVE

REACTANCE. It is expressed as VA or KVA. It is the power supplied when no
Gadget is in operation.

Power Factor (PF)

PF = True Power /Apparent Power

In a purely inductive (or purely Capacitive) Circuit, ø angle = 90º; True power=0
and PF = 0. As Ø angle decreases True Power starts increasing and PF also
increases from zero.
In a purely resistive circuit, the Ø - angle is ZERO, and True Power = Apparent
Power and PF = 1

Thus PF ≈ Cos ø.

Resistance, Inductance & Capacitance

In an AC generator System the voltage and the current waveform are both
sinusoidal.
In an AC circuit having inductance only the current lags the voltage by 90˚ of
phase. Unit of Inductance is HENRY. Symbol is L

In an AC circuit having only capacitance the current leads the voltage by 90˚ of
phase. The unit of capacitance is FARAD

CIVIL (p 179)

In an AC circuit with only resistance, voltage and current are in phase

Reactance and Impedance

The Impedence of a circuit is the total resistance measured in OHMS in an AC

circuit and is the vector sum of (Inductive and Capacitive Reactance) and
Resistance in an AC circuit.

Reactance is measured in ohms and is the opposition to current flow produced by

inductors and capacitors
For a fixed value of inductance the inductive reactance will increase if the
frequency of supply voltage is increased; this will lead to a decrease in current
flow in circuit. (XL = 2π f L)

Inductive reactance will decrease if the frequency of supply voltage is decreased;

this will lead to an increase in current flow in the circuit and possible overheat

For a fixed value of capacitance the capacitive reactance will increase if the
frequency of the supply voltage is decreased; this will lead to an increase in
current flow in the circuit.( XC = 1 /2π f C)

Capacitive reactance will decrease if the frequency of the supply voltage is

increased; this will lead to an increase in the current flow in the circuit

Resonant Circuit

Only one frequency when XL= XC (Resonant).

Then it has only Resistance as the Inductance and Capacitance cancel each other .

In series only Resistance to overcome so current flow maximum. in parallel –

current flow minimum.

When the capacitive and inductive reactance in a circuit, are equal, the circuit is
said to be resonant. And the frequency at which this occurs is known as the
circuit’s resonant frequency.

AC Power

The power used to overcome REGULAR resistance is known as TRUE

POWER, REAL POWER or watt-full power. It is measured in WATTS or
KILOWATTS (W or KW).

Power produced in a purely inductive and / or capacitive circuit (to overcome that
type of resistive reactance) is known as reactive or wattles power.

Reactive Power is measured in volts-amps - reactive or kilovolt-amps - reactive

(VAR or KWAR). (R is the symbol for reactive power. Remember POWER
= VA volt* ampere =Watt or Kilowatt. KW-R)

The total power (APPARENT POWER) is the power being felt in a circuit
containing both resistance and reactance. It is the vector sum of the real and
reactive power and shown as apparent power.
Apparent Power is also called Theoretical Power or Rated Power. It is
measured in volt-amps or kilovolt-amps. (VA or KVA).
Here A stands for “Apparent” and not ampere). (SORRY). It does indeed
stand for Volt – ampere or Kilovolt - ampere

True Power = Apparent Power but only when Voltage and Current are in
phase.
˚
True power is ZERO if Voltage and Current are 90 out of phase.

TRUE POWER (KW) / APPARENT POWER = POWER FACTOR (PF)

PF can also be calculated as Cosine of Phase Angle. PF = Cos ø angle

In a purely RESISTIVE circuit the phase angle is zero, so the true power is
equal to the apparent power, and the PF is ONE.

In a purely REACTIVE circuit phase angle is 90 degrees so True Power and

PF = ZERO

Questions from the BOOK; Chapter 11

Q14. The RMS value of alternating current is .707 times the peak value.

Q18. The instruments measuring AC are calibrated in RMS values

Q15 The number of phases is the number of separate STATOR windings

Q16 KVAR is a measure of REACTIVE (R) load on the alternator

Q21 The power factor is KW/KVA

Q23 Generator output frequency is generator field rotation speed

Q24 The RMS value of AC is same as the value of DC which would provide
the same heating effect.

Q27 In a DC circuit the INDUCTANCE offers opposition to the flow of

current while switching on and off.

Q33 The output of an alternator is rated in real and apparent power (KW /
KVA)
 Chapter 2: BASIC ALTERNATORS

AC in modern ac is 115/200/400 Hz/ 3 ø.

Max 400 Hz for acceptable heating effect.

28 V DC obtained using TRUs.

Types of Alternators

Rotating Armature & Stationery Field.

Rotating Armature – similar to DC Generator. AC converted to DC thru Slip
Rings and commutators.

Used in small aircraft.

Rotating Field & Stationery Armature.

Moving part is field windings energized by Permanent Magnets or DC supply.
Low current in Slip Rings or Field Windings. Output from stationery windings.

DIAGRAM 12.1

AC generator Output Rating is given in KV or KVA.

Max output current is dependent on amount of heating sustainable.
Power loss heats up the conductor. So ALTN rated in VA or KVA (apparent).

Diagram 12.2 & 12.3

3 – Ø Connection

STAR FIG 12.5

DELTA (∆) FIG 12.6

3 Ø joined at one end to form 4th end at NEUTRAL POINT.

Grounded as earth return. Neutral carries out of balance current.

If earth fault NEUTRAL carries out of balance current. If Earth fault – neutral
carries excessive high current.

Balanced load is current flow and Ø voltage across each phase is same. Under
these conditions current neutral cancels out, and there is no NEUTRAL current.
Star connection can cope with different loads on each Bus -Bar. The Delta (∆)
connection cannot.

Star Connection
Line Voltage = √ 3 Ø Voltage = 1.73 Ø Voltage (Vector addition)
Line Voltage = 1.73*115 = 200 Volt
Line current = Ø current (because the path is same)

∆ Connection
Fig 12.6
Line Voltage = Ø Voltage; but Line Current = √3 Ø Current = 1.73 Ø current.
No neutral point to carry unbalanced current. Used in Tacho - gene indicators.

Practical AC Generators
 Rotating Armature
 Rotating Field – Brushed and Brushless

Brushed Generators.
DC generated.
Later AC rectified to DC via slip-rings and commutators.
Control of excitation current by Voltage Regulator, by adjusting current
irrespective of Alternator speed and load usingVariable Resistance in series with
Field Coil.

Brushless.
Exciter Generator on same shaft as Main Generator. Voltage Regulator by
controlling Exciter Field ----- and thereby current at main field coil.

Frequency Wild Generators

Driven directly by engine Gearbox. Speed and Frequency of output ≈ engine
speed.

Used to power de-icing. Resistance of heater mats not affected by changing freq.
Frequency wild gives Dc to Static Inverter to Constant frequency AC.

CSDU
Engine-driven hydraulic pump drives Hydraulic motor drives Constant frequency
Alternator

END OF OLDER NOTES

 Chapter 12: BASIC ALTERNATORS

The field windings are on the rotor and the armature windings are on the stator

AC generators are rated in volt-amps or kilovolt-amps

Aircraft AC generator are usually 115/200 volt, 400 Hz, 3 ø, star connected
machines

The three phases are separated by 120 degrees

STAR Connected Generator

Line Voltage = √3 * Phase Voltage
Line Current = Phase current

Delta Connected Generator

Line Voltage = Phase Voltage
Line current = √3 * Phase current

PRACTICAL AC GENERATORS

AC generators are either brushed or brushless generator

A brushless AC generator has the main generator and an exciter generator on the
same shaft

A permanent magnet generator (PMG) may be used to provide the excitation

current for the exciter generator

The frequency of the frequency wild generator varies with engine speed

A hydro-mechanical Constant Speed Drive unit (CSDU) keeps the generator

speed constant irrespective of engine speed

The engine input drive to the CSDU can be disconnected. This would allow both
the CSDU and gene to become stationery

Q 37. If the CSDU oil pressure becomes excessively low or the oil temp
excessively (LIGHTS ILLUMINATE) high the CSDU should be disconnected
from the engine drive
Constant frequency AC generators normally have an output of 115v / 200v, 400
Hz, 3 ø

PRACTICAL GENERATORS

Required parameters for Paralleling

Q26. The output voltage, frequency, phase sequence of all generator must be
the same synchronous (They must be in phase with each other)

Q24. Real load sharing is achieved by controlling the CSDUs and adjusting
the torque at their output shafts so that all paralleled generator are experiencing
the same torque

Q25. Reactive load sharing is achieved by controlling the voltage output of

each generator by adjusting the current flow through the voltage gene to the
exciter generator

Q27. Only constant speed generators can be paralleld. Such Generators have
their individual CSDUs.

Q55. Sharing of Real and Reactive load is to prevent RECIRCULATION

current between alternators

SYSTEM COMPONENTS

GCBs connect generators to the generator BB

BTBs connect the generator bus-bars to the Synchronizing Bus Bar

The Synchronizing Bus Bar has no electrical loads connected to it

GCU
 Regulates generator voltage
 Monitors over/under voltage and frequency, incorrect phase sequence

Q 33. GCU houses a EXCITER CONTROL RELAY (GROUND CONTROL

RELAY or Generator Feld Relay) in the excitation circuit
For an overvoltage or over excitation fault, open the exciter control relay
causing the generator output to fall to a residual value

Differential Fault Protection.

The GCUs in conjunction with the Bus Power Control unit (BPCU) protect
against differential current faults. It isolates the defective generator or faulty
bus-bar and reconfigures the electrical system.
Protection is provided for
 Over / Under Voltage
 Over / Under Frequency
 Over / Under Excitation
 Differential current faults; short circuit between bus-bars or bus-bar
to ground (earth) or open circuit faults unbalancing phase outputs

Alternative methods of supplying AC power

 RAM air turbine driven generator
 APU driven generator
 Hydraulic motor driven generator
 Static inverter
Q 29. On the ground – the GPU must supply 200 volts 3 ø - 400 Hz
supply

Chapter 12: Questions from the Book

Q9. To convert frequency wild Generator into constant frequency via

INVERTER

Q11. PMG in a rotating field provides the initial excitation

Q19 Phase voltage is taken between Phase and Neutral

Q20 In a STAR connection if one phase is earthed, it will cause large

unbalanced current to pass in the Neutral

Q 21 AC alternators are normally externally excited

Q34 Running excitation current for an AC generator is DC, which is rectified

AC (From a separate excitation generator or main rotor shaft)
Q 41. Differential protection circuit in 3 ø AC system is to compare
alternator output current to bus-bar current

Q43. In mechanical malfunction the QUILL drive shall fracture

Q 49. Frequency controlled generators are not always paralled –e.g. Split
System.

Q53. Non-IDG generators are cooled by air and/or oil

Q 58 A three -ø generator can supply power to a single ø or 3 ø power

Q 59. Frequency wild AC can only be used to supply DC to a common
bus-bar

Q60. Advantage of STAR one phase fault would not affect operation of
others

Q62. Low reactive load would increase excitation current

Q 65 In case of EARTH fault on bus-bar of a paralled generator would

require that both GCB and BTB should open.
 Chapter 13: PRACTICAL AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

Split Bus bar System

In Split BB system the various sources of AC power are never connected to the
same bus-bar

Phase sequence does not need to be aligned between the generators.

Essential Bus-bar is normally supplied from # 1 AC Bus-bar

In the event of loss of all generators a static inverter powered from the battery will
supply the essential AC loads

Q 8. In the event of s single generator failure BBsNo 1 AC Bus and No 2 AC

Bus are automatically connected together by the bus-tie-breakers (BTBs)

Parallel Bus-bar System

The generators are connected to the load Bus-bars by Generator Control breakers
(GCBs)

The load Bus-bars, carry all of the loads

BTBs connect the 4 load bus-bars to the individual Synchronizing BBs.

Q 9. On a 4-engine a/c) The two separate synchronizing BBs can be further

connected together or held separated by the Split system Breakers (SSB) (P
230).

Q10. If in parallel alternator operation if one generator fails then the SSB
will close allowing the remaining three geneartors to share the all the load.

APU generator or the GPU (external power) supplies cannot be operated in

parallel with any other power source

Q 11. In SBS if external power is plugged into an aircraft it will supply all the
all the services. On the ground an external power supply can be used to
power all the bus-bars
The output voltage, frequency and phase rotation of each generator is adjusted to
align with voltage, frequency and phase rotation of any generator or generator
already supplying the BB, before it is allowed to connect with the BBs

Questions from the BOOK: Chapter 13

Q1 Purpose of Sunchronising BB is to enable interconnection between

generator bus-bars
Q4. In Split Bus System using non-paralled CSDU generators
AC ESSENTIAL BUS is supplied by directly from No 1 AC Bus–bar using a
changeover relay.

Q5 In SBS system if both generators fail – all NON ESSENTIAL services are
lost.

Q6. In SBS AC system under normal operation takes its DC supply two
TRUs which are connected together by the DC Isolation Relay ( No 1TRU for
Ess DC and No 2 TRU for Non ESS DC bus). (P 228)
 Chapter 14: TRANSFORMERS

Transformers are used to raise or lower the voltage in an AC electrical system

An autotransformer has only one coil. Autotransformers with an output voltage of
26 volts are often used to power instruments

In a step-up transformer the output voltage is greater than the input, but in a step
down it is lower

Q5. The power in the primary winding of a transformer is equal to the power
in the secondary winding

Q6. With terminals no Load at output negligible current will flow

The input supply into the Primary coil of the transformer must be of the correct
frequency. If the input frequency is low it is possible that the transformer will
overheat due to excessive current flow

Three phase transformers

Auto Transformers

Half wave rectification (One Diode)

Diode rectifier has a very high resistance to the current flow in one direction and a
very low resistance in the other

Full wave rectification (Four Diodes)

A bridge rectifier produces an output of full-wave rectified DC

Three Phase Rectification (Six Diodes)

A 3-ø (phase) bridge rectifier produces a steady DC output voltage

A ZENER diode acts in the same manner as normal diode until a pre-determined
reverse voltage is reached at which point it allows unrestricted reverse flow in the
reverse direction

Inverters
Convert DC in to AC. Usually solid state – rotary or static type.

Transformers / Rectifiers (TRUs)

Transformer rectifier units or TRUs covert AC at one voltage to DC at another
voltage
 Chapter 15: AC MOTORS

Make your own teaching points from the book

An AC motor is made of two main parts: Stationery Stator and a rotating rotor

AC rotors use a rotating magnetic field in the stator to drive the rotor

If two phases of the supply to a three phase rotating field are reversed the
direction of the rotation of the field and thus that of the rotor being driven will be
reversed

An AC current is induced in the rotor of an induction motor by the rotating

magnetic field in the stator

The difference between the speed of the rotating field of an induction motor and
rotor speed is known as the slip speed or the rotor slip

In a synchronous motor the rotor rotates at the same speed as the rotating field

RPM = Frequency * 120 / Number of poles

Questions from the BOOK: Chapter 15

Q1

Q3

Q4

Q5

Q6

Q7

Q8

Q9

Q10
 Chapter 16: BASIC COMPUTERS

Notes can and should be modified from the book

NUMBERING SYSTEMS

An analogue computer uses continuous physical variables such as voltage,

pressure or mechanical movement to represent and manipulate the measurements
it handles

Digital computers use the binary number sys to manipulate data. In the v binary
system any number can be represented using only two symbols, zero and one

Binary 10th 9th 8th 7th 6th 5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st
Digit
Power 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Decimal 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Value

Octal notation is comprised of a series of groups made up of three binary digits

called triads

The hexadecimal or hex numbering sys uses a base of sixteen

Digital electronic computers use digit al data in their operations and this form of
data has only two levels of voltage. The two levels correspond to ON or OFF in
than electrical circuit

The term bit is used when referring to a binary digit. One bit is equal to one
binary digit. A number of bits handled as a group are referred to as byte.

Hardware and Software

Software is a general term used for digitally stored data such as program of
instructions read from or written to by computers

Hardware mechanical, magnetic, electronic and electrical components making up

a Computer

Basic Comp consists of a number components joined together in a design known

as Von Neumann architecture
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Performs, organizes, and controls all operations the computer can carryout
ALU performs arithmetic calculations and logic operations using binary numbers
The shift registers are temporary stores of data
The control unit contains the computer clock

Memory
Computer memory that retains the data when the power is switched off is called
non-volatile memory

Memory that loses data in the event of a power failure or switched off is called
volatile memory

ROM is a non-volatile memory

EA ROM is special type of non-volatile ROM that can be electronically altered

RAM is normally volatile memory

Buses or BBs are used used to connect the CPU to the computers memory and to
the peripheral equipment

An A to D converter is required to allow the computer to read analogue data.

A D to A converter is used to pas a computer’s output to an analogue device

Multiprocessing is the use of two or more CPUs within a single computer system

An operating system or OS is set of system software that manages the system

hardware and controls the execution of applications of software

Permanent storage of computer programs and the work they generate can take the
form of magnetic discs, optical discs or solid state electronic chip devices

A programming language is a language used to write a computer program

Assembly languages use a symbolic representation of the binary codecs and other
constants needed to program a particular CPU

A high level programming language is a language with strong abstractions from

the details of the computer A scripting language allows control of one or more
software application
A/C system which are computer controlled include the FMS (Flight management
system), DFGS (Digital Flight Guidance system), GPWS, and TCAS

Questions from the BOOK: Chapter 16

Q8

Q9

Q14

Q15

Q23

Q24

Chapter 18: LOGIC GATES

AND
OR
INVERT or NOT
NAND
NOR
EXCLUSIVE OR
TRUTH TABLES

Questions from the BOOK; Chapter 18

Q8

Q9

Q10
 Chapter 17: SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductors fall somewhere between conductors and insulators

Germanium and Silicon are two S/C used in production of electronic components

You can change the behavior of Si or Ge and turn it into a conductor by a process
known as doping

In N-type doping Antimony or arsenic is added to S/C material in small quantity

producing free electrons

In P- type doping Al or Indium is the dopant. This produces holes in the lattice
structure

A Junction diode consists of a piece of N-type material fused to a piece of P-type

material

A Junction diode allows current to flow freely through it in one direction but
resists current flow in the opposite direction

A transistor can act as either an electrical switch or as an amplifier

The End

Thanks GOD!