A -'u

Chapter 12 lo and Rain Proteetio

REQUIREMENTS AND STANDARDs OF PROTECTION

The aircraft must be leared of ice, frost and snow prior to dispatch, and CS.OPS requires that
public transport aircraft shall be provided with certain protective cquipment for flights in which
indicate the probability that conditions
the weather reports available atthetime of
departure
predisposing to ice formation will be encountered.

aircraft whether or not they are required to be

Certain basic standards have to be met by all
the requirememts of CS-OPS, and these are intended to provide a reasonable
protected by for short periods in icing conditions. The
protection if the aircraft is flown unintentionally
in CS-OPS cover such considerations as the stability and control balance
specified
requirements jamnming of controls and the ability of the engine to continue to function in icing
characteristics,

conditions.

used:
w o different approaches are generally
De-icing' where ice is allowed to accumulate prior to being removed.

'Anti-icing' where the object is to prevent any ice accumulation.

There are a number of avenues which need exploring and these include detection and warning
all of the following:
systems and the methods used to protect the aircraft, which can be any or

mechanical.
Pneumatic Expanding rubber boots
Thermal Electrically heated.
Oil heated.
Air heated.

Freezing point depressant fluids. (FPD)

Liquid
Is provided automatically by the provision of ice detectors
Ice detection
which relay a warning to the flight crew.

Is the application of continuous heat or fluid.

Anti-Icing
Is the intermittent application of fluid, heat or mechanical effort.
De-Icing
These aspects will all be dealt with in detail later.

DETECTION DEVICES AND WARNINGS

There are three main types of ice detector in current use:

the ice detector head. (Accretion principle)

the mechanical ice detector. (Accretion principle)
the element ice sensing unit. (Inferential Principle)

234
Ice and Rain Protection

hapter 12
The following list is not
exhaustive, but
components which are protected againstshould give
the effects of
an
indication of the
variety of systems
ice and rain. and
Engine Intakes IGVs
-
-

Struts or Webs
Oil cooler intakes, fuel
system filters.
Ram air intakes for
tail leading generator cooling or
Engine bay ventilation.
edges. Slats Propellers.
-

Aerofoils Wing and

Airframe - Aerials
Waste water outlet horns,
Systems- Pitot heads and probes. Large fences and bullets.
Instrument
Cockpit windows.

MECHANICAL DE-ICING
Pneumatic de-icing systems are employed in certain of
types piston engined aircraft and twin
turbo-propeller
method
aircraft. The number of
components comprising system a
of applying the operating principle. The arrangement of a vary, together with the
schematically in Figure 12.9. typical system is illustrated

SPAN-WISE DE-JCING TUBES

CHORD-WISE DE-ICING TUBES

Figure 12.9: De-icer boots.

De-icer Boots. The de-icer boots, or overshoes, consist of

layers of natural rubber and
rubberised fabric between which are disposed flat inflatable tubes
closed at the ends. The tubes
are made of rubberised fabric and are
vulcanised inside the rubber
tubes are so arranged that when the boots are in layers. In some boots the
tubes run parallel to the span; in others position on a wing or
tailplane leading edge the
to the air supply
they run parallel to the chord. The tubes are connected
pipelines from the distribution valves system by short
lengths of tlexible hose
secured to connectors on the boots and to the
of the boots are coated with a film of pipelines by hose clips. The external surtaces
conductive material to bleed off
electricity. Depending on the type specified, a boot may be attached to a accumulations of static
screw fasteners (rivnuts) or
by cementing them directly to the leading edge either by
leading edge.

239
Ciapter12 Ice and Rain
Protection
A Cunplies and Distribution. The fubes in boot
cTe side of an engine-driven vacuum pump,the a sections are inflated by air from the
from high-pressure reservoir or in the case
afsome types of turbo-propeller aircratt, froma tapping at an
engine compressor stage.
At end of an inflatiorn stage of the
the
the boots are deflated by vacuum derived operating sequence, and whenever the
from system is switched
engine compressor tapping, from the Venturi sectiontheofvacuum pump or, in systems
utilising an
an
ejector nozzle.
The method ofdistributing air supplies to the
for a
particular type of aircraft but, in general, boots depends on the de-icing systems
three methods are required
shuttle valves which controlled
are in use. One
method employs
distributed to each boot by individualby separate solenoid valve;
a
in the second
solenoid-controlled method air is
is effected by a motor-driven valve. valves; in the third method
distribution

Electronic Cyclic Timer

Dual Vacuum
Pressure gauge

Group 1 Group2 Group 2

Group 1

Solenoid
Distributor Valve
the delay period between
cycles is altered by timer to suit
Electrical
Control Circuit conditions

Pressure Line long delay for light Icing

Vacuum Line short delay for heavy lcing
Inactive Vacuum Group 3
Pressure Lune

Figure 12.10: Schematic diagram of a

pneumatic
system. de-icing
Controls and Indicators. The controls
system depend on the type of aircraft and indicators required for the
In the basic
arrangement, main on-offand the on
particular operation of de-icing a
switch, pressure and arrangement of its de-icing system.
a
form part of the
timed sequence controlling section. Pressure and
and the methods vacuum is
vacuum
gauges or indicating
referred to above. In most applied lights
adopted usually vary with the to the boots in an alternating
electronic device. installations, however, methods of air
distribution
for details of the
Reference should
always made to the relevant
be timing control is effected
appropriate controlling by means
aircraft Maintenance of an
system and time cycles. Manual

240
 and Rain Protection
Chapter 12

peration. When the

the tubes. The inflationsystem switched
is
on,
pressure is admitted
break away. weakens
At the end ot the
the bond between ice
and the boot
to the boot
sections to inflate
dumped to atmosphere through inflation stage of the operating surfaces, causing the ice to
the vacuum
supply. This inflation automatic opening valves andsequence,
and deflation
the air in the tubes is
the tubes are
in operation. When the
is switched off cycle is repeated during the fully deflated by
boot sections to hold thesystem vacuum is period the system is
aerodynamic drag.
sections flat
against the supplied continually to all tubes of the
wing and tail leading edges thus minimising
The de-icer boots are
pulsated in a set cycle, the
frequency selector to cater for light or frequency of which can be varied
are usually divided into
three groups asheavy icing conditions. For cycling by the
follows: purposes the boots
Group 1- Port and Starboard
Group 2- Port and Starboard mainplane inboard boots.
mainplane outboard boots.
Group 3- Fin and tailplane boots.

The cycle takes 34

The selector
seconds, irrespective of the selection made on the
merely
26 seconds for
alters the cyclic frequency selector.
delay period between cycles, e.g. 206 seconds
heavy icing. for light
icing and

HERMAL 'ANTI-ICING' AND DE-ICING'

Hot air systems on modern aircraft are generally
Other methods of engine bleed air and
are said to be
'anti-icing'.
obtaining the hot air will be described, and
application and the temperature applied, they may be either depending on the duration of

de-icing or anti-icing systems.

In systems of this type,the leading edge sections of
leading edge flaps, and tail units are usually provided wings including leading edge slats but not
with a second, inner skin
inside of the leading edge section. Heated positioned
form a small gap between it and the to
to the air is ducted
wings and tail units and passes into the gap, providing sufficient heat in the outer skin
of the
leading edge to melt ice already formed and prevent further ice formation. The air is
exhausted to atmosphere
through outlets in the skin surfaces and also, in some cases, in the tips
of wings and tail units. The
is controlled
temperature of the air within the ducting and leading edge sections
by a shutter or butterfly type valve system, the operation of which depends on the
type of heating system employed.
A gas turbine
engine presents a critical icing problem, and therefore requires protection against
ice formation particularly at the air intake, nose bullet or fairing and inlet guide vanes. Icing of
hese regions can considerably restrict the airflow causing a loss in performance and, furthermore,
causedamage to the compressor as a result of ice breaking away and being ingested by the
compressor.
There are two thermal systems in use for air intake de/anti-icing; a hot air bleed system and an
electrical resistance heating system, and although the latter is usually chosen for turbo-propeller
engines to provide protection for the propeller, there are some examples where both systems are
used in combination.

Air Supplies. There are several methods by which the heated air can be supplied and these
include bleeding of air from a turbine engine compressor, heating of ram air by passing it
through a heat exchanger located in an engine exhaust gas system, and combustion heating of
ram air.

241
Chapter12
Ice and Rain Protection

In a
Compressor bleed system the hot
mixing with a supply of cool air in a air is tapped directly from a
mixing chamber it passes intocompressor
svstems, equipment, eg. safety shut-off the main
stage, and after
sufficient for all de-icing requirements is valves, is provided to ducting. In some
structural limitations. supplied within pressureensure
limits
that an air mass flow
acceptable to duct and
The heat exchanger method of
by turbo-propeller supplying warm air is employed in some
engines. The heat
exchanger unit is types of aircraft
diverted to pass between tubes
through which outsidepositioned so that powered
exhaust gases
supply of exhaust gases is air enters the
usually regulated by a device such as main supply ducts.
can be

flap fitted in the ducting between the exhaust unit and

the heat
a
thermostatically
controlled
Ina combustion heating
exchanger.
system ram air is passed
chamber in which a fuel/air mixture is burned, andthrough cylindrical
is heated by contactjacket enclosing sealed
a
a
Air for combustion is derived with the chamber
from a separate air walls.
means of a blower. intake and is supplied to the chamber
by

Temperature Control. The control of the air

sections is
an temperature within ducting and leading edge
important aspect of thermal de-icing
depend on the type of system. system operation and the methods adopted
In typical compressor bleed system, control is effected
a
are located
at various by temperature sensing units which
points in the leading edge ducting and by valves in the main air supply
ducting. The sensing units and valves are
electrically interconnected
automatically positioned to regulate the flow of heated air to the so that the valves are
the
temperature within a predetermined range. Indications of air system, thus maintaining
provided by resistance type temperature sensing elements and temperature conditions are
switches and overheat indicators,
warning lights. some aircraft the electrical
On temperature sensitive
interrupted by landing gear controlled supplies to the valves are
relays when the aircraft is on the ground. Under these
conditions, valve operation is
position. accomplished by holding the system control switch to a "TEST

AEROFOIL LEADING
EDGES:
-WINGS
SLATS
FIN
TAILPLANE
WING FENCE AREAS
ENGINE INTAKES

Figure 12.11: Areas heated

by 'anti-icing' air.
242
inProtection Protectio

Chapter12

Heater Mats

Glass Cloth Layers

eh

Electrical Elements

Intermittently Heated Elements

Continuously heated Elements

Figure 12.12: Heater Mats.

When heat exchangers are employed, temperature control is usually obtained by the use of
adjustable flaps and valves to decrease or increase the supply of heating and cooling air passed
across the exchangers.

The method of controlling the flaps and valves varies with different aircraft, but a typical
system incorporates an electric actuator, which is operated automatically by an inching device
controlled by a temperature sensing element fitted in the duct on the warm air outlet side of
the heat exchanger. In some systems, actuators are directly controlled by thermal switches, so
that the flaps or valves are automatically closed when a predetermined temperature is reached.
Indications of air temperature conditions are provided by resistance type temperature sensing
elements and indicators, temperature sensitive switches and overheat warning lights.

In systems incorporating combustion heaters, the temperature is usually controlled by thermal

cyclic switches located in the heater outlet ducts, so that when the temperature reaches a
predetermined maximum the fuel supply to the heaters is automatically switched off.

In engine
an hot airsystem the air is bled from the compressor and is fed via ducting into the air
intake nose cowl, through the inlet guide vanes of the
the nose bullet. After engine and also, in some engines, through
circulating the intake cowl and guide vanes, the air is exhausted either to
atmosphere or into the engine air intake. The flow of hot air is
control valves which are actuated regulated
by control switches on a cockpit
by electrically operated
control system is not usually
provided in a hot air system. panel. An air
temperature

243
 a i

puE.
Chapter12 Ice and Rain Protection

Electrical Heating System. In

an
electrical heating system, heating elements either of resistance
wire sprayed metal, bonded to the air intake structure.
or are
The power supply required for
heating is normally three-phase alternating current. The
arrangement
used turbo-propeller engine illustrated in Figure 12.12 as an
is adopted in a widely
resistance wire type and are formed into an overshoe which is example. The elements are of the
of the air intake cowl and also around the oil cooler bonded around the leading edge
air intake.
Both anti-icing and de-icing
techniques are employed by using
intermitterntly heated elements respectively. The continuously heated and
elements are sandwiched
glass cloth impregnated with resin. In some between layers of
layers of rubber. The outer surfaces are, insystems the elements
all cases,
may be sandwiched between
rain, and the effect of oils, suitably
greases, etc. The power supply is fedprotected against erosion by
heated elements, and via a cyclic time switch
unit to the directly to the continuously
to the propeller blade elements. The intermittently
cyclic time switch units control
heated elements and
in selected time
sequences compatible with prevailing outside air the application of current
severity of icing. The timesequences which temperature conditions and
may be selected vary between
systems.
For the system shown in
Figure 12.12 the sequences are Fase,
on/heat off) of 2 minutes at outside air giving one complete cycle (heat
one temperatures
complete cycle of 6 minutes at outside air between -6°C and +10°C, and 'Slow,
in some cases, an temperatures below -6°C. An indicator giving
ammeter, is provided on the light and,
correct functioning of the time
switch circuit. appropriate cockpit control panel to indicate

thermostatically
controlled flap
or valve
Outside alr

Exhaust gas

Exhaust gas supply

controlled by themostatic
device fitted in between Outside alr
exhaust unit & heat
OXchanger

Figure 12.13: A heat

exchange system.

2
244