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fc fI fI
RF Filter
fc fc f
IF Filter
fI fI f
Baseband
Sub-Heterodyne Super-Heterodyne
fc ⇤ fc f fc ⇤ fc f
(fc fI ) = fc fI f (fc + fI ) = fc + fI f
f
(2fc fI ) fI fI 2fc fI f (2fc + fI ) fI fI 2fc + fI
I To help keep track of what is happening, one of the bands has been
shaded gray. In fact, both are the same.
I Both produce the same IF signals.
AM Modulation
AM modulation is a form of amplitude modulation. For µ > 0,
s(t) = (Ac + m(t)) cos(2πfc t) = Ac (1 + µm(t)) cos(2πfc t)
We need bandwidth of m(t) fc and modulation index µ < 1.
Spectrum of modulated signal:
Ac Ac µ
S(f ) = (δ(f + fc ) + δ(f − fc )) + (M (f + fc ) + M (f − fc ))
2 2
Ac ( (f ) + µM (f ))
fc fc f
Ac Ac
( (f + fc ) + µM (f + fc )) ( (f fc ) + µM (f fc ))
2 2
fc fc f
DSB-SC vs. AM
DSB-SC modulated signals undergo phase reversal when m(t) changes sign.
It is difficult to extract carrier from received signal.
0.5
−0.5
−1
0.5
−0.5
−1
−1
−2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
k = 0.5
a
1.5
0.5
−0.5
−1
−1.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
AM Signal and Its Envelope
Envelope Detection of AM Signals
The term detection means extracting signal from received data. In some
cases it means demodulation.
Suppose that a signal x(t) can be written as
x(t) = E(t) cos(2πfc t)
where E(t) varies slowly compared to the carrier cos(2πfc t).
Then |E(t)| is called the envelope of x(t).
For envelope detection to work, we need
I fc bandwidth of m(t)
Otherwise positive and negative spectral components overlap.
I A + m(t) ≥ 0
Otherwise phase reversals occur when A + m(t) < 0.
Modulation Index
The maximum deviation of m(t) from zero is
mp = max(|m(t)|)
The modulation index of the modulated signal is defined by
mp
µ=
A
Larger modulation index reduces power but makes demodulation harder.
Broadcast AM stations use modulation index close to 1. Input signals are
controlled using automatic gain control (AGC).
Envelope Detector for AM
Rectify the RF signal, then lowpass filter:
+
+ [A + m(t)]
[A + m(t)] cos(ω0t) C R
t t
[A + m(t)]
AM Demodulation Experiment
1 −t/RC
m(t) = cos 2πt , fc = 10 , h(t) = e u(t)
RC
2 2
1 1.5
0 1
−1 0.5
−2 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0.7 0.3
0.6 0.2
0.5 0.1
0.4 0
0.3 −0.1
0.2 −0.2
0.1 −0.3
0 −0.4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Cat’s Whiskers (Crystal) Radio
This radio was powered only by received radio energy.
The point-contact semiconductor detector was subsequently resurrected around World War II
because of the military requirement for microwave radar detectors.
Power of AM Signals
The power of an AM signal is the sum of the power of two components.
ϕAM (t) = (A + m(t)) cos(2πfc t) = A cos(2πfc t) + m(t) cos(2πfc t)
| {z } | {z }
carrier sidebands
Carrier and sideband signals are orthogonal, so powers add. Carrier power:
Z T
2 1
Pc = A cos2 (2πfc t) dt = A2
0 2
Signal power after modulation is 1/2 the original message power:
Ps = 12 Pm ,
where message power is average power as T gets large,
1 t0 +T 2
Z
2
Pm = m (t) = m (t) dt
T t0
The signal can be reconstructed from either the upper sideband (USB) or
lower sideband.
SSB transmits a bandpass filtered version of the modulated signal.
Single Sideband (cont.)
Single Sideband Modulation and Demodulation
I SSB can be transmitted using a DSB-SC modulator with a narrower
bandpass filter.
For USB, center frequency is
f˜c = fc + 12 B
and cutoff frequency is B/2.
The bandfilter must roll off quickly to eliminate unwanted contributions
from the other sideband.
Message frequencies near 0 will be affected by the nonideal filter.
fc fc f
S(f ) Received
Spectrum
fc fc f
1
S(f + fc ) Demodulate to
2
Baseband
fc fc f
1 ⇤ 1
S ( (f + fc )) S(f + fc ) Take real
2 2
part
fc fc f
2 HSSB (f )
M (f )
fc fc f
The impulse response of this filter is
hSSB (t) = F −1 {2u(f )}
Hilbert Transform
We know
1
u(t)
12 δ(f ) +
j2πf
By duality, and multiplying by 2
j
δ(t) +
2u(f )
πt
The impulse response of the filter is
j
hSSB (t) = δ(t) +
πt
If m(t) is the input signal, the single sideband signal is
j 1
m(t) ∗ hSSB (t) = m(t) ∗ δ(t) + = m(t) + j m(t) ∗
πt πt
The last term is the Hilbert transform of m(t):
1
mh (t) = m(t) ∗
πt
Hilbert Transform (cont.)
The transfer function of the Hilbert transform is
(
−j f >0
HHT (f ) = −j sgn(f ) =
j f <0
which looks like
j HHT (f )
fc fc f
j
m(t) 1 m
SSB (t)
+
j
⇤hHT (t)