AMPLITUDE MODULATION mt = m12 + m 22 + m32 ......

where: mt = total modulation index

• AM Wave m1, m2, m3 = modulation index of signal
Vm V
V (t ) = Vc sin ω c t +
cos(ω c − ω m )t − m cos(ω c + ω m )t having index 1, 2, 3 respectively
2 2
where: Vc = maximum voltage of the carrier signal Power Savings
Vm = maximum voltage of the original a. Single Sideband (SSB)
modulating signal P + PC
ωc = 2πfc = frequency of the carrier signal PS = LSB / USB
Pt
ωm = 2πfm = frequency of the modulating
signal
b. Single Sideband full carrier (SSBFC)
V m V max −V min P
m= = PS = LSB / USB
V c V max +V min Pt
where: m = modulation index
Vmax = maximum peak-to-peak voltage swing c. Two independent Sidebands
of AM wave P
PS = C
Vmin = minimum peak-to-peak voltage swing Pt
of AM wave
• Tuned Radio-Frequency (TRF)AM Receiver
AM wave equation in terms of modulation index TRF Design formulas
mVc mVc 1
V (t ) = Vc sin ω c t + cos(ω c − ω m )t − cos(ω c + ω m )t fr =
2 2
2π LC
f
• AM Bandwidth Q= r
BW = 2 f m BW
where: Q = quality factor
where: BW = bandwidth fr = frequency
fm = modulating signal frequency
BW = Bandwidth
• AM Power and Current
• Superheterodyne Receiver
V2 V2 V2 V2 f si = f s + 2 f i
Pt = carr + LSB + USB Pc = c
R R R 2R where: fsi = image frequency
2 2 2 2
m Vc V m fs = signal frequency
PLSB = PUSB = = m = Pc
8R 8R 4 fi = intermediate frequency
2
Pt m2  It  m2
=1+   = 1 +
α = 1+ Q2ρ 2
Pc 2  Ic  2
where: Pt = total transmitted power f f f image f
ρ = si − s = − RF
Pc = unmodulated carrier power fs f si f RF f image
It = total transmitted current where: α = image-frequency rejection ratio(IFRR)
Ic = unmodulated carrier current Q = quality factor of the circuit
m = modulation index

Note: The voltage should be in rms

Amplitude Modulation with Multiple Signals

 m2
Pt = Pc 1 + t 
 2 

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 TELEVISION PAV = PPEAK × DR PPEAK =
PAV PRT
PW
Details of Horizontal Blanking where: PRT = Pulse Repetition Time
Period Time, μsec PW = Pulse Width (μs)
Total line (H) 63.5 RT = Rest Time (μs)
H blanking 0.15H-0.18H or 9.5-11.5 PRF = Pulse Repetition Frequency
H sync pulse 0.08H, or 4.75 ± 0.5 DR = Duty Cycle or Duty Ratio
Front porch 0.02H, or 1.27 PAV = Average Power
Back porch 0.06H, 3.81 PPEAK = Peak Power
Visible line time 52-54
Maximum unambiguous range
Details of Vertical Blanking PRT
Runamb = c
Period Time 2
Total field (V) 1/60s 0.0167s
V blanking 0.05V-0.08V or 9.5-11.5 Minimum displayed range
Each V sync pulse 27.35 μs PW
Rmin = c
Total of 6 V sync pulse 3H = 190.5 μs 2
Each equalizing pulse 0.04H = 2.54 μs where: c = speed of light (3×108 m/s)
Each serration 0.07H = 4.4 μs
Visible field time 0.92V-0.95V, 0.015-0.016s Radar Range
PT AP SAO
Picture Information Encoding R=4
(4π ) 2 PR min
Y = 0.30 R + 0.59G + 0.11B
4πAO
I = 0.60 R − 0.28G − 0.32 B AP =
λ2
Q = 0.21R − 0.52G + 0.31B
2
P A S
R =4 T 2O
Relative amplitude for the AM RF picture signal 4πλ PR min
Tip of sync = 100% where: R = Radar Range
Blanking level = 75% PT = Transmitted Power
Black setup = 67.5% AP = antenna gain
Maximum white = 10 to 15% or 12.5% (typical) S = cross-sectional area of the target
A0 = captured area of an antenna
NAVIGATIONAL AIDS PRmin = detected signal level in W

Directional Gain Doppler Effect

4π λ 2v cos θ
G dir = θ= FD =
θφ L λ
where: θ = horizontal beam-width (radians) where: FD = frequency change between transmitter
λ = the wavelength of the radar and reflected signal
L = the dimension of the antenna in the v = relative velocity between RADAR and
direction of interest (i.e. width or height) target
φ = vertical beam-width (radians) λ = wavelength of the transmitted wave
θ = angle between target direction and
RADAR Pulse (Waveform) RADAR system
PRT = PW + RT
1 PW
PRF = DR =
PRT PRT

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 TRANSMISSION LINES Resistance, R
f Ω
• Electrical Characteristics R = 8.34 × 10 −8
a m
Characteristic Impedance
f Ω
Z R=
ZO = Ω 5d 100 − ft
Y
where: Z = R +jωL Ω/m
where: a = radius (m)
Y = G +jωC S/m
f = frequency (MHz)
d = diameter (inches)
R
ZO = at low frequency, Ω
G For coaxial line:
µ D H
ZO =
L
at high frequency, Ω L= ln
C 2π d m
2πε F
Also, C=
D m
Z O = Z SC Z OC Ω ln
d
where: ZSC = short circuit impedance
where: D = diameter of the outer conductor
ZOC = open circuit impedance
d = diameter of the inner conductor
For Parallel-wire line:
Alternate formulas:
µ 2D H
L = ln L = 1.016 Z O ε r × 10 −3 μH/ft
π d m
πε F εr
C= C = 1.016 × 10 −3 μF/ft
2D m ZO
ln
d
where: L = Inductance Characteristic Impedance, Z0
C = Capacitance 60 D
D = Separation between center to center ZO = ln
εr d
d = diameter of the wire
138 D
ZO = log
Alternate formulas: εr d
L = 1.016 Z O ε r × 10 −3 μH/ft Note: 40Ω ≤ Z0 ≤ 150Ω
εr
C = 1.016 × 10 −3 μF/ft Resistance, R
ZO
 1 1 Ω
R = 8.34 × 10 −8 f + 
D d m
Characteristic Impedance, Z0
where: D = diameter of the outer conductor (m)
L
ZO = d = diameter of the inner conductor (m)
C f = frequency (MHz)
120 2 D
ZO = ln
εr d  1 1 Ω
R = 0.1 f  + 
276 2D  D d  100 − ft
ZO = log where: D = diameter of the outer conductor (inches)
εr d
d = diameter of the inner conductor (inches)
Note: 150Ω ≤ Z0 ≤ 600Ω f = frequency (MHz)

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 Complex Propagation constant, γ V (d ) = V + e jγd + V − e − jγd
γ = α + jβ = ZY
where: α = attenuation constant or coefficient
I (d ) =
1
( )
V + e jγd − V − e − jγd
ZO
(Nepers/length) Loss-less transmission line
β = phase constant or coefficient where: V(d) = line voltage at point d
(Radians/length) I(d) = line current at point d
Z0 = characteristic impedance of the line
 R  V+ = incident voltage
α = 4.343  dB/length
 O
Z V– = reflected voltage
ω 2π γ = complex propagation constant for lossy-
β = ω LC = = radians/length line
VP λ β = complex propagation constant for loss-
1 less line
VP = m/s
LC d = distance from the load
where: Vp = propagation velocity
Four Cases (loss-less transmission line)
• Loading Conditions 1. ZL → 0 (short circuit)
Note: The zero reference is at the load not on the V (d ) = 2 jV + sin( β d )
generator. 2V + cos(β d )
I (d ) =
Z0
1. ZL = Z0 (match load)
V (d )
with ZL = Z0 then Zin = Z0 Z (d ) = = jZ 0 tan( β d )
I R = I S e − γL I S = I R e γL I (d )
V R = V S e − γL V S = V R e γL ΓR = −1

PR = PS e −2γL PS = PR e 2γL 2. ZL → ∞ (open circuit)

where: IR, IS, VR, VS = receiving and sending end V (d ) = 2V + cos( βd )
current and voltages respectively
2 jV + sin( β d )
PR, PS = power at the receiving and sending I (d ) =
end Z0
γ = complex propagation constant V (d )
L = length of the transmission lone Z (d ) = = − jZ 0 cot(β d )
I (d )
Zin = input impedance
ΓR = 1
ZL = load impedance

2. ZL ≠ Z0 (Mismatch) 3. ZL = Z0 (matched load)

Z2 V (d ) = V + e jβd
Z in = O for λ/4 line V + e jβd
ZL I (d ) =
Z0
 Z + Z O tanh γL 
Z in = Z O  L  for L > λ/4 Z (d ) = Z 0
 Z O + Z L tanh γL 
where: Zin = the equivalent impedance representing ΓR = 0
the entire line terminated by the load
4. ZL = jX (pure reactance)
Load boundary characteristics - Reactive impedance can be realized
V (d ) = V + e jβd + V − e − jβd with transmission lines terminated by
a short or by an open circuit.
I (d ) =
1
(
V + e jβd − V − e − jβd )
ZO Z in = jZ 0 tan( β L)
Loss-less transmission line

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 - Reflection coefficient has a unitary B. Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
magnitude, as in the case of short and V Vinc + Vref
open circuit load. VSWR = max =
Vmin Vinc − Vref
Shorted Transmission Line – Fixed Frequency where: V+ = Vinc = incident (forward) voltage
L=0 Z in = 0 Series V– = Vref = reflected (reverse) voltage
Resonance
λ Im(Z in ) > 0 Inductance C. Current Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
0<L< I I inc + I ref
4 ISWR = max =
λ Z in → ∞ Parallel I min I inc − I ref
L= Resonance
4 where: Iinc = incident (forward) current
λ λ Im(Z in ) < 0 Capacitance Iref = reflected (reverse) current
<L<
4 2
Note: SWR = VSWR = ISWR
λ Z in = 0 Series
L= Resonance In dB:
2 SWRdB = 20 log SWR
λ 3λ Im(Z in ) > 0 Inductance
<L<
2 4 Coefficient of reflection, Γ
3λ Z in → ∞ Parallel
L= Vref I ref Z − Z 0 SWR − 1
4 Resonance Γ= = = L =
3λ Vinc I inc Z L + Z 0 SWR + 1
Im(Z in ) < 0 Capacitance
<L<λ
4
Solutions to mismatch condition:
1. Quarter-wave transformer matching
Shorted Transmission Line – Fixed Frequency
- for purely resistive
L=0 Z in → ∞ Parallel
Resonance Z 0' = Z 0 Z L Ω
λ Im(Z in ) < 0 Capacitance where: Z0’ = Characteristic impedance of the
0<L<
4 quarter-wave matching transformer
λ Z in = 0 Series
L= Resonance 2. Stub
4
Procedure of using stubs:
λ λ Im(Z in ) > 0 Inductance
<L< a. Calculate the load admittance
4 2 b. Calculate the stub susceptance
λ Z in → ∞ Parallel
L= Resonance
c. Connect the stub to the load, the resulting
2 admittance being the load conductance G.
λ 3λ Im(Z in ) < 0 Capacitance d. Transform conductance to resistance, and
<L<
2 4 calculate Z0’ of the quarter-wave
3λ Z in = 0 Series transformer.
L= Resonance
4
3λ Im(Z in ) > 0 Inductance ANTENNA
<L<λ
4
• Antenna Characteristics
• Degree of Mismatch P2
G = 10 log
A. Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) P1
Z R where: G(dB) = antenna gain in decibels
SWR = 0 = L (whichever is larger) P1 = power of unidirectional antenna
RL Z 0
P2 = power of reference antenna
1+ Γ
SWR =
1− Γ ERP = Pin G
Note: The greater the SWR, the greater the mismatch

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 ERP = Prad D ξF = field strength in the most optimum
where: G = power gain (unitless) direction
Pin = power delivered to the feedpoint ξB = field strength in the opposite direction

For an isotropic antenna: PT = Prad 60πLe I 30 PT

ξ= sin θ =
But for a unidirectional antenna: PT = ERP λr r
where: ξF = magnitude of field strength
Prad r = distance
Rrad = Le = antenna length
I2 I = current amplitude
where: Rrad = radiation resistance θ = the angle of the axis of the wire and the
Prad = power radiated by the antenna point of maximum radiation
I = current at the feedpoint
Isotropic Antenna
Radiation resistance for l not in excess of λ/8 Gain over isotropic = 0 dB
2
l Beamwidth = 360º
Rrad = 790 
λ 
• Types of Antenna
Pd = Pin − Prad A. Dipole Antenna
a. Half-wave dipole
where: Rrad = radiation resistance
Gain over isotropic = 2.14 dB
Prad = power radiated by the antenna
Beamwidth = 55º
Rrad
η= b. Folded half-wave dipole
RT Gain over isotropic = 5.64 dB
Prad = ηPin Beamwidth = 45º
G = ηD
B. Beam Antenna
where: η = antenna efficiency (1 for lossless ant.)
a. Yagi-Uda Antenna
Rrad = antenna radiation resistance
Gain over isotropic = 7.14 dB
RT = antenna radiation resistance
Beamwidth = 25º
= Rrad and Rd (ohmic resistance)
D = directivity (maximum directive gain)
b. Rhombic Antenna
Gain over isotropic = 5.14 dB
fr
BW =
Q C. Loop Antenna
λ Gain over isotropic = 3.14 dB
φ = 70 Beamwidth = 200º
D
where: BW = bandwidth
fr = antenna resonant frequency V = k (2πf ) BAN
Q = antenna quality factor where: V = voltage induced in a loop antenna
φ = beamwidth k = physical proportional factor
B = field strength flux, V/m
PF ξ A = loop area, m2
AFB = 10 log = 20 log F N = number of turns
PB ξB
where: AFB = front-to-back ratio (dB) D. Antenna with parabolic reflector
PF = power output in the most optimum 2
2 D
Aeff kAs
direction G= = = π k 
PB = power output in the opposite direction Aiso Aiso λ

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 λ2 πD 2 λ1
Aiso = As = where: l1 = = the length of the longest element
4π 4 2
where: Aeff = effective aperture or antenna capture d1 = the distance between the longest element
area and the second element
Aiso = isotropic area r = design factor which is between 0.7 and
k = illumination factor 0.98
D = diameter of parabolic reflector
Antenna Height
2 For a straight vertical antenna with h ≤ λ/4
 D
G = 6  with k = 0.65 λ πh
λ he = sin 2
2πh λ
π sin
5λ λ
Parabolic dipole: D = where: he = effective height
2 h = actual height
Horn Antenna (Pyramidal) Note: he the antenna effective height is ½ to ⅔ of the
56λ
Elevation Pattern: –3dB beamwidth = actual height.
h
FIBER OPTICS
70λ
Azimuth Pattern: –3dB beamwidth =
w • Nature of Light
 D
2
E P = hf
G = 7.5 
λ where: Ep = energy of a photon; Joules (J)
h = Planck’s constant, 6.625×10-34 J-s
E. Helical Antenna f = frequency, Hz
2
 D  NS frequency of red light = 4.4×1014 Hz
G = 15 
λ λ frequency of violet light = 7×1014 Hz
52
φ=
πD NS • Snell’s Law
λ λ n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2
where: G = Power gain where: n1 = refractive index of material 1
φ = beamwidth n2 = refractive index of material 2
θ1 = angle of incidence
D = helix diameter
θ2 = angle of refraction
N = number of turns
S = pitch between turns
Note: 1 Å = 10–10 m
λ = wavelength
1 micron = 10–6 m
L = center-line axis length ≈ NS
nair = 1.0003 ≈ 1
Note: If pitch is not given S = λ/4
c
n=
F. Log-Periodic Antenna v
Design factor formulas: where: n = refractive index
l l l d d d c = speed of light
r= 2 = 3 = 4 r= 2 = 3 = 4 v = velocity of light at material with
l1 l 2 l 3 d1 d 2 d 3 refractive index of n
c c
fH = fL =
λn λ1 Note: Angle of incidence and refraction are
measured from normal

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 n2 αc = connector attenuation
sin θ C = αs = total splice losses
n1
fm = fiber margin
where: θC = critical angle
L = distance between repeaters
• Propagation of Light Through a Fiber 1
θ1 < θC → light is refracted Z= B∆t
θ1 > θC → light is reflected 5
θ1 = θC → reflected or refracted where: Z = system length
B = maximum bit rate
sin θ in (max) = n1 cosθ C Δt = total fiber dispersion
where: θin(max) = acceptance angle
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
= acceptance cone half angle
• The Electromagnetic Wave
NA = n12 − n 22 Velocity of propagation
Where: NA = Numerical Aperture 1
Vp = m/s
µε
• Mode of Propagation
µ = µr µ0 ε = ε rε 0
1
N = V2 where: μ = permeability of the medium (H/m)
2 ε = permittivity of the medium (F/m)
d d
V =π n12 − n 22 = π NA
λO λO The Power Density
n − n2 ERP PT GT
∆= 1 ℘= = W/m2
n1 A 4πr 2
where: N = number of modes
V = V number The Electric Field Intensity or Strength
d = diameter 30 PT GT
λ = wavelength ξ = αH = V/m
r
NA = numerical Aperture where: α = characteristic impedance of free space, Ω
n1 = refractive index of core H = rms value of magnetic field intensity or
n2 = refractive index of cladding strength (A/m)
Δ = fractional index difference
The characteristic impedance of a medium
• Optical Fiber System Design
µ
Mathematical Analysis α= Ω
The power budget is the basis of the design of an ε
optical fiber link.
Characteristic impedance in free space
Total gain – Total losses ≥ 0 µ o = 4π × 10 −7 = 1.26 × 10 −6 H/m
10 −9
Therefore εo = = 8.854 × 10 −12 F/m
36π
(Pt + Pr) – (αf + αc + αs + fm) ≥ 0
4π × 10 −7
α= = 120πΩ = 377Ω
Thus, 10 −9
L = Pt – Pr = (αf + αc + αs + fm) 36π
where: Pt = transmitted power
Pr = receiver sensitivity (minimum received
power)
αf = fiber attenuation

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 The Attenuation of Power Density and Electric • The Propagation Modes
Field Intensity The Radio Frequency Spectrum
℘ r Band Name Frequency (MHz) Propagation
A℘ (dB) = 10 log 1 = 20 log 2
℘2 r1 VLF 0.01 – 0.03 Ground Wave
LF 0.03 – 0.3 Ground Wave
ξ r
Aξ (dB) = 10 log 1 = 20 log 2 MF 0.3 – 3.0 Ground Wave
ξ2 r1 HF 3.0 – 30 Sky Wave
VHF 30 – 300 Space Wave
• The effects of environment to propagation of UHF 300 – 3,000 Space Wave
radio waves SHF 3,000 – 30,000 Space Wave
Refractive indices of different materials EHF 30,000 – 300,000 Space Wave
H2O 1.33
Glass 1.50 A. The Ground (Surface) Wave Method
Quartz Crystal 1.54 The field strength at a distance (ξ)
Glycerin 1.47 αh I
Diamond 2.42 ξ= t
λr
Snell’s Law The signal receive at that distance if a receiving
n1 sin θ1 V2 k1 antenna is in place
= = =
n2 sin θ 2 V1 k2 V = ξhr
where: θ2 = angle of refraction where: α = characteristic impedance of free space
θ1 = angle of incidence ht and hr = effective height of the transmitting
V2 = refracted wave velocity in medium 2 and receiving antennas
V1 = incident wave velocity in medium 1 I = antenna current
k1 = dielectric constant of medium 1 r = distance from transmitting antenna
k2 = dielectric constant of medium 2
n1 = refractive index of medium 1 B. The Ionosphere
n2 = refractive index of medium 2 The refractive index of the ionosphere
sin θ i 81N
c n= = 1− 2
n= = k sin θ r f
Vp where: N = number of free electrons per m3
where: n = refractive index f = frequency of radio wave (Hz)
c = velocity of light in free space
Vp = velocity of light in a given medium The Ionospheric Layers
D Layer – average height 70 km, with an average
Resultant field strength between waves traveling thickness of 10 km.
in different (direct and reflected paths) E Layer – existing at a height about 100 km, with a
δ thickness of 25 km.
ξ r = 2ξ d sin 2π V/m
2λ F1 Layer – exists at a height 180 km, daytime
2h h thickness is about 20 km.
δ = at ar F2 Layer – height ranges from 250 – 400 km in
d
daytime and at night it falls to a height of 300 km
where: ξd = direct radio wave field strength (V/m)
where it combines with F1 layer, approximate
δ = the geometrical length difference
thickness at about 200 km.
between the direct and reflected paths
hat and har = the heights of transmitting and
The height of the ionospheric layer
receiving antenna above the reflecting plane
d
tangent to the effective earth h=
2 tan θ

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 The critical frequency (fc) NOISE
f c = MUF cos θ = 9 N max
• Noise Calculation
The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) N = kTB
f where: N = noise power
MUF = c = f c sec θ k = Boltzmann’s constant
cos θ T = resistor temperature
B = bandwidth of the system
The Optimum Working Frequency (OWF) or
Frequency of Optimum Transmission (FOT) Note: 17 °C/290 K is the typical noise temperature
OWF = FOT = 0.85MUF

C. The Space Wave Propagation Vn = 4kTBR in μV

The Radio Horizon Distance where: Vn = noise voltage
dd R = resistance generating the noise
EC = 1 2
k
Series Resistors
Re = kR0
where: EC = Earth’s Curvature Vn T = Vn21 + Vn22 + Vn23 + ...
Re = effective earth’s radius
R0 = earth’s radius ≈ 3960 mi Parallel Resistors
k = correction factor for relatively flat earth I nT = I n21 + I n22 + I n23 + ...
k = 4/3

The maximum line of sight distance between For a diode, the rms noise current
transmitter and receiver towers is given by I n = 2eI D B typically in μA
d = d1 + d 2 = 4 ht + 4 hr where: e = charge of an electron (1.6×10-19 C)
where: ht and hr = in meters ID = direct diode current
d, d1 and d2 = in kilometers B = bandwidth of the system

d = 2ht + 2hr I n = 2e( I D + 2 I o ) B

where: ht and hr = in feet where: I0 = negligible reverse saturated current
d = in miles
I. Addition of noise due to several sources
The correction factor (k) VnT = 4kTBRT
k = [1 − 0.04665e 0.005577 N s ]−1
where: Ns = surface refractivity II. Addition of noise due to several amplifiers in
cascade
D. Tropospheric Scatter Wave (Troposcatter) Req = R1 + R2 '+ R3 '+... + Rn '
Propagation R2 R3 Rn
Operates at the UHF band (between n 350 MHz to Req = R1 + + + ... +
10 GHz (and used to link multi-channel telephone ( A1 ) 2
( A1 ) ( A2 )
2 2
( A1 ) ...( An−1 )2
2

links). The common frequencies are 0.9 GHz, 2 GHz

and 5 GHz. III. Signal-to-Noise Ratio
S S
(dB) = 10 log
N R

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 IV. Noise Factor (NF) or Noise Figure (F) Total information sent
Si H = Ct bits
N
NF = i Power required
So
Pn
No = (n − 1) 2
P2
F (dB) = 10 log NF
where: Pn = power required in the n-level code
P2 = power level required in the binary code
For a noiseless receiver,
n = number of levels in a code
NF = 1; F = 0 dB
• Noise Measurements Units
V. Equivalent Noise Temperature (Te)
dBrn (dB above reference noise)
Te = To ( NF − 1)
N
where: Te = equivalent noise temperature dBrn = 10 log
1 × 10 −12 W
To = reference temperature = 290 K
dBrn = dBm + 90
NF = noise factor
dBa (dB above adjusted noise)
For a noiseless receiver, Te = 0 K
For a pure tone:
N
For attenuator elements dBa = 10 log
Te = T p ( L − 1) 1 × 10 −11.5
dBa = dBm + 85
where: L = loss (absolute value)
Tp = physical temperature (K) For F1A weighted:
dBa = dBm + 82
VI. Overall Noise Factor (Friis’ Formula)
NF2 − 1 NF3 − 1 NFn − 1
NF = NF1 + + + ... + dBrnC (dB above reference noise, C-message
G1 G1G 2 G1G 2 G3 ...G n −1 weighted)
dBrnC = dBm + 90
VII. Overall Noise Temperature
Te Te 3 Te n pWp (picowatts, psophometrically weighted)
Te = Te 1 + 2 + + ... + ( psop hom etricV 2 )
G1 G1G2 G1G2G3 ...Gn −1 pWp = × 10 −12
600Ω
pWp
• Information Theory dBmp = 10 log −3
Hartley Law 10
C = 2 B log 2 n bps
Transmission level point
where: C = channel capacity
S
B = channel bandwidth (Hz) TLP (dB) = 10 log
n = number of coding levels (2 for binary, 8 S 0TLP
for octal, 10 for decimal etc.) TLPdB = S dBm − S dBm0
S dBm 0 = S dBm − TLPdB
Shannon-Hartley Law
C = B log 2 (1 + S / N ) bps
dBa0 (dBa at 0 dBm level point)
C = 3.32 B log(1 + S / N ) bps dBa0 = dBa − TLPdB
where: S/N = signal-to-noise ratio (absolute value)
dBrnC0 (dBrnC at 0 dBm level point)
Note: For a practical telephone channel B = 3.1 kHz
(300 – 3400 Hz). dBrnC 0 = dBrnC − TLPdB

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 ANGLE MODULATION where: Pt = total transmitted power in an angle-
modulated waveform (modulation or no
• Angle Modulation Characteristics modulation)
Phase Deviation/ Modulation Index VC = peak amplitude of the carrier signal
PM waveform: R = load resistor
m = ∆θ = K 1Vm
Bandwidth Requirements for Angle-Modulated
where: m = Δθ = modulation index or peak phase
Waves
deviation (radians)
Low-index modulation (narrowband FM)
K1 = deviation sensitivity of the PM
B ≈ 2 fm
modulator (rad/V)
Vm = peak modulating signal amplitude (V) High-index modulation
B ≈ 2∆f
FM waveform:
K 2Vm Using the Bessel Table (practical bandwidth)
m= B = 2(n × f m )
fm
where: K2 = deviation sensitivity of the FM where: n = number of significant sidebands
modulator (rad/V-s)
fm = modulating signal frequency (Hz) Using Carson’s Rule (approximate bandwidth)
B = 2(∆f + f m )
Frequency Deviation
PM waveform: Noise and Angle Modulation
∆f = K 1Vm f m Maximum phase deviation due to an interfering
where: Δf = peak frequency deviation of PM single-frequency sinusoid:
waveform (Hz) V
∆θ ≈ n radians
Vc
FM waveform: where: Δθ = peak phase deviation due to interfering
∆f = K 2Vm signal
where: Δf = peak frequency deviation of FM Vn = peak amplitude of noise voltage
waveform (Hz) Vc = peak amplitude of carrier voltage

Percent Modulation (FM or PM) Maximum frequency deviation due to an interfering

∆f single-frequency sinusoid:
% mod ulation = actual × 100
∆f max V 
∆f ≈  n  f n Hertz
where: Δfactual = actual frequency deviation of carrier  Vc 
in hertz where: Δf = peak frequency deviation due to
Δfmax = maximum frequency deviation interfering signal
allowed for communication system fn = noise modulating frequency

Deviation Ratio FM Noise Analysis

∆f max δ N = Φf m
D.R. =
∆f m (max) N
Φ = sin −1  
where: D.R. = deviation ratio of an FM waveform S
Δfm(max) = maximum modulating frequency S δS
=
Power Relations in an Angle-Modulated Wave N δN
Vc2 where: δN = frequency deviation of the noise
Pt = Φ = phase shift (radians)
2R δS = frequency deviation of the carrier

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 DIGITAL COMMUNICATION • Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
8QAM
• Frequency Shift-Keying Binary 8QAM
∆F Input Output
MI = 000 0.795V –135°
Fa
001 1.848V –135°
where: MI = modulation index
010 0.795V –45°
ΔF = frequency deviation
011 1.848V –45°
Fa = modulating frequency
100 0.795V +135°
For worst-case condition (alternating 1’s and 0’s) 101 1.848V +135°
110 0.795V +45°
F − Fs
MI = m 111 1.848V +45°
Fb
where: Fm = mark frequency Fb
Fs = space frequency B.E. =
BW
Fb = input bit rate
where: B.E. = Bandwidth Efficiency
Condition for synchronization
Fb = transmission rate
nF
Fm = Fs = b BW = bandwidth
2
where: n = any odd whole integer Digital Modulation Summary
Modulation No. of BW Baud B.E.
• Phase Shift-Keying Bit(s)
M-ary encoding PSK 1 fb fb ≤1
N = log 2 M BPSK 1 fb fb 1
M = 2N QPSK 2 fb/2 fb/2 2
where: N = number of bits 8 PSK 3 fb/3 fb/3 3
M = number of output conditions possible 8 QAM 3 fb/3 fb/3 3
with n bits 16 PSK 4 fb/4 fb/4 4
16 QAM 4 fb/4 fb/4 4
1. Quaternary or Quadrature Phase Shift
Keying (QPSK) • Sampling
Binary QPSK Nyquist sampling theorem states that the minimum
Input Output Phase sampling rate that can be used for a given PCM code
00 –135° is twice the highest audio input frequency
01 –45° fs ≥ 2 fa
10 +135° where: fs = minimum Nyquist sampling rate
11 +45° fa = highest frequency to be sampled

2. Eight PSK (8PSK) • PCM code

Binary 8PSK resolution
Input Output qemax =
2
000 –112.5°
V Vmax
001 –157.5° DR = max =
010 –67.5° Vmin resolution
011 –22.5° In dB:
100 +112.5° Vmax
DRdb = 20 log
101 +157.5° Vmin
110 +67.5° where: qemax = quantization error
111 +22.5° DR = dynamic range

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 Vmin = equal to the resolution The apparent loudness and loudness levels
Vmax = maximum voltage that can be 0 – 15 dB very faint
decoded by the DAC 15 – 30 dB faint
30 – 60 dB moderate
To determine the number of bits required for a 60 – 80 dB loud
PCM code 80 – 130 dB very loud
2 n −1 ≥ DR 130 dB deafening
where: n = number of PCM bits (excluding sign bit)
Notes: 0 dB – threshold of hearing
Coding Efficiency 60 dB – average conversation
Minimum _ no. _ of _ bits 120 dB – threshold of pain
Coding _ efficiency = × 100
Actual _ no. _ of _ bits 150 dB – permanent damage to hearing

Analog Companding Sound Pressure Levels of common sound sources

a. μ-law companding – used in U.S. and Japan Source SPL (dB)
 V  Faintest audible sound 0
Vmax ln 1 + µ in  Whisper 20
Vout =  Vmax 
Quiet residence 30
ln (1 + µ ) Soft stereo in residence 40
where: Vmax = maximum uncompressed analog input Speech range 50 – 70
amplitude Cafeteria 80
Vmin = amplitude of the input signal at a Pneumatic jack hammer 90
particular distant of time Loud crowd noise 100
μ = parameter used to define amount of Accelerating motorcycle 100
compression Rock concert 120
Vout = compressed output amplitude Jet engine (75 feet away) 140
b. A-law companding – used in Europe • Basic Formulas
V Sound Velocity
A in
Vmax V 1 v = fλ
Vout = Vmax 0 ≤ in ≤
1 + ln A Vmax A
 V  Sound Velocity in Gases
1 + ln  A in  γPO
 Vmax  1 ≤ Vin ≤ A v=
Vout = Vmax ρO
1 + ln A A Vmax
where: γ = ratio of the specific heat at constant
where: A = parameter used to define the amount of
volume
compression
Po = the steady pressure of the gas (N/m2)
ρo = the steady or average density of the gas
ACOUSTICS (kg/m3)

• The Sound Generation In dry air (experimental)

Octave v = 331.45 ± 0.05 m/s
f n = f a 2 n −1 v = 1087.42 ± 0.16 ft/s
where: fn = frequency of the nth octave
fa = fundamental frequency Velocity of sound in air for a range of about 20°
n = 1, 2, 3 … Celsius change on temperature
v = 331.45 ± 0.607TC m/s
Phon v = 1052.03 ± 1.016TF ft/s
Phon = 40 + 10 log 2 (sone ) where: TC = temperature in degrees Celsius

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 TF = temperature in degrees Fahrenheit The Sound Intensity Level
2
I  P 
For TC > 20°C, I L = 10 log = 10 log 
TK
IO  PO 
v = 331.45 m/s where: Io = threshold intensity (W/m2)
273 = 10-12 W/m2
where: TK = temperature in Kelvin
The Sound Power Level (PWL)
Recall: TK = TC + 273 W
TR = TF + 460 PWL = 10 log
WO
9
TF = TC + 32 PWL = 10 log W + 120
5 where: W = sound power in watts
TC = (TF − 32 )
5 Wo = reference sound power
9 = 10-12 W

Sound Pressure Level The Relation of SPL and PWL

 P
2 (a) for a sound produced in free space by an
P I
SPL = 20 log = 10 log  = 10 log isotropic source
PO  PO  IO SPL = PWL − 20 log r − 11
2
where: P = RMS sound pressure (N/m )
Po = reference sound pressure (b) for a sound produced at ground level
= 2×10-5 N/m2 or Pascal (Pa) SPL = PWL − 20 log r − 8
= 0.0002 μbar
= 2.089 lb/ft2
• Room Acoustics
Optimum reverberation (at 500 to 1000 Hz)
Sound Intensity
Room Reverberation
P2 P2
I= = W/m2 Function time (s)
ρv 410 Recording and broadcast studios 0.45 – 0.55
where: ρ = density of air Elementary classrooms 0.6 – 0.8
v = velocity of sound in air Playhouses, intimate drama 0.9 – 1.1
ρv = characteristic impedance of air to sound production
= 410 rayls in air Lecture and conference rooms 0.9 – 1.1
Cinema 0.8 – 1.2
The total intensity, IT Small Theaters 1.2 – 1.4
I T = I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + ... + I n High school auditoriums 1.5 – 1.6
General purpose auditoriums 1.5 – 1.6
The total pressure, PT Churches 1.4 – 3.4
PT = P12 + P22 + P32 + ... + Pn2
Different ways in computing reverberation times
A. Stephens and Bate formula (for ideal
Sound Intensity coming from reverberation time computation)
(a) a point source (isotropic) in free space
t 60 = r (0.0123 V + 0.1070) seconds
W
I= where: V = room volume (m3)
4πr 2
r = 4 for speech
= 5 for orchestra
(b) a source at ground level
= 6 for choir
W
I=
2πr 2

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 Optimum volume/person for various types of hall α = average absorption coefficient of the
Types of halls Optimum volume/person reflecting surface
(m3)
Concert halls 7.1 0.049V
t 60 = seconds
Italian-type opera houses 4.2 – 5.1 − S ln(1 − α )
Churches 7.1 – 9.9 where: S = total surface area (ft2)
Cinemas 3.1 α = average absorption coefficient of the
Rooms for speech 2.8 reflecting surface

B. Sabine’s formula (for actual reverberation time A further correction may need to be added for higher
with average absorption less than or equal to 0.2) frequency to allow for air absorption.
0.161V 0.161V
t 60 = seconds t 60 = seconds
a − S ln(1 − α ) + xV
where: V = room volume (m3)
a = total absorption units (m2 – metric For values of α less than about 0.2 but frequencies
Sabine) (for a room: the sum of all above 1000 Hz then a modified form of Sabine’s
absorption of the ceiling, walls, floor, formula is considered.
furnishings and occupants). 0.161V
0.049V t 60 = seconds
t 60 = seconds a + xV
a where: x = sound absorption/volume of air (m2/m3 )
where: V = room volume (ft3)
a = total absorption units (ft2 – customary x per m3 at a temperature of 20°C
Sabine) Freq 30%RH 40%RH 50%RH 60%RH 70%RH 80%RH
(Hz) ×10–3 ×10–3 ×10–3 ×10–3 ×10–3 ×10–3

Coefficient of absorption is the ratio of the 1000 3.28 3.28 3.28 3.28 3.28 3.28
absorbed sound intensity to the incident sound 2000 11.48 8.2 8.2 6.56 6.56 6.56
intensity. 4000 39.36 29.52 22.96 19.68 16.4 16.4
I
α = a (unitless ) RH = Relative Humidity
Ii
Note: α = 1 for perfect absorbent material Methods of measuring absorption coefficient
A. Reverberation Chamber Method
Ia = Ii − Ir Note: The lowest frequency should not be lower than
where: Ir = reflected sound intensity the computed frequency from the formula below to
ensure a diffuse sound field where v is the volume of
Average absorption coefficient (α ) the room.
α + α 2 + α 3 + ... + α n 180
α = 1 f lowest = 3 Hz
n v

Total absorption (a) Principle of reverberation chamber method

a = αA (m2 or ft2) “A measurement of reverberation time is made first
where: A = surface area of the absorbent structure without, and then with the absorbent material in the
(m2 or ft2) chamber.”

C. Norris-Eyring’s formula (for actual Without the absorbent material,

reverberation time with average absorption 0.161V
coefficient greater than 0.2) t1 =
a
0.161V
t 60 = seconds
− S ln(1 − α )
where: S = total surface area (m2)

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 With the absorbent material, m = mass of the panel in kg/m2
0.161V d = depth of the air space in m
t2 =
a + δa
B. Helmholtz or Cavity or Volume Resonators
Therefore: Resonant frequency (f) for a narrow-neck resonator
is approximately
 1 1
δa = 0.161V  −  vr 2π
 t 2 t1  f =
2π (2l + πr )V
In practice some slight correction needs to be made
for the behavior of sound in the chamber which can If there is no neck, l = 0
make a difference of nearly 5%. v 2r
f =
 V  1 1  2π V
δa =  55.3  −  where: v = velocity of sound in air
 v  t 2 t1 
r = radius of the neck
l = length of the neck
Absorption coefficient V = volume of cavity
δa
α=
S SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
where: V = volume of reverberation chamber
t1 = reverberation of the chamber without
• Communications Satellite
absorbent material
Orbit Location (Satellite Elevation category)
t2 = reverberation of the chamber with
(a) Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellite
absorbent material
Orbital height : 100 – 300 mi
a = absorption of the chamber without
Orbital velocity : 17,500 mph
absorbent material
Orbital time (period) : 1.5 hours
δa = extra absorption due to the material
Satellite Availability : 15 min per orbit
v = velocity of sound in air
Typical operating frequency : 1.0 GHz – 2.5 GHz
S = surface area under measurement, which
should be a single area between 10 and 12 m2
(b) Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Satellite
Orbital height : 6,000 – 12,000 mi
B. Impedance Tube Method Orbital velocity : 9,580 mph
Absorption coefficient Orbital time (period) : 5 – 12 hours
4 A1 A2
α= Satellite Availability : 2 – 4 hours per orbit
( A1 + A2 ) 2 Typical operating frequency : 1.2 GHz – 1.66 GHz
where: A1 and A2 are the maximum and minimum
amplitudes of the resultant standing wave (c) Geostationary or Geosynchronous (GEO)
pattern reverberation of the chamber without Satellite
absorbent material Orbital height : 22,300 mi
Note: α of impedance tube method is less than α of Orbital velocity : 6,879 mph
reverberation chamber method. Orbital time (period) : 24 hours
Satellite Availability : 24 hours per orbit
Types of absorbents Typical operating frequency : 2 GHz – 18 GHz
A. Membrane or Panel absorbers
The absorption is highly dependent upon frequency THE GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITE
and is normally in the range of 50 to 500 Hz. They Altitude : 19,360 nmi
are often used in recording. : 22,284 smi
60 : 35,855 km
f = Period : 23 hr, 56 min, 4.091 s (one
md
sidereal day)
where: f = approximate resonant frequency
Orbit inclination : 0°

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 Velocity : 6879 mph me = mass of earth (5.98×1024 kg)
Coverage : 42.5% of earth’s surface (0° v = velocity
elevation) R = earth’s radius (≈ 3960 mi ≈ 6371 km)
Number of satellites : Three for global coverage h = satellite height
with some areas of overlap
(120° apart) Satellite velocity in orbit
Areas of no coverage : Above 81° north and south 4 × 1011
latitude v= m/s
( Rkm + hkm )
Advantages : Simpler ground station
tracking
: No handover problem Satellite height
: Nearly constant range gT 2 R 2
: Very small Doppler shift h= 3 −R km
4π 2
Disadvantages : Transmission delay
where: T = satellite period
: Range loss (free space loss)
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81×10-3
Spatial separation : 3° – 6° [Typically 4°
km/s2)
(equivalent to at least 1833
miles of separation distance)
The escape velocity of earth is 25,000 mph or from
or more]
the formula:
Satellite classification according to size Escape velocity = 2 gR
Size Mass Cost
Large Satellite > 1,000 kg > $ 100 M The minimum acceptable angle of elevation is 5°.
Small Satellite 500 – 1,000 kg $ 50 – 100 M
Mini-Satellite 100 – 500 kg $ 5 – 20 M Satellite Range (distance from an earth station)
Micro-Satellite 10 – 100 kg $2–3M d = ( R + h) 2 − R 2 cos 2 β − R sin β
Nano-Satellite < 10 kg <$1M where: β = angle of elevation

• Satellite Orbital Dynamics Note: β = 0°, d is maximum, satellite is farthest

2
β = 90°, d = h, satellite is nearest
α = AP 3

where: α = semi-major axis (km)

• Frequency Allocation
A = constant (unitless) The most common carrier frequencies used for
A = 42241.0979 for earth SATCOM are the 6/4 and 14/12 GHz bands.
P = mean solar earth days [ratio of the time
of one sidereal day (23 hours and 56 Frequency bands used in satellite
minutes) to the time of one revolution of communications
earth (24 hours)]
Frequency Band
P = 0.9972
225 – 390 MHz P
350 – 530 MHz J
For a satellite to stay in orbit, the centrifugal force
1530 – 2700 MHz L
caused by its rotation around earth should be equal
to the earth’s gravitational pull. 2500 – 2700 MHz S
3400 – 6425 MHz C
Fc = Fg
7250 – 8400 MHz X
m s me ms v 2 10.95 – 14.5 GHz Ku
Fg = G F =
( R + h) 2 ( R + h)
c
17.7 – 21.2 GHz Ka
where: Fc = centrifugal force 27.5 – 31 GHz K
Fg = gravitational force 36 – 46 GHz Q
G = gravitational constant (6.670×10-11) 46 – 56 GHz V
ms = mass of satellite 56 – 100 GHz W

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 Microwave frequency bands 7. Gain-to-Equivalent Noise Temperature Ratio
Band designation Frequency range (GHz) G Gr + G ( LNA)
=
L 1–2 Te Te
S 2–4
C 4–8 The satellite system link equations
X 8 – 12 Uplink Equations
Ku 12 – 18 At Pr ( L p Lu ) Ar At Pr ( L p Lu ) G
C
K 18 – 27 = = ×
Ka 27 – 40 No kTe k Te
Millimeter 40 – 300
Submillimeter >300 Expressed in dB
C  4πD  G
= 10 log At Pr − 20 log  + 10 log 
Earth coverage is approximately one-third of the No  λ   Te 
earth’s surface with approximate antenna beamwidth
− 10 log Lu − 10 log k
of 17°.
C G
= EIRP(dBW ) − L p (dB) +  (dBK −1 )
• The Satellite System Parameters No  Te 
1. Transmit Power and Bit Energy
− Lu (dB) − k ( DBWK )
P
Eb = Pt Tb = t
fb Uplink Equations
where: Eb = energy of a single bit (Joules/bit) C At Pr ( L p Ld ) Ar At Pr ( L p Ld ) G
Pt = total carrier power (watts) = = ×
Tb = time of a singe bit (seconds) No kTe k Te
fb = bit rate (bps)
Expressed in dB
2. Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) C  4πD  G
EIRP = Pr Gt
= 10 log At Pr − 20 log  + 10 log 
No  λ   Te 
where: Pr = total power radiated from an antenna − 10 log Ld − 10 log k
Gt = transmit antenna power gain
C G
= EIRP(dBW ) − L p (dB) +  (dBK −1 )
3. Equivalent Noise Temperature (Te) No  Te 
Te = To ( NF − 1) − Ld (dB) − k ( DBWK )
where: To = temperature of the environment (K)
NF = noise factor (absolute value)
MULTIPLEXING
4. Noise Density (No)
• Frequency Division Multiplexing
N
No = = kTe Voice band frequency (VF): 0 – 4 kHz
BW Basic voice band (VB) circuit is called 3002
Channel: 300 – 3000 Hz band
5. Carrier-to-Noise Density Ratio
C C Note: The basic 3002 channel can be subdivided into
=
N o kTe 24 narrower 3001 (telegraph) channels that have
been frequency-division multiplexed to form a single
6. Energy Bit-to-Noise Density Ratio 3002 channel.
C
A. Basic Group
Eb f CBW
= b = f c = (112 − 4n) kHz
No N Nf b
where: fc = channel carrier frequency
BW n = channel number

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 Lower sideband 17 2108
fLSB = fc – (0 to 4 kHz) 18 2356
D25 2652
Upper sideband D26 2900
fUSB = fc + (0 to 4 kHz) D27 3148
D28 3396
B. Basic Supergroup
f c = (372 + 48n) kHz Summary of AT&T’s FDM Hierarchy
where: fc = group carrier frequency Group = 12 VB channels
n = group number Supergroup = 5 Groups
= 60 VB channels
Lower sideband Mastergroup = 10 Supergroups
fLSB = fc – (60 to 108 kHz) = 50 Groups
= 600 VB channels
Upper sideband Jumbogroup = 6 Mastergroups
fUSB = fc + (60 to 108 kHz) = 60 Supergroups
= 300 Groups
C. Basic Mastergroup = 3600 VB channels
Two categories of mastergroups Superjumbogroup = 3 Jumbogroups
U600 – may be further multiplexed and used for = 18 Mastergroups
higher-capacity microwave radio. = 180 Supergroups
L600 – used for low-capacity microwave systems. = 900 Groups
= 10800 VB channels
Basic Mastergroup bandwidth:
L600 (60 – 2788 kHz) Summary of CCITT’s FDM Hierarchy
BW = 2728 kHz Group = 12 VB channels
Supergroup = 5 Groups
U600 (564 – 3084 kHz) = 60 VB channels
BW = 2520 kHz Mastergroup = 5 Supergroups
= 25 Groups
The Supergroup Carrier Frequencies = 300 VB channels
L600 Mastergroup Supermastergroup = 3 Mastergroups
Supergroup Carrier frequency (kHz) = 15 Supergroups
1 612
2 Direct • Time Division Multiplexing
3 1116 Summary of Digital Multiplex Hierarchy (North
4 1364 American)
Line Digital Bit rate Channel Services Medium
5 1612 Type Signal (Mbps) Capacity Offered
6 1860 T1 DS – 1 1.544 24 VB Twisted pair
telephone
7 2108 T1C DS – 1C 3.152 48 VB Twisted pair
8 2356 telephone
T2 DS – 2 6.312 96 VB tel, Twisted pair,
9 2724 picture- μwave
10 3100 phone
T3 DS – 3 44.736 672 VB tel, coax, μwave
picture-
U600 mastergroup phone, TV
T4M DS – 4 274.176 4032 Same as coax, optical
Supergroup Carrier frequency (kHz) T3 except fiber
13 1116 more
capacity
14 1364 T5 DS – 5 560.160 8064 Same as optical fiber
15 1612 T3 except
more
16 1860 capacity

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 Summary of CEPT 30 + 2 PCM Multiplex 3.) Maximum intelligibility for voice frequency:
Hierarchy (European) 1,000 and 3,000 Hz.
Level Data Rate (Mbps) Channel Capacity 4.) Maximum voice energy is located between 250
1 2.048 30 and 500 Hz.
2 8.448 120
3 34.368 480 Speech Measurement
4 139.264 1920 For typical single talker average power in dBm:
5 564.992 7680 P(dBm) = VU reading – 1.4 dB

Japanese Multiplex Hierarchy For more than one speaker over the channel
Level Data Rate (Mbps) Channel Capacity P(dBm) = VU reading – 1.4 + 10logN
1 1.544 24 where: N = number of speakers
2 6.312 96
3 32.064 480 • The telephone Set
4 97.728 1440 Pulse Dialing
5 565.148 7680 To transmit a digit, it takes 0.1 second per pulse +
0.5 second inter-digital delay time.
CCITT Time-Division Multiplexed Carrier
System (European Standard PCM-TDM System) DTMF Frequencies
Frequencies 1209 Hz 1336 Hz 1477 Hz
With CCITT system, a 125-μs frame is divided into 697 Hz 1 2 3
32 equal time slots. 770 Hz 4 5 6
852 Hz 7 8 9
E – 1 Carrier 941 Hz * 0 #
Framing Voice Voice Common Voice Voice
and alarm channel Channel Signaling Channel Channel Network Call Progress Tones
channel 1 2 – 15 channel 16 – 29 30
TS 0 TS 1 TS 2 – 16 TS 17 TS 18 – 30 TS 31 Tone Frequency (Hz)
Dial Tone 350 + 440
Line-Encoding Summary Ringback 440 + 480
Encoding Minimum Average Clock Error Busy Signal 480 + 620
Format BW DC Recovery Detection
UPNRZ fb/2 + V/2 Poor No
• Switching and Signaling
BPNRZ fb/2 0V Poor No
n(n − 1)
UPRZ fb + V/2 Good No N=
BPRZ fb 0V Best No 2
BPRZ-AMI fb/2 0V Good Yes where: N = number of connections
n = number of subscribers
TELEPHONY
• Traffic Engineering
• Introduction Measurement of Telephone Traffic
1.) Typical sounds produced by humans: 100 to A = C ×T
1000 Hz. where: A = traffic intensity in Erlangs
2.) Peak sensitivity of human hearing: 4 kHz. C = designates the number of calls originated
3.) Upper frequency limit for hearing: 18 to 20 kHz. during a period of 1 hr (calls/hr or calls/min)
4.) Lower frequency limit for hearing: 18 to 20 Hz. T = the average holding time, usually given
in hours (hr/call or min/call)
Nature of Speech
1.) Sound pressure wave of speech contains S
A=
frequencies: 100 Hz to 10 kHz. t
2.) Speech power range: 10 to 1,000 μW. where: S = sum of all the holding time (min)
t = observation period (1 hr or 60 min)

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 Note: 1 Erlang = 36 ccs (Century Call Seconds or General Formula for Mobile radio Propagation
Hundred Call Seconds) Path Loss:
Pr = Pt – 134.4 – 38.4logr1 + 20logh1 +20logh2 + Gt + Gm
Number _ of _ lost _ calls where: Pt and Pr are in decibels above 1mW, r1 is in
Grade _ of _ service = kilometers, h1 and h2 are in meters, and Gt
Total _ no. _ of _ offered _ calls
and Gm are in decibels
• GSM Network Cochannel Interference Reduction Factor
Radio-Path Propagation Loss (CIRF), q
d  D
∆P = 40 log 1  q=
 d2  R
(40 dB/decade path loss)
Frequency Reuse factor, K
 h ' q2
∆G = 20 log 1  q = 3K K=
 h1  3
(A base station antenna height gain of 6dB/octave)
Radio Capacity
where: ΔP = the difference in two receive signal
A. Analog, FDMA and TDMA cellular system
strengths based on two different path lengths
Bt
d1 and d2 m=
ΔG = the difference in two receive signal 2C 
strengths based on two different antenna Bc  
3 I 
heights h1 and h1’
where: Bt = total allocated spectrum
Bc = channel bandwidth
Receive signal in decibels (C/I) = required carrier-to-interference ratio
For non-obstructive path
in linear values
r  h '
Pr = Pro − γ log  + 20 log e  + α
 ro   h1  B. CDMA cellular system
M
m=
For obstructive path K
r where: M = total number of voice channels
Pr = Pro − γ log  + L + α K = frequency reuse factor
 ro 
where: r = distance between the base and the mobile Antenna Separation Requirement
unit in mi or km A. At the Base Station
he’ = effective antenna height h
L = shadow loss = 11
d
Pro = received signal at a reference distance ro
where: h = antenna height
ro = usually equal to 1 mi (1.6 km)
d = spacing between two antennas
α = correction factor
B. At the Mobile Unit
Standard Condition: A separation of a half-wavelength between two
Frequency (fo) 900 MHz mobile antennas is required at 850 MHz. Therefore,
Base-station antenna height (h1) 30.46 m the separation between two antennas needs to be
Base-station power at the antenna 10 watts only 0.18 m (about 6 inches) at the cellular
Base-station antenna gain (Gt) 6 dBd frequency of 850 MHz.
Mobile-unit antenna height 3m
ro 1.6 km
Mobile-unit antenna gain (Gm) 0 dBd

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 Cell Splitting Formulas 3λRe
A S=
N= L
3.464r 2 where: S = separation
where: N = number of cells Re = effective earth’s radius
A = total area to be covered L = path length
r = radius inscribed in the hexagon
• Path Characteristics
MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS Free-space attenuation or path Loss, Lp
 4πd 
2

• Microwave Passive Repeater LP =  

Gain of a passive repeater  λ 
4πA cos α A sin θ LP = 32.4 + 20 log d km + 20 log f MHz
G P = 20 log AP = LP = 92.4 + 20 log d km + 20 log f GHz
λ 2
2
where: A = actual surface area of the repeater (ft2) LP = 36.6 + 20 log d mi + 20 log f MHz
Acosα = AP or Aeff = projected or effective LP = 96.6 + 20 log d mi + 20 log f GHz
area of the passive repeater (ft2)

Also, Antenna Gain, G

2
G P = 22.1 + 20 log AP + 40 log f GHz D
G = 6 
λ
Beamwidth of a fully illuminated passive repeater G = −52.6 + 20 log D ft + 20 log f MHz
58.7λ G = 7.5 + 20 log D ft + 20 log f GHz
θ=
L
G = −42.3 + 20 log Dm + 20 log f MHz
where: L = effective linear dimension of the repeater
in the direction in which the beamwidth is to G = 17.7 + 20 log Dm + 20 log f GHz
be measured
Receive Signal Level (RSL)
Net Path Loss (NPL) RSLdBm = PodBm − L fTA + GT − LP + G R − L fTB
NPL (dB) = GT − LP1 + G P − LP 2 + G R RSLdBm = (minimum RF input)dBm + FMdB
where: GT = transmit antenna gain where: Po = transmitter output
LP1 = path loss on path 1 LfTA = total fixed losses at the transmitter
GP = passive repeater gain side which includes feeder loss, connector
LP2 = path loss on path 2 loss, branching loss, waveguide loss etc.
GR = receive antenna gain LfRB = total fixed losses at the receiver side
GT = transmitter antenna gain
Near field and far field conditions GR = receiver antenna gain
1 πλd ' min. RF input = practical receiver threshold
=
k 4A FM = fade margin
1
If < 2.5 , near-field condition exists Fade Margin – an attenuation allowance so that
k
1 anticipated fading will still keep the signal above
> 2.5 , far-field condition exists specified minimum RF input.
k
where: d’ = length of the path in question (i.e., the
FM = 30 log d km + 10 log 6abf GHz − 10 log(1 − R) − 70
shorter distance)
where: a = roughness factor
• Protection Switching = 4 for smooth terrain, including over water
The antenna separation required for optimum = 1 for average terrain, with some roughness
operation of space diversity system may be = 0.25 for mountainous, very rough
calculated using the formula: b = 0.5 for hot, humid coastal areas

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 = 0.25 for normal interior temperature or
subarctic areas
= 0.125 for mountainous or very dry but
nonreflective areas

System Gain, GS
GS = POdBm – (minimum RF input)dBm

System Reliability Estimates

b) Based on Propagation
R = (1 − U ndp ) × 100%
where: Undp = non-diversity outage probability for a
given path

− FM
−6
U ndp = abf d (1.25 × 10 )10
1.5 3 10

where: f = frequency in GHz

d = distance in miles

c) Based on equipment
R = (1 − U ) × 100%
MTTR
U=
MTBF + MTTR

where: U = unavailability or probability of outage

MTTR = Mean Time To Repair
MTBF = Mean Time Between Failures or
Mean Time Before Failures

Also,
Outage
U=
8760 _ hours
Note: Downtime or Outage time (in hours per year)

MTBF
A=
MTBF + MTTR
where: A = Availability

Fresnel Zone Radius/Clearance/Height

nd1 d 2
R ft = 72.1
f GHz d mi
where: d1 and d2 are distances in miles
n = number of Fresnel Zone (n = 1 for 1st FZ;
n = 2 for 2nd FZ, etc.)

nd1d 2
Rm = 17.3
f GHz d km
where: d1 and d2 are distances in kilometers

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