NTSE 10th Chem Part 2

How to use this book?
An Important Note to Parents and Students
Dear Student,
If you are reading this, it means you are serious about performing in your class especially for National
Talent Search Examination (NTSE). To help you achieve your potential, this book is designed in a way
which is highly beneficial for students. Let’s see how to use the different components of the book :
 Theory Part : The theory part has been redesigned with perfect blend of solved examples, text and important
notes. At relevant checkpoints, in theory exercises have been inserted to enhance the reading experience of
a student.
 Board Level Exercise : This feature has been added in class X module because of the reintroduction of
Board examination in CBSE. The exercise covers important questions from NCERT and Exemplar books as
well as previous year question papers of class X.
 Exercise 1 : This exercise is a Concept Building Exercise (CBE). The questions in this exercise are
simple and direct application of the theory which is being covered in the chapter. This helps student in
absorbing the concepts included in the chapter (hence the name). The question patterns which are covered
in this exercise are according to the patterns being asked in school examinations which give student an
edge in the practice of school examinations. The important point is that the homework of this exercise
should be neatly maintained in a separate copy.
 Exercise 2 : This exercise is Competitive Level Exercise (CLE). After attempting exercise 1 and thus
absorbing the important concepts, students are ready to implement their learning in slightly higher level
questions. These questions are in accordance to the level being asked in the National Level Competitive
Examinations. These questions are must for all the students to strengthen their concepts.
 Exercise 3 : This exercise consists of questions from previous year papers of competitive examinations
especially NTSE. This exercise is included for students to determine their current proficiency level of that
chapter with respect to the competitive examination.
After reading the theory and completing the exercises, a student should be able to have a conceptual
framework and problem solving aptitude in that particular chapter. For best results, all exercises should be
solved in a fair notebook and all the solutions should be maintained so that when time of revision
comes, this notebook proves to be a handy one.
I would like to request parents to regularly check the homework of student. You don’t have to check the
full copy. Just check that the solutions of all questions are maintained or not. This simple monitoring
serves the dual purpose. First, your child thinks that his/ her education is important for you that is why you
are taking time to check his homework. Second, he/ she regularly completes the homework.
In the end, I hope you like this book and sincerely believe that by collective efforts of student, parent and
teacher, we can produce maximum results from this book.
Kind Regards
Prashant Jain
B. Tech., CSE, IIT Bombay
HOP, PCCP Division
CONTENTS
CLASS-X (CBSE & NTSE)
S. NO. TOPICS PAGE NO.
1. CHEMICAL REACTIONS & CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 1 - 36
2. PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS 37 - 68
3. ACIDS BASES AND SALTS 69 -107
4. METALS AND NON METALS 108 - 147
5. CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 148 - 196
6. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 197 - 221
7. COAL, PETROLEUM AND POLYMERS 222 - 239

CARBON AND ITS
COMPOUNDS
5
CHAPTER
CONTENTS
• Basic information about covalent bonding and organic compounds
• Versatile nature of carbon, Allotrops
• Hydrocarbons and Homologous series
• IUPAC nomenclature
• Isomerism
• Chemical properties of carbon compounds, ethyl alcohol and ethanoic acid
• Soaps and detergents
(A) INTRODUCTION, COVALENT BONDING:
INTRODUCTION
Organic compounds : The compounds like urea, sugars, fats, oils, dyes, proteins vitamins etc., which
were isolated directly or indirectly from living organisms such as animals and plants were called
organic compounds. The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of these compounds is called
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
MODERN DEFINITION OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic compounds may be defined as hydrocarbons and their derivatives and the branch of chemistry
which deals with the study of hydrocarbons and their derivatives is called ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Organic chemistry is treated as a separate branch because of following reasons :
(i) Organic compounds are large in number.
(ii) Organic compounds generally contain covalent bond.
(iii) Organic compounds are soluble in non polar solvents.
(iv) Organic compounds have low melting and boiling points.
(v) Organic compounds show isomerism .
(vi) Organic compounds exhibit homology.
VITAL FORCE THEORY OR BERZELIUS HYPOTHESIS

Organic compounds cannot be synthesized in the laboratory because they require the presence of a
mysterious force (called vital force) which exists only in living organisms.
WOHLER’S SYNTHESIS
In 1828, Friedrich Wohler synthesized urea (a well known organic compound) in the laboratory by
heating
 Note : Urea is the first organic compound synthesized in the laboratory.
H.O. 92, Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Mob. 97831-97831, 70732-22177, Ph. 0744-2423333 www.nucleuseducation.in 148
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
BONDING IN CARBON- THE COVALENT BOND
Most carbon compounds are poor conductors of electricity. The boiling and melting points of the
carbon compounds are low. Forces of attraction between these molecules of organic compounds are not
very strong. As these compound are largely non conductors of electricity hence the bonding in these
compound does not give rise to any ions. The reactivity of elements is explained as their tendency to
attain a completely filled outer shell, that is, attain noble gas configuration. Element forming ionic
compounds achieve this by either gaining or losing electrons from the outermost shell. In the case of
carbon, it has four electrons in its outermost shell and needs to gain or lose four electrons to attain noble
gas configuration. If it were to gain or lose electrons -
130 (i) it could gain four electrons forming C4– anion. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six
protons to hold onto ten electrons, that is, four extra electrons.
(ii) it could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation. But it would require a large amount of energy to
remove four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with six protons in its nucleus holding onto
just two electrons.
Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms of carbon or with
atoms of other elements. The shared electrons belong to the outer shell of both the atoms and lead
to both atoms attaining the noble gas configuration.
(a) Some Simple Molecules Formed by the Sharing of Valence Electrons are as Follows :
(i) Hydrogen molecule : This is the simplest molecule formed by sharing of electrons. The atomic
number of hydrogen is 1 and it has only one electron in its outermost K shell. It requires only one
more electron to complete the K shell. So, when two hydrogen atoms approach each other, the
single electron of both the atoms form a shared pair.
This may be represented as :
According to Lewis notation, the electrons in the valence shell are represented by dots and crosses.
This method was proposed by G.N. Lewis and is known as Lewis representation or Lewis structure.
The shared pair of electron (shown x/•) is said to constitute a single bond between the two hydrogen
atoms and is represented by a line between the two atoms. Pictorially, the molecule can be
represented by drawing two overlapping circles around the symbols of the atoms and showing the
shared pair of electrons in the overlapping part.
(ii) Chlorine molecule : Each chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outermost shell. When the two
chlorine atoms come close together, an electron of both the atoms is shared between them.
(iii) Hydrogen chloride molecule : It may be noted that a covalent bond is not only formed between
two similar atoms, but it may be formed between dissimilar atoms also. For example, hydrogen and
chlorine form a covalent bond between their atoms. In HCl, hydrogen atom (1) has only one
electron in its valence shell and chlorine atom (2, 8, 7) has seven electrons in its valence shell.
Therefore, by mutual sharing of electron pair between a hydrogen and a chlorine atom, both the
atoms acquire nearest noble gas configuration.
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(iv) Formation of water molecule (H2O) : Each hydrogen atom has only one electron in its outermost
shell. Therefore, each hydrogen atom requires one more electron to achieve the stable configuration
of helium (nearest noble gas). The oxygen atom has the electronic configuration 2, 6 and has six
electrons in its outermost shell. It needs two electrons to complete its octet.
Therefore, one atom of oxygen shares its electrons with two hydrogen atoms.
1
(v) Formation of methane molecule (CH4) : Methane (CH4) is a covalent compound containing
covalent bonds. Carbon atom has atomic number 6. Its electronic configuration is 2, 4. It has four
electrons in its valence shell and needs 4 more electrons to get the stable noble gas configuration.
Each hydrogen atom has one electron and needs one more electron to get stable electronic
configuration of nearest noble gas, helium. Therefore, one atom of carbon shares its four electrons
with four atoms of hydrogen to form four covalent bonds.
(b) Different Kinds of Covalent Bonds :

Electron pair shared between two atoms results in the formation of a covalent bond. This shared
pair is also called bonding pair of electron.
• If two atoms share one electron pair, bond is known as single covalent bond and is represented by
one dash (–).
• If two atoms share two electron pairs, bond is known as double covalent bond and is represented by
two dashes (=).
• If two atoms share three electron pairs, bond is known as triple covalent bond and is represented by
three dashes (≡).
(i) Formation of double bond (oxygen molecule) : Two oxygen atoms combine to form oxygen
molecule by sharing two electron pairs. Each oxygen atom (2, 6) has six electrons in the valence
shell. It requires two electrons to acquire nearest noble gas configuration. Therefore, both the atoms
contribute two electrons each for sharing to form oxygen molecule. In the molecule, two electron
pairs are shared and hence there is a double bond between the oxygen atoms.
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(ii) Formation of triple bond (Nitrogen molecule) : Nitrogen atom has five electrons in its valence
shell. In the formation of a nitrogen molecule, each of the nitrogen atoms provide three electrons to
form three electron pairs for sharing. Thus, a triple bond is formed between two nitrogen atoms of
the diamond crystal. Smaller circles are representing C-atoms.
132
11
(c) Characteristic Properties of Covalent Compounds :
The important characteristic properties of covalent compounds are :
(i) Covalent compounds consist of molecules : The covalent compounds consist of molecules. They
do not have ions. For example - water, hydrogen chloride, methane consist of H2O, HCl, CH4
molecules respectively.
(ii) Physical state : Weak Vanderwaal’s forces are present between the molecules of covalent
compounds. So, covalent compounds are in solid, gaseous or liquid state at normal temperature and
pressure.
For example : Hydrogen chloride , methane are gases while carbon tetrachloride, ethyl alcohol,
ether etc. are liquids. Glucose, sugar, urea etc. are some solid covalent compounds.
(iii) Crystal structure - Covalent compounds exhibit both crystalline and non crystalline structure.
(iv) Melting point and boiling point : Energy required to break the crystal is less due to the presence
of weak Vanderwaal’s force, so their melting and boiling points are less.
(v) Electrical conductivity - Covalent compounds are bad conductors of electricity due to the absence
of free electrons or free ions.
(vi) Solubility : Due to the non - polar nature of covalent compounds they are soluble in non - polar
solvents like benzene, carbon tetrachloride etc. and insoluble in polar solvents like water etc.
VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON

About 3 million organic compounds are known today. The main reasons for this huge number of
organic compounds are -
(i) Catenation : The property of self linking of carbon atoms through covalent bonds to form long
straight or branched chains and rings of different sizes is called catenation. Carbon shows
maximum catenation in the periodic table due to its small size, electronic configuration and unique
strength of carbon-carbon bonds.
(ii) Tetravalency of carbon : Carbon belongs to group 14 of the periodic table. Since the atomic
number of carbon is 6, the electronic configuration of carbon atom is 2,4. It has four electrons in the
outermost shell. Therefore, its valency is four. Thus, carbon forms four covalent bonds in its
compounds. A methane molecule (CH4) is formed when four electrons of carbon are shared with
four hydrogen atoms as shown below.
(iii) Tendency to form multiple bonds : Due to small size of carbon it has a strong tendency to form
multiple bonds (double & triple bonds) by sharing more than one electron pair. As a result, it can
form a variety of compounds. For example -
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133
Solved Examples
Example.1 What is catenation ? Why does carbon shows maximum catenation in the periodic table ?
Solution : The property of self linking of carbon atoms through covalent bonds to form long straight or
branched chains and rings of different sizes is called catenation. Carbon shows maximum
catenation in the periodic table due to its small size, electronic configuration and unique strength of
carbon –carbon bonds.
Example.2 Write the lewis dot structure of PH3.
Solution : Electronic configuration of P = 2,8,5
Electronic configuration of H = 1
Example.3 An element ‘X’ has four valence electrons, while an element ‘Y’ has six valence electrons. What
type of bond is expected to be formed between the two ? Draw the structure of the compound.
Solution : Covalent bond will be form by sharing of valence electrons.
CHECK POINT 5.1
1. Why do atoms take part in bond formation ?

2. Why carbon does not form the ionic compounds?
(B) ALLOTROPIC FORMS OF CARBON:

Allotropy is the property by virtue of which an element exists in more than one form and each form has
different physical properties but identical chemical properties. These different forms are called allotropes.
Carbon exists in two different allotropic forms :
(i) Crystalline form.
Examples : diamond, graphite and fullerene.
(ii) Non - crystalline or Amorphous form.
Examples : coal, lampblack and charcoal.
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There are three crystalline allotropes of carbon. These are diamond, graphite and fullerene. Diamond
and graphite are familiar allotropes of carbon but fullerene is a recently (1985) discovered allotrope of
carbon. Each one of diamond, graphite and fullerene is composed of carbon atoms. But the C atoms are
arranged in different ways in each allotrope of carbon. Therefore, the three allotropes of carbon have
different crystal structures.
(a) Diamond :
Diamond is a beautiful crystalline allotrope of carbon. Its atomic symbol is C. The name ‘diamond’ has
been taken from Greek words diaphanes (which means transparent) and adamas (which means
indomitable or invincible) with reference to its extreme hardness.
(i) Structure of Diamond :
In a crystal of diamond, each carbon atom is bonded very strongly to four other carbon atoms in
tetrahedron manner. The valency of each carbon atom is completely satisfied in diamond and there
is no free electron. This arrangement of C-atoms makes diamond very hard, unreactive and bad
conductor of electricity. The given figure depicts a portion
(ii) Properties of Diamond :

(A) Diamond is a transparent and colourless solid.
(B) Suitably cut and polished diamond sparkles brightly because it reflects most of the light
(Refractive index of diamond is 2.45).
(C) The density of diamond is 3.51 g per cm3 at 20°C.
(D) Diamond is the hardest natural substance known. Only a diamond can cut another diamond.
(E) It is a bad conductor of electricity.
(F) Diamonds are not attacked by acids, alkalis and solvents like water, ether, benzene or carbon
tetrachloride. But diamond is attacked by fluorine when heated to 750°C. The reaction results
in the formation of carbon tetrafluoride.
135
(iii) Uses of Diamond :

(A) They are used in jewellery because of their ability to reflect and refract light.
(B) Diamonds are used in cutting glass and drilling rocks.
(C) Diamond has an extraordinary sensitivity to heat rays and due to this reason, it is used for
making high precision thermometers.
(D) Diamond has the ability to cut out harmful radiations and due to this reason it is used for
making protective windows for space probes.
(E) Diamond dies are used for drawing thin wires. Very thin tungsten wires of diameter less than
one-sixth of the diameter of human hair have been drawn using diamond dies.
(F) Surgeons use diamond knives for performing delicate operations.
(b) Graphite :
Graphite is an allotrope of carbon. Its atomic symbol is C. The name ‘graphite’ has been taken from the
Greek word “graphein” (which means to write) in reference to its use as ‘lead’ in pencils.
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(i) Structure of Graphite :
In a crystal of graphite, the carbon atoms are arranged in hexagonal patterns in parallel planes. In a
layer of graphite, each carbon atom is strongly bonded to three carbon atoms by covalent bonds.
Thus, one valence electron of each carbon atom is free in every layer of graphite crystal. The free
electron makes graphite a good conductor of electricity. Any two adjacent layers in graphite are
bonded by comparatively weak forces (shown by dotted lines) which makes graphite soft and
slippery. Fig. shows a portion of graphite crystal.
(ii) Properties of Graphite

Graphite is an opaque and dark grey solid. It is soft and has a soapy touch. It leaves marks on paper.
Graphite is not attacked by acid, alkali, water or alcohol. It has shine like metals (but graphite is a
nonmetal). Graphite melts at a very high temperature of 3730°C. The density of graphite is 2.26 g
per cm3 at 20°C. Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.
(iii) Uses of graphite :

(A) It is used for making pencil lead, printer’s ink, black paint etc.
(B) It is used as dry lubricant for heavy machinery.
(C) It is used in making crucibles for melting substances.
(D) It is used as an electrode in batteries and electric furnaces.
(E) It is used in nuclear reactors as moderator to regulate nuclear reactions.
(F) It is also used in making artificial diamonds.
136
1 1COMPARISON OF DIAMOND AND GRAPHITE
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(c) Fullerene :
Fullerenes represent the recently prepared allotropic form of carbon. These were formed for the first time by
H.W. Kroto, Smalley and Robert Curt by the action of laser beam on a sample of graphite in the vapour
state. They were awarded Noble prize for the same in 1996. Later on, these were prepared by heating
graphite by striking an electric arc in the presence of inert gas such as helium or argon. Fullerenes have also
been found to be present in the chimney where soot gets deposited and in candle flame.
Chemically, fullerenes are formed by the combination of a large number of carbon atoms (Cn). Most
commonly known fullerene contains sixty carbon atoms (C60) with smaller proportion of C70 allotrope
and traces of compounds containing even upto 370 carbon atoms. C60 and C70 fullerenes have been
isolated from the soot by extracting with toluene in which they dissolve to form purple and orange-red
coloured compounds. From the extract, the individual fullerenes can be isolated with the help of
adsorption chromatography carried on the surface of alumina (Al2O3).
Out of the different fullerenes that are known, only the structure of C60 has been established. This is
often called Buckminster Fullerene after the architect Buckminster Fuller, the inventor of the Geodesic
dome, which resembles the molecular structure of C60. Its shape resembles that of a soccer ball with six
membered as well as five membered rings as shown in the figure. There are twelve five membered and
twenty six membered rings. These are often called Bucky Balls. Fullerenes represent the purest
allotropic form of carbon since they do not have any free valencies or surface bonds to attract other
atoms. However, such free valencies are present on the surface of diamond and graphite and these are
therefore, not as pure as fullerenes.
Shape of C60 fullerene
(i) Formula of fullerene

The formula of popular form of fullerene is C60· That is, a molecule of fullerene is composed of 60
carbon atoms.
(ii) Uses of Fullerene
(A) Fullerenes in pure state act as insulators but can be converted to semiconductors and super
conductors under suitable conditions.
137 (B) Buckyball’s ability of fullerenes to trap different atoms or molecules makes them useful in the
medical field.
For example, radioactive C60 can be used in cancer as well as AIDS therapy.
(C) Fullerenes help in improving antiwear and antifriction properties of lubricating oils.
COMPARISON OF GRAPHITE AND FULLERENE
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Solved Examples
Example.1 Why graphite is differ from Diamond?

Solution : Graphite differs from diamond as graphite is slippery in touch while diamond is hard & graphite is
a good conductor of electricity while diamond is not.
Example.2 Give two uses of diamond.
Solution : (i) They are used in jewellery because of their ability to reflect and refract light.
(ii) Diamonds are used in cutting glass and drilling rocks
CHECK POINT 5.2
1. Describe the structure of graphite ?

2. Give reasons -
The third crystalline allotrope of carbon was named fullerene.
(C) HYDROCARBONS AND HOMOLOGOUS SERIES:

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
The organic compounds are very large in number on account of the self -linking property of carbon
called catenation. These compounds have been further classified as open chain and cyclic compounds.
(a) Open Chain Compounds :

These compounds contain an open chain of carbon atoms which may be either straight chain or
branched chain in nature. Apart from that, they may also be saturated or unsaturated based upon the
nature of bonding in the carbon atoms. For example.
n-Butane is a straight chain alkane while 2-Methylpropane is branched alkane.
(b) Closed Chain or Cyclic Compounds :

Apart from the open chains, the organic compounds can have cyclic or ring structures. A minimum of three
atoms are needed to form a ring. These compounds have been further classified into following types.
(i) Alicyclic compounds : Those carbocyclic compounds which resemble to aliphatic compounds in
their properties are called alicyclic compounds .
e.g.
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(ii) Aromatic compounds : Organic compounds which contain one or more fused or isolated benzene
rings are called aromatic compounds.
e.g
 Note : Benzene is the parent compound of majority of aromatic organic compounds.

139
HYDROCARBONS
The organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. These are the
simplest organic compounds and are regarded as parent organic compounds. All other compounds are
considered to be derived from them by the replacement of one or more hydrogen atoms by other atoms
or groups of atoms. The major source of hydrocarbons is petroleum.
Types of Hydrocarbons :
The hydrocarbons can be classified as :
(i) Saturated hydrocarbons :
(A) Alkanes : Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons containing only carbon - carbon and carbon -
hydrogen single covalent bonds.
General formula- CnH2n + 2 (n is the number of carbon atoms)
e.g. CH4 ( Methane)
C2H6 (Ethane)
(ii) Unsaturated hydrocarbons :

(A) Alkenes : These are unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain carbon - carbon double bond.
They contain two hydrogen less than the corresponding alkanes.
General formula - CnH2n
e.g. C2H4 (Ethene)
C3H6 (Propene)
(B) Alkynes : They are also unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain carbon-carbon triple bond.
They contain four hydrogen atoms less than the corresponding alkanes.
General formula - CnH2n–2
e.g. C2H2 (Ethyne)
C3H4 (Propyne)
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HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
Homologous series may be defined as a series of similarly constituted compounds in which the
members possess similar chemical characteristics and the two consecutive members differ in their
molecular formula by – CH2.
(a) Characteristics of Homologous Series :

(i) All the members of a series can be represented by the same general formula.
e.g. General formula for alkane series is CnH2n + 2.
(ii) Any two consecutive members differ in their formula by a common difference of – CH2 and differ
in molecular mass by 14.
(iii) Different members in a series have a common functional group.
e.g. All the members of alcohol family have –OH group .
(iv) The members in any particular family have almost identical chemical properties. Their physical
properties such as melting point, boiling point, density etc, show a regular gradation with the
increase in the molecular mass.
(v) The members of a particular series can be prepared almost by the identical methods.
(b) Homologues :
The different members of a homologous series are known as homologues.
140 e.g.
(i) Homologous series of alkanes
General formula : CnH2n+2
Value of n Molecular formula IUPAC name
n=1 CH4 Methane
n=2 C2H6 Ethane
n=3 C3H8 Propane
(ii) Homologous series of alkenes

General formula : CnH2n
Value of n Molecular formula IUPAC name Common name
n=2 C2H4 Ethene Ethylene
n=3 C3H6 Propene Propylene
n=4 C4H8 But-1-ene α - Butylene
(iii) Homologous series of alkynes

General formula : CnH2n–2
Value of n Molecular formula IUPAC name Common name
n=2 C2H2 Ethyne Acetylene
n=3 C3H4 Propyne Methyl acetylene
n=4 C4H6 But -1-yne Ethyl acetylene
Solved Examples
Example.1 Three straight chain hydrocarbons A, B and C have melting points –183°C, –138°C and 95.3°C
respectively. Which one has minimum number of carbon atoms in molecule?
Solution : Hydrocarbon A because carbon chain of minimum number of carbon atoms have low melting points.
Example.2 A hydrocarbon has three carbon atoms. Write down its Molecular formulae as
(i) Alkane
(ii) Alkene
(iii) Alkyne
Solution : (i) C3H8 (ii) C3H6 (iii) C3H4
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CHECK POINT 5.3
1. What is catenation ? Why does carbon show maximum tendency to catenate ?
(D) NOMENCLATURE AND ISOMERISM :

NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Nomenclature means the assignment of names to organic compounds. There are two main systems of
nomenclature of organic compounds -
• Trivial system
• IUPAC system (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)
(a) Some common names of hydrocarbon groups

(i) Iso alkyl group
A compound having group is called iso alkyl group

e.g.
(ii) Neo alkyl group
Compound having group is called neo alkyl group.
e.g.
(iii) Trivial and Derived naming of organic compounds

(a) Form group
e.g : HCHO (formaldehyde), HCOOH (formic acid), HCOCl (Formyl chloride), HCONH2
(formamide).
(b) Acet group
e.g : CH3CHO (Acetaldehyde), CH3COOH (Acetic acid), CH3COCl (Acetyl chloride), CH3CONH2
(Acetamide).
(b) Basic rules of IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds :

For naming simple aliphatic compounds, the normal saturated hydrocarbons have been considered as
the parent compounds and the other compounds as their derivatives obtained by the replacement of one
or more hydrogen atoms with various functional groups.
Each systematic name has the following parts :

(i) Prefix : Prefix is a part of the IUPAC name which appears in the beginning. It denotes the
substituent group if present in the organic compound.
(ii) Word root : The basic unit is a series of word root which indicate the number of carbon atoms
present in parent chain.
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(iii) Primary suffix : Primary suffixes are added to the word root to show saturation or unsaturation in a
carbon chain.
(iv) Secondary suffix : Suffixes added after the primary suffix to indicate the presence of a particular
functional group in the carbon chain are known as secondary suffixes.
(ii) Names of straight chain hydrocarbons : The name of straight chain hydrocarbon may be divided into
two parts-
(A) Word root (B) Primary suffix
142
(A) Word roots for carbon chain lengths :
(B) Primary suffix :
Examples :
 Note :
The name of the compound, in general , is written in the following sequence-
(Position of substituents )-(prefixes ) (word root)-(p - suffix).
(iii) Names of branched chain hydrocarbon : The carbon atoms in branched chain hydrocarbons are
present as side chain . These side chain carbon atoms constitute the alkyl group or alkyl radicals. An
alkyl group is obtained from an alkane by removal of a hydrogen.
General formula of alkyl group = CnH2n+1
An alkyl group is represented by R.
e.g.
(A) (B) 143
11
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(C)
A branched chain hydrocarbon is named using the following general IUPAC rules :
Rule1: Longest chain rule : Select the longest possible continuous chain of carbon atoms. If some
multiple bond is present, the chain selected must contain the multiple bond.
(i) The number of carbon atoms in the selected chain determines the word root .
(ii) Saturation or unsaturation determines the primary suffix (P. suffix).
(iii) Alkyl substituents are indicated by prefixes.
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
Rule 2 : Lowest number rule: The chain selected is numbered in terms of arabic numerals and the
position of the alkyl groups are indicated by the number of the carbon atom to which alkyl group is
attached .
(i) The numbering is done in such a way that the substituent carbon atom has the lowest possible
number.
(ii) If some multiple bond is present in the chain, the carbon atoms involved in the multiple bond
should get lowest possible numbers.
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
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e.g.
Rule 3 : Use of prefixes di, tri etc. : If the compound contains more than one similar alkyl groups,
their positions are indicated separately and an appropriate numerical prefix di, tri etc. , is attached to the
name of the substituents.
The positions of the substituents are separated by commas.
e.g.
e.g.
Rule 4 : Alphabetical arrangement of prefixes: If there are different alkyl substituents present in the
compound their names are written in the alphabetical order. However, the numerical prefixes such as di,
tri etc., are not considered for the alphabetical order.
e.g.
Rule 5 : Naming of different alkyl substituents at the equivalent positions :

Numbering of the chain is done in such a way that the alkyl group which comes first in alphabetical
order gets the lower position.
e.g.
11
Rule - 6 : Lowest sum rule
According to this rule numbering of chain is done in such a way that the sum of positions of different
substituents gets lower value.
e.g. (i)
Word root : Hex -

Primary suffix : - ane
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Substituent : two methyl & one ethyl groups
IUPAC name : 4-Ethyl - 2, 4 - dimethylhexane
Some other example :
(i)
Word root : Prop -

P. Suffix : -ane
Substituent : two methyl groups
IUPAC name : 2, 2 - Dimethylpropane
(ii)
Word root : But -

P. Suffix : - ene
Substituent : two methyl groups
IUPAC name : 2, 3 - Dimethylbut - 1 - ene
(iii)
Word root : Hex -

P. Suffix : - yne
Substituent : one methyl group
IUPAC name : 4 - Methylhex - 2 - yne
11
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
An atom or group of atoms in an organic compound or molecule that is responsible for the compound’s
characteristic reactions and determines its properties is known as functional group. An organic
compound generally consists of two parts -
(i) Hydrocarbon radical (ii) Functional group
e.g.
Hydrocarbon radical Functional group

• Functional group is the most reactive part of the molecule.
• Functional group mainly determines the chemical properties of an organic compound.
• Hydrocarbon radical mainly determines the physical properties of the organic compound.
(a) Main Functional Groups :

(i) Hydroxyl group (– OH) : All organic compounds containing - OH group are known as alcohols .
e.g. Methanol (CH3OH) , Ethanol (CH3 – CH2 – OH) etc .
(ii) Aldehyde group (–CHO) : All organic compounds containing –CHO group are known as
aldehydes.
e.g. Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal (CH3CHO) etc.
(iii) Ketone group (–CO–) : All organic compounds containing –CO– group are known as ketones.
e.g. Propanone (CH3COCH3), Butanone (CH3COCH2CH3) etc.
(iv) Carboxyl group ( – COOH) : All organic compounds containing carboxyl group are called
carboxylic acids.
e.g. CH3COOH (Ethanoic acid)
CH3CH2COOH(Propanoic acid)
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
(v) Halogen group (X = F, Cl, Br, I) : All organic compounds containing –X (F, Cl, Br or I) group are
known as halides.
e.g. Chloromethane (CH3Cl), Bromomethane (CH3Br) etc .
(b) Nomenclature of Compounds Containing only one Functional Group :

In case functional group (other than C = C and C ≡ C) is present, it is indicated by adding secondary
suffix after the primary suffix. The terminal ‘e’ of the primary suffix is removed if it is followed by a
suffix beginning with ‘a’, ‘e’, ‘i’, ‘o’, ‘u’. Some groups like –F, – Cl, – Br and – I are considered as
substituents and are indicated by the prefixes.
Some groups like , and – OH are considered as functional groups and are indicated by
suffixes.
47
Steps of naming of an organic compound containing functional group :

Step 1:
Select the longest continuous chain of the carbon atoms as parent chain. The selected chain must
include the carbon atoms involved in the functional groups like – COOH, – CHO, – CN etc, or those
which carry the functional groups like – OH, – NH2,– Cl, – NO2 etc.
Step 2 :
The presence of carbon - carbon multiple bond decides the primary suffix.
Step 3 :
The secondary suffix is decided by the functional group.
Step 4 :
The carbon atoms of the parent chain are numbered in such a way so that the carbon atom of the
functional group gets the lowest possible number. In case the functional group does not have the carbon
atom, then the carbon atom of the parent chain attached to the functional group should get the lowest
possible number.
Step 5 :
The name of the compound is written as -
Prefixes - word root - primary suffix - secondary suffix
 Note : The number of carbon atoms in the parent chain decides the word root.
1481 1
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
Some more examples :

(i)
Word root : Hept-

Primary suffix : – ane
Functional group : – OH
Secondary suffix : – ol
IUPAC Name : 2, 5-Dimethylheptan–1– ol
(ii)
14 1
Word root : Pent -

Primary suffix : – ene
Secondary suffix : – oic acid
Position of double bond : 2nd position
IUPAC name : Pent-2-en-1-oic acid/Pent-2-enoic acid
(iii) CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – NH2

Word root : Prop -
Primary suffix : - ane
Secondary suffix : - amine
IUPAC name : Propan - 1 - amine
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(iv)
Word root : Prop-
Primary suffix : ane
Substituent : nitro(prefix)
IUPAC name : 1 - Nitropropane
(v)
Word root : But -

Prefix : – chloro
IUPAC name : 2 - Chlorobutane
(vi)
Word root : But -

Secondary suffix : – one
Prefix : Methyl
IUPAC name : 3 - Methylbutan - 2- one
IUPAC NOMENCLATURE OF POLY FUNCTIONAL COMPOUNDS
When an organic compound contains two or more different functional groups, then one out of these is
selected as principal functional group while the others are called secondary functional groups and are
treated as substituents. The choice of the principal functional group is made on the basis of the
following order of preferences.
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Priority order of functional groups :
In writing the IUPAC name of a poly functional group compound, the functional group with the
maximum preference (principal functional group) is represented by the secondary suffix which is added
to the word root along with the primary suffix. All other secondary functional groups, if present, are
indicated by suitalble prefixes which are added to the root word.
Thus, a functional group can act either as a secondary suffix or a prefix depending upon its priority in
the priority sequence. A functional group, in fact, has two names : one while acting as secondary suffix
and the other while acting as a prefix.
for e.g.
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ISOMERISM
Such compounds which have same molecular formula but different physical and chemical properties
are known as isomers and the phenomenon is known as isomerism.
(a) Chain Isomerism :

The isomerism in which the isomers differ from each other due to the presence of different carbon chain
skeletons is known as chain isomerism.
e.g.
(i) C4H10
(ii) C5H12
(iii) C=H8
152
(b) Position Isomerism :
In this type of isomerism, isomers differ in the structure due to difference in the position of the multiple
bond or functional group.
e.g.
(i) C4H8
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(ii) C3H8O
(c) Functional Group Isomerism :

In this type of isomerism, isomers differ in the structure due to the presence of different functional groups.
e.g.
(i) C3H8O
(ii) C4H6
Solved Examples
Example.1 Write the structural formula for

(i) 2-methyl-2-butene (ii) 2-Methyl propene
Solution : (i)
(ii)
Example.2 Give IUPAC names of the following compounds -
(a) CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – OH
(b)
(c) How are these two compounds related to each other ?

Solution : (a) Propanol
(b) propan-2-ol
(c) Both are functional group isomers of each other.
CHECK POINT 5.4
1. Out of ketonic and Aldehydic groups, which is the terminal functional group?
2. In an organic compound, which parts largely determine its physical and chemical properties?
(E) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS, ETHYL

ALCOHOL AND ETHANOIC ACID :
The important chemical properties of organic compounds are discussed below :
(a) Combustion Reactions :

Carbon in all its allotropic forms burns in air or oxygen to give carbon dioxide and releases energy in
the form of heat and light.
Most carbon compound also release a large amount of heat and light on burning.
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Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a clean flame while unsaturated carbon compounds will
give a yellow flame with lots of black smoke. This results in a sooty deposit on the surface. However,
limiting the supply of air results in incomplete combustion of even saturated hydrocarbons giving a
sooty flame.
(b) Oxidation Reactions :

Oxidation is a process in which oxygen is added to a substance. The substances which add oxygen to
other substances are called oxidising agents. There are many oxidising agents such as alkaline
potassium permanganate (alk. KMnO4), acidified potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7), nitric acid (HNO3)
etc. which are commonly used in organic chemistry. Some common reactions of oxidation are -
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(c) Substitution Reactions :

The reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced or substituted by different
atoms or group of atoms are called substitution reactions. Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive.
For example, chlorine does not react with methane at room temperature. However, in the presence of
sunlight the reaction of chlorine and hydrocarbons is fairly fast. It gives a variety of products.
In this reaction H – atom of methane has been replaced by a –Cl atom converting CH4 to CH3Cl.
However, if Cl2 is used in excess, all the hydrogen atoms are replaced by chlorine atom one by one.
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(d) Addition Reactions :

The reactions in which a reactant molecule is added to another reactant molecule to form a product are
known as addition reactions. Unsaturated hydrocarbons, such as alkenes and alkynes undergo addition
reactions. For example, unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen, in the presence of catalysts, such as
nickel or palladium, to give saturated hydrocarbons as given below :
This process of addition of hydrogen across double or triple bond is known as hydrogenation and is
very useful in daily life. This process is especially useful for the preparation of vanaspati ghee from
vegetable oils, in presence of nickel as discussed below :
Hydrogenation of oils :
Certain vegetable oils such as groundnut oil, cotton seed oil and mustard oil, contain double bonds (C =
C) and are liquids at room temperature. Because of the presence of double bonds, the vegetable oils
undergo hydrogenation, like alkenes, to form saturated products called vanaspati ghee, which is a solid
or a semi-solid at the room temperature.
You must have seen advertisements stating that some of the vegetable oils are ‘healthy’. But it is worth
mentioning that animal fats, such as ‘Ghee’ and butter contain saturated fatty acids which are not
considered good for health and even doctors discourage their use. On the other hand, oils containing
unsaturated fatty acids are generally used for cooking purposes.
In addition to hydrogenation, some other typical examples of addition reactions are given below :
1
(i) Addition of chlorine
Ethene reacts with one molecule of chlorine to give1,2-dichloroethane (or ethylene dichloride)
which is a saturated compound.
Similarly, ethyne reacts with one molecule of chlorine to form 1, 2-dichloroethene, which is still
unsaturated and, therefore, adds one more molecule of chlorine to form a saturated compound, i.e.,
1, 1, 2, 2-Tetrachloroethane as given below :
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(ii) Addition of bromine :
When bromine water (which is a solution of bromine in water) is added to ethene, it forms 1, 2
dibromoethane and the solution becomes colourless, i.e., the reddish-brown colour of bromine is
discharged
This reaction is used as a test for unsaturation.

Similarly, bromine reacts with ethyne to give, 1, 1, 2, 2-Tetrabromoethane which is a saturated
compound
Test for unsaturation. The addition of bromine water to alkenes or alkynes is also used to test the
unsaturation in the given organic compound. If the reddish - brown colour of bromine water gets
discharged on adding it to the organic compound, the compound must be unsaturated, i.e., it must
be containing a double or triple bond. Similarly, the unsaturation in the organic compound can also
be tested with the help of Bayer’s test.
BURNING OF SUBSTANCES WITH OR WITHOUT SMOKY FLAME

When coal or charcoal burns in an ‘angithi’, sometimes it just glows red and gives out heat without a
flame. This is because a flame is only produced when gaseous substances burn. When wood or charcoal
is ignited, the volatile substances present vapourise and burn with a flame in the beginning.
A luminous flame is also observed when the atoms of the gaseous substances are heated and start to
glow. The colour of the flame is characteristic of that element. For example, when a copper wire is
heated in the flame of the a gas stove, a bluish green colour is obtained.
The incomplete combustion gives soot or smoke which is due to carbon. Saturated hydrocarbons burn
with blue non-sooty flame. This is because the percentage of carbon in these compounds is low which
gets oxidized completely by the oxygen present in the air.
On the other hand, unsaturated hydrocarbons burn with yellow sooty flame. This is because the
percentage of carbon in these compounds is comparatively higher (than saturated compounds).
Therefore , all the carbon does not get oxidised completely in the oxygen of the air. Due to incomplete
combustion, the flame is sooty due to the presence of unburnt carbon particles.
The fuels such as coal, petroleum have some amount of nitrogen and sulphur in them. On heating, they
are burnt to oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, which are released in the atmosphere. These are the major
pollutants in the environment.
FORMATION OF COAL AND PETROLEUM

Coal and petroleum are the fossil fuels. These are believed to be formed from biomass which has been
subjected to various biological and geological processes inside the earth.
Coal is formed from the remains of plants and animals (fossils) which died about millions of years ago.
These remains gradually got buried deep in the earth during earthquakes, volcanoes etc. These remains
were covered with sand, clay and water. Due to high temperature and high pressure and the absence of
air inside the earth, the fossils got converted into coal. This process of conversion of plants and animals
buried inside the earth under high temperature and pressure to coal is called carbonisation. It is a very
slow process and may have taken thousands of years.
Petroleum is formed from the bacterial decomposition of the remains of animals and plants which got
buried under the sea millions of years ago. When these organisms died, they sank to the bottom and got
covered by sand and clay. Over a period of millions of years, these remains got converted into
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
hydrocarbons by heat, pressure and catalytic action. The hydrocarbons formed rose through porous
rocks and got trapped between two layers of impervious rocks forming an oil trap.
ALCOHOLS
Alcohols are the simplest organic compounds which contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. An alcohol
may be defined as follows :
An organic compound in which a hydroxyl (– OH) group is attached to an alkyl group (R) is called an
alcohol. If R is an alkyl group, then the corresponding alcohol is represented by the formula ROH.
An alcohol may also be considered as a hydroxy derivative of an alkane. So, an alcohol can be obtained
by replacing a hydrogen atom of an alkane (RH) by a hydroxyl (– OH) group. Thus,
−H
Alkane  + OH
→ Alcohol
−H
or, RH 
+ OH
→ ROH
−H
or, CnH2n+2 
+ OH
→ H2n+1OH
Therefore, simple alcohols can be described by the general formula CnH2n+1OH.
For example, when a hydrogen atom of methane is replaced by –OH group, methyl alcohol is obtained.
Similarly, from ethane one gets ethyl alcohol.
157
(a) Classification :
Monohydric alcohols are classified as primary, secondary or tertiary alcohols depending upon whether
the hydroxyl group is attached to a primary, secondary or tertiary carbon atom.
ETHANOL
(a) Properties of Ethanol :
(i) Physical properties
• Ethanol is a colourless liquid having a pleasant smell.
• Ethanol boils at 351 K.
• It is miscible with water in all proportions.
• It is a non-conductor of electricity (it does not contain ions).
• It is neutral to litmus.
(ii) Chemical properties :

• Combustion : Ethanol burns in air with a blue flame to form CO2 & H2O.
C2H5OH + 3O2  → 2CO2 + 3H2O + heat & light
• Oxidation :
♦ By mild oxidizing agent CrO3 (Chromic anhydride).
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♦ By strong oxidizing agent (K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 or alkaline KMnO4).
• Reaction with sodium : Ethanol reacts with sodium to produce hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide.
• Reaction with carboxylic acids : [ESTERIFICATION] The process of formation of an ester by

the combination of an alcohol with carboxylic acid is known as esterification.
When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in presence of concentrated sulphuric acid, ethyl ethanoate
and water are formed .
11
Esters are sweet smelling substances and thus are used in making perfumes.
• Action with concentrated sulphuric acid : Ethanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443
K to produce ethylene. This reaction is known as acidic dehydration of ethanol because in this
reaction, water molecule is removed from ethanol.
The concentrated sulphuric acid may be regarded as a dehydrating agent because it removes water
from ethanol.
(iii) Some Important Terms :

• Denatured alcohol : To prevent the misuse for drinking purpose, the alcohol supplied for industrial
purpose is rendered unfit by mixing it with some poisonous substances like methanol, pyridine,
copper sulphate etc. It is known as denatured alcohol.
• Rectified spirit : Ethanol containing 5 percent water is known as rectified spirit.
• Absolute alcohol : Rectified spirit is heated under reflux over quicklime for about 5 to 6 hours and
then allowed to stand for 12 hours. On distillation, pure alcohol (C2H5OH = 100%) is obtained.
This is called absolute alcohol.
• Power alcohol : Alcohol, which is used for generating power is called power alcohol. It consists of
a mixture of absolute alcohol and petrol roughly in the ratio 20 : 80. Since alcohol itself, does not
mix with petrol , therefore, a third solvent such as benzene, ether etc. is added as a co-solvent.
(iv) Uses of Ethanol :

• Ethanol is a constituent of beverages like beer, wine, whisky and other liquors.
Beer = 3 – 6% Ethanol
Whisky = 50% Ethanol
Wine = 10-20% Ethanol
• Ethanol is used to sterilize wounds and syringes.
• Antifreeze : It is a mixture of ethanol and water which has a much lower freezing point than that of
water. It is used in radiators of vehicles in cold countries.
• It is used in manufacture of paints, dyes, medicines, soaps and synthetic rubber. Solution of ethanol
prepared in pharmaceutical industry are known as tinctures.
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• Alcohol as a fuel
Sugarcane plants are one of the most efficient convertors of sunlight into chemical energy.
Sugarcane juice can be used to prepare molasses which is fermented to give alcohol (ethanol).
Some countries now use alcohol as an additive in petrol since it is a cleaner fuel which gives rise to
only carbon dioxide and water on burning in sufficient air (oxygen).
(v) Harmful effects of drinking alcohol :

• If ethanol is mixed with CH3OH and consumed, it may cause serious poisoning and loss of eyesight.
• It causes addiction (habit forming) and mixes with blood. It damages liver if taken regularly.
• Higher amount of consumption of ethanol leads to loss of body control & consciousness. It may
even cause death.
(vi) Test of alcohol :

The presence of ethanol or alcoholic group in an organic compound can be tested by the following tests:
11
• Sodium metal test :
Add a small piece of sodium metal to the organic compound (to be tested) in a dry test tube. If the
bubbles of hydrogen gas are produced, it indicates the presence of alcohol.
• Ester formation test :

Warm the organic compound with acetic acid and a few drops of conc. H2SO4. A sweet smell (due
to the formation of ester) indicates the presence of alcohol
ETHANOIC ACID
(a) Molecular formula : CH3COOH
(b) Structural formula :
(c) The IUPAC name of acetic acid is ethanoic acid.
(d) Occurrence :
Ethanoic acid is known as vinegar, from ancient times. Vinegar is essentially a dilute solution of
ethanoic acid in water. The acid is also present in some fruit juice . In the combined form, it is also
present in many perfumed oils. Ethanoic acid was first prepared in the pure state by Stahl in 1720 .
(e) Physical properties :

(i) Ethanoic acid is a colourless, viscous liquid but has a pungent and irritating smell of vinegar.
(ii) Its boiling point is 391 K.
(iii) It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether. Its dissolution in water takes place with the evolution of
heat and decrease in volume of the solution.
(iv) The melting point of ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence it often freezes during winter in cold climates.
Therefore, it is named as glacial acetic acid.
(f) Chemical properties :

(A) Acidic character : Ethanoic acid is a monobasic acid. It has a replaceable hydrogen atom in its –
COOH group. Therefore, it neutralizes alkalies.
(1) It reacts with a solution of sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and water.
Sodium ethanoate is an ionic compound which dissolves in polar solvents such as water, but
does not dissolves in non polar solvents such as alcohol, propanone etc. The aqueous solution
of sodium ethanoate is alkaline due to hydrolysis.
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
(2) It reacts with sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate with the evolution of CO2 gas.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2 ↑
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2 ↑
(3) It reacts with metals like sodium, zinc and magnesium to liberate hydrogen gas.
2CH3COOH + 2Na → 2CH3COONa + H2 ↑
2CH3COOH + Zn → (CH3COO)2Zn + H2 ↑
(B) Ester formation : When ethanoic acid is heated with ethanol in presence of small quantity of conc.
H2SO4 ethyl ethanoate, a sweet smelling ester, is formed.
160
This process of ester formation is called esterification.
(C) Decarboxylation :
When sodium ethanoate is heated with soda lime, methane is formed.
 Note :
The term‘ decarboxylation ‘ is used when the elements of carbon dioxide are removed from a molecule.
(g) Uses :
(A) Dilute aqueous solution (5–8%) of ethanoic acid is called vinegar, which is used to preserve food
(sausage, pickles, etc).
(B) Pure ethanoic acid is used as a solvent and chemical reagent.
(C) As cellulose ethanoate, it is used in making photographic films and rayon.
(D) Ethanoic acid also finds application in the preparation of propanone, chloroethanoic acid,
ethanoates of metals etc.
(E) It is widely used in the manufacture of textiles.
(F) It is used in the preparation of white lead.
(h) Tests for Carboxylic Acid :

(A) Litmus test : Add small amount of blue litmus solution to the given compound. If the blue litmus
solution turns red, it indicates that the organic compound is acidic in nature.
(B) Sodium bicarbonate test : Take a small portion of the organic compound in a test tube and add a
pinch of solid sodium bicarbonate. Evolution of carbon dioxide with brisk effervescence shows that
the organic compound is acidic in nature.
(C) Ester formation: When a mixture of given compound and ethanol is heated in the presence of
concentrated sulphuric acid, a fruity smelling ester, ethyl ethanoate, is produced which shows that
the organic compound is acidic in nature.
Solved Examples
Example.1 What happens when a small piece of sodium is dropped into ethanol ?
Solution : Hydrogen gas will evolve.
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
Example.2 What Happened when alcohol and carboxylic acid react with each other in presence of conc. H2SO4.
Solution : Formation of ester will takes place. which is sweet smelling compound.
11
CHECK POINT 5.5
1. Do alcohols give litmus test ?

2. How will you distinguished between ethanol and Ethanoic acid ?
3. Although both acid and base are obtained from the salt of ethanoic acid, yet the overall aqueous
solution of sodium ethanoate is alkaline. Give reason.
(F) SOAPS AND DETERGENTS:

The word ‘detergent’ means’ cleansing agent and so the detergents are substances which remove dirt
and have cleansing action in water. According to this definition of detergents, soap is also a detergent
and has been used for more than two thousand years. There are two types of detergents :
(a) Soapy detergents or soaps
(b) Non - soapy detergents or soapless soaps.
(a) Soap :
A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of some long chain carboxylic acids (fatty acid). Sodium salts of
fatty acids are known as hard soaps and potassium salts of fatty acid are known as soft soaps. A soap
has a large non-ionic hydrocarbon group and an ionic COO– Na+ group. The structure of soap can be
represented as :
where represents the hydrocarbon group and represents negatively charged carboxyl
group. Some examples of soaps are sodium stearate, C17H35COO– Na+, sodium palmitate, C15H31COO–
Na+ and sodium oleate, C17H33COO– Na+.
 Note :
Hard water, which contains salts of magnesium and calcium, reacts with soap to form magnesium and
calcium salts of fatty acid.
(i) Preparation of soap : Soap is prepared by heating oil or fat of vegetable or animal origin with
concentrated sodium hydroxide solution (caustic soda solution). Hydrolysis of fat takes place and a
mixture of sodium salt of fatty acids and glycerol is formed. Since the salt of fatty acids thus
formed are used as soap so alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is commonly known as
saponification.
(ii) Limitation of soaps : Soap is not suitable for washing clothes with hard water because of the
following reasons.
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(A) Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium. When soap is added to hard water,
calcium and magnesium ions of hard water react with soap forming insoluble calcium and
magnesium salts of fatty acids.
Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if water is hard.

162
(B) When hard water is used, soap forms insoluble precipitates of calcium and magnesium salts,
which stick to the cloth being washed. Therefore, it interferes with the cleaning ability of the
soap and makes the cleaning process difficult.
 Note : These calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acid are insoluble in water and separate as curdy
white precipitate.
(b) Detergents :
These are also called synthetic detergents or soapless soaps. A synthetic detergent is the sodium salt of
a long chain benzene sulphonic acid or the sodium salt of a long chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate.
(i) Preparation of Synthetic Detergents : Synthetic detergents are prepared by reacting hydrocarbons
from petroleum with conc. sulphuric acid and converting the product into its sodium salt.
Examples :
 Note :
1. Washing powders available in the market contain about 15 to 30 percent detergents by weight.
2. Alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is commonly known as saponification.
(c) Comparison Between Properties of Soaps and Detergents :
(d) Advantages of Synthetic Detergents Over Soaps :

Synthetic detergents are widely used as cleaning agents these days. Some of their advantages over
soaps are :
(i) Synthetic detergents can be used for washing even in hard water. On the other hand, soaps are not
suitable for use with hard water.
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
(ii) Synthetic detergents can be used even in acidic solutions because they are not readily decomposed
in acidic medium. On the other hand, soaps cannot be used in acidic medium because they are
decomposed into carboxylic acids in acidic medium.
(iii) Synthetic detergents are more soluble in water than soaps.
(iv) Synthetic detergents have a stronger cleaning action than soaps.
163
(e) Cleansing Action of Soaps and Detergents :
A molecule of soap is made up of two parts : a non polar part consisting of a long chain of 12 - 18
carbon atoms and a polar part, –COO–Na+. The polar end is water soluble and is thus hydrophilic
whereas hydrocarbon part is insoluble in water and is thus hydrophobic.
In a soap solution, the hydrocarbon portions of several soap molecules huddle together to form
aggregates of molecules (or ions) called micelles. The soap micelles are negatively charged due to the
presence of carboxylate ions at the surface. Repulsion between similarly charged micelles keeps them
dispersed in the solution.
 Note :
The hydrocarbon part is however soluble in non-polar solvents and is sometimes called lipophilic.
Cleansing action of soap : Mostly the dirt is held to any surface such as cloth by the oil or grease
which is present there. Now since the oil and grease are not soluble in water, the dirt particles cannot be
removed by simply washing the cloth with water. However, when soap is applied, the non polar
hydrocarbon part of the soap molecules dissolves in oil droplets while the polar – COO– Na+ groups
remain attached to water molecules. In this way, each oil droplet gets surrounded by negative charge.
These negatively charged oil droplets cannot coalesce and continue breaking into small droplets .These
oil droplets (containing dirt particles) can be washed away with water along with dirt particles. So, the
action of soap or detergents is to emulsify oil or grease, this loosens the solid particles of dirt and they
are removed.
 Note :
In a soap molecule hydrophilic polar end is water soluble and hydrophobic hydrocarbon part is
insoluble in water.
Soap or detergent helps in cleansing in another way. Not only it emulsifies oil or grease but it also
lowers the surface tension of water. As a result of this water wets things more effectively.
When water is added on to the surface of the cloth then water molecules tend to stay as close to each
other as possible because of the strong forces of attraction (hydrogen bonding) for each other and do not
wet the cloth properly. If some soap solution is added to this water then polar end of soap dissolves in
water and non polar hydrocarbon end remains away from the water. Thus, soap molecules arrange
themselves between the water molecules on the surface of water and decrease the forces of attraction
between the water molecules. Water can now spread on the surface of cloth and can make it wet
effectively.
(f) Synthetic Detergents : A Serious Problem :

It may be noted that in the past, the widespread use of detergents caused pollution of rivers and other
water bodies. Earlier the synthetic detergents were made from long chain of hydrocarbons having a lot
of branched chains in them. These branched chain detergent molecules were degraded very slowly by
the micro organisms present in water bodies like lakes or rivers.
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Therefore, they tend to remain in water bodies for a long time and make water unfit for aquatic life. For
example, detergents containing phosphates can cause rapid growth of algae and therefore, deplete the
dissolved oxygen present in the water of lakes and rivers. As a result of lack of oxygen, fish and other
aquatic animals may die. To solve these problems, now-a-days, the detergents are prepared from
hydrocarbons which have minimum branching. These are degraded more easily than branched chain
detergents. Therefore, these are biodegradable and create less problems.
164
Solved Examples
Example.1 Why are detergents preferred over soaps ?

Solution : Because it can be used in hard water and In acidic medium also.
Example.2 What is Saponification?

Solution : Process of formation of Soap by alkaline hydrolysis of ester of carboxylic acid.
CHECK POINT 5.6
1. Why detergents are better cleansing agents than soaps? Explain.

2. What is Scum ?
Board Level Exercise
TYPE (I) : VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS : [01 MARK EACH]
1. Name the functional groups present in the following compounds

(a) CH3COCH2CH2CH2CH3 (b) CH3CH2CH2COOH
(c) CH3CH2CH2CH2CHO (d) CH3CH2OH
2. Intake of small quantity of methanol can be lethal. Comment.
TYPE (II) : SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS : [02 MARKS EACH]

3. Draw the structural formula of ethyne.
4. How is ethene prepared from ethanol? Give the reaction involved in it.
5. Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain multiple bonds between the two C-atoms and show addition reactions.
Give the test to distinguish ethane from ethene.
6. Write the structural formulae of all the isomers of hexane.
TYPE (III) : LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS: [04 MARK EACH]

7. (a) What are hydrocarbons? Give examples.
(b) Give the structural differences between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons with two examples each.
(c) What is a functional group? Give examples of four different functional groups.
8. (a) Write the formula and draw electron dot structure of carbon tetrachloride.
(b) What is saponification? Write the reaction involved in this process.
9. Esters are sweet-smelling substances and are used in making perfumes. Suggest some activity and the
reaction involved for the preparation of an ester with well labeled diagram.
TYPE (IV): VERY LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

10. How would you bring about the following conversions? Name the process and write the reaction involved.
(a) propanol to propanoic acid. Write the reactions.
(b) isomers of the compound with molecular formula C3H6O and also give their electron dot structures.
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
PREVIOUS YEAR PROBLEMS
1. Write the name and formula of the first member of the carbon compounds having functional group -
CHO. [1 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2013]
2. Write the name and formula of a molecule made up of three atoms of oxygen.
[1 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2013]
3. Name the oxidizing agent used for the conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid. Distinguish between
ethanol and ethanoic acid on the basis of (i) litmus test, (ii) reaction with sodium hydrogen carbonate.
[2 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2015] [3 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2013]
4. What are hydrocarbons? Write the name and general formula of (i) saturated hydrocarbons, (ii)
unsaturated hydrocarbons, and draw the structure of one hydrocarbon of each type. How can an
unsaturated hydrocarbon be made saturated? [5 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2013]
OR
What are detergents chemically? List two merits and two demerits of using detergents for cleansing.
State the reason for the suitability of detergents for washing, even in the case of water having calcium
and magnesium ions.
5. What are homologous series of carbon compounds? Write the molecular formula of two consecutive
members of homologous series of aldehydes. State which part of these compounds determines their (i)
physical and (ii) chemical properties. [3 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2014]
6. A carboxylic acid (molecular formula C2H4O2 reacts with an alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst
to form a compound ‘X’. The alcohol on oxidation with alkaline KMnO4 followed by acidification
gives the same carboxylic acid C2H4O2. Write the name and structure of (i) carboxylic acid, (ii) alcohol
and (iii) the compound ‘X’. [3 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2014]
7. Elements forming ionic compounds attain noble gas configuration by either gaining or losing electrons
from their outermost shells. Give reason to explain why carbon cannot attain noble gas configuration in
this manner to form its compounds. Name the type of bonds formed in ionic compounds and in the
compounds formed by carbon. Also give reason why carbon compounds are generally poor conductors
of electricity. [5 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2014]
8. Write the number of covalent bonds in the molecule of ethane.

9. Draw the electron-dot structure for ethyne. A mixture of ethyne and oxygen is burnt for welding. In
your opinion, why cannot we use a mixture of ethyne and air for this purpose?
10. Both soap and detergent are some type of salts. What is the difference between them ? Describe in brief
the cleansing action of soap. Why do soaps not form lather in hard water? List two problems that arise
due to the use of detergents instead of soaps. [5 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2015]
11. Write the name and structure of an alcohol with three carbon atoms in its molecules?
12. Write chemical equation of the reaction of ethanoic acid with the following:
a. Sodium;
b. Sodium hydroxide;
c. Ethanol.
Write the name of the main product of each reaction. [2 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2016]
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
13. A student adds a spoon full of powdered sodium hydrogen carbonate to a flask containing ethanoic
acid. List two main observations, he must note in his note book, about the reaction that takes place.
Also write chemical equation for the reaction. [2 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2016]
14. An aldehyde as well as a ketone can be represented by the same molecular formula, say C3H6O Write
their structure and name them. State the relation between the two in the language of science.
[3 MARKS/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2016]
15. A carbon compound ‘P’ on heating with excess conc H2SO4 forms another carbon compound ‘Q’ which
on addition of hydrogen in the presence of nickel catalyst forms a saturated carbon compound ‘R’ One
molecule of ‘R’ on combustion forms two molecules of carbon dioxide and three molecule of water.
Identify P, Q and R and write chemical equations for the reactions involved.
[2 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2015] [3 MARKS/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2016]
16. Write the molecular formula of the 2nd and the 3rd member of the homologous series whose first
member is methane. [1 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2017]
17. Write the structural formula of ethanol. What happens when it is heated with excess of conc. H2SO4 at
443 K? Write the chemical equation for the reaction stating the role of conc. H2SO4 in this reaction.
18. Mention the essential material (chemicals) to prepare soap in the laboratory. Describe in brief the test of
determining the nature (acidic/alkaline) of the reaction mixture of saponification reaction.
19. Distinguish between esterfication and saponification reaction with the help of the chemical equations
for each. State one use of each (i) esters, and (ii) saponification process.
20. Why are certain compounds called hydrocarbons? Write the general formula for homologous series of
alkanes, alkenes and alkynes and also draw the structure of the first member of each series. Write the
name of the reaction that converts alkenes into alkanes and also write a chemical equation to show the
necessary conditions for the reaction to occur. [3 MARKS/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2017]
SECTION - B
1. What do we observe on pouring acetic acid on red and blue litmus papers ?
(A) Red litmus remains red and blue litmus turns red.
(B) Red litmus turns blue and blue litmus remains blue.
(C) Red litmus turns blue and blue litmus turns red.
(D) Red litmus becomes colourless and blue litmus remains blue.
2. While preparing soap a small quantity of common salt is generally added to the reaction mixture of
vegetable oil and sodium hydroxide. Which one of the following may be the purpose of adding
common salt ? [1 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2015]
(A) To reduce the basic nature of the soap
(B) To make the soap neutral
(C) To enhance the cleansing power of the soap
(D) To favour the precipitation of the soap
3. A student takes about 4 mL of distilled water in four test tubes marked P, Q, R and S. He then dissolves
in each test tube an equal amount of one salt in one test tube, namely sodium sulphate in P, potassium
sulphate in Q, calcium sulphate in R and magnesium sulphate in S. After that he adds an equal amount
of soap solution in each test tube. On shaking each of these test tubes well, he observes a good amount
of lather (foam) in the test tubes marked [1 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2015]
(A) P and Q (B) Q and R (C) P, Q and S (D) P, R and S
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
4. A student puts a drop of reaction mixture of a saponification reaction first on a blue litmus paper and
then on a red litmus paper. He may observe that: [1 MARKS/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2016]
(A) There is no change in the blue litmus paper and the red litmus paper turns white.
(B) There is no change in the red litmus paper and the blue litmus paper turns red.
(C) There is no change in the blue litmus paper and the red litmus paper turns blue.
(D) No change in color is observed in both the litmus papers.
5. For preparing soap in the laboratory we require an oil and a base. Which of the following combinations
of an oil and a base would be best suited for the preparation of soap?
(A) Castor oil and calcium hydroxide (B) Turpentine oil and sodium hydroxide
(C) Castor oil and sodium hydroxide (D) Mustard oil and calcium hydroxide
6. In the neighbourhood of your school, hard water required for an experiment is not available. Select
from the following groups of salts available in your school, a group each member of which, if dissolved
in distilled water, will make it hard: [1 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2016]
(A) Sodium chloride, calcium chloride (B) Potassium chloride, sodium chloride
(C) Sodium chloride, magnesium chloride (D) Calcium chloride, magnesium chloride
7. When you add a few drops of acetic acid to a test-tube containing sodium bicarbonate powder, which
one of the following is your observation? [1 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2017]
(A) No reaction takes place
(B) A colorless gas with pungent smell is released with brisk effervescence
(C) A brown colored gas is released with brisk effervescence
(D) Formation of bubbles of a colorless and odorless gas
8. While studying the saponification reaction, what do you observe when you mix an equal amount of
colourless vegetable oil and 20% aqueous solution of NaOH in a beaker ?
(A) The colour of the mixture has become dark brown
(B) A brisk effervescence is taking place in the beaker
(C) The outer surface of the beaker has become hot
(D) The outer surface of the beaker has become cold
9. A student requires hard water for an experiment in his laboratory which is not available in the
neighbouring area. In the laboratory there are some salts, which when dissolved in distilled water can
convert it into hard water. Select from the following groups of salts, a group, each salt of which when
dissolved in distilled water will make it hard. [1 MARK/CBSE 10TH BOARD: 2017]
(A) Sodium chloride, Potassium chloride (B) Sodium sulphate, Potassium sulphate
(C) Sodium sulphate, Calcium sulphate (D) Calcium sulphate, Calcium chloride
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
EXERCISE # 1
SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SINGLE CHOICE OBJECTIVE, STRAIGHT CONCEPT/FORMULA ORIENTED
SECTION (A) : INTRODUCTION AND COVALENT BONDING :

A-1. Name one electrovalent and one covalent compound containing chlorine.
A-2. Who disproved vital force theory and how?
A-3. What are the main properties of covalents compounds with respect to melting and boiling points,
solubility and conductivity?
A-4. How will you show formation of ethylene molecules with the help of lewis dot structure.
A-5. Name a carbon containing molecule in which two double bonds are present.
SECTION (B) : ALLOTROPIC FORMS OF CARBON :
B-1. How does the conductivity vary in diamond and graphite?
B-2. Define allotropy?
SECTION (C) : HYDROCARBONS AND HOMOLOGOUS SERIES:
C-1. What is the common difference in two consecutive members in a homologous series ?
C-3. What are saturated hydrocarbons ? Give one example.
C-4. Write the main Characteristics of homologous series.
SECTION (D) : NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND ISOMERISM:
D-1. write a short note on

(i) functional group isomerism
(ii) Position isomerism
D-2. Given the IUPAC names of -

(a) CH3 – CH2 – Br
(b) CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – C ≡ CH
D-3. Name the isomerism exhibited by the following pairs of compounds -

(a) Propanal & Propanone
(b) 1-Propanol & 2- Propanol
D-4. Name a functional groups which can never occupy terminal position.
D-5. Write the formulae of the following compounds -
(a) simplest ketone
(b) next higher homologue of butanoic acid
(c) acetic acid
(d) n-butyl alcohol
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
SECTION (E) : CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS, ETHYL ALCOHOL AND
ETHANOIC ACID:
E-1. What is denatured alcohol ? How is it prepared ?
E-2. What are the harmful effects of drinking alcohol ?
E-3. What are the reactive site for addition reactions in unsaturated hydrocarbons? Give one example?
E-4. Complete the following reaction -

HCOOH + CH3OH  Conc.
H SO
→
2 4
E-5. Give the important uses of ethyl alcohol.
SECTION (F) : SOAPS AND DETERGENTS :
F-1. Give the chemical reaction involved in the preparation of soaps?
F-2. Write any three differences between soaps and detergents ?
F-3. (a) Distinguish between esterification and saponification reactions of organic compound.
(b) Explain Cleansing action of Soap ?
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A) : INTRODUCTION, COVALENT BONDING :
A-1. In a double covalent bond number of electron pairs shared are -

(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 6
A-2. Which of the following compound contain single covalent bond ?

(A) Oxygen (B) Nitrogen (C) Methane (D) Carbon dioxide
A-3. Carbon dioxide molecule contains -

(A) single covalent bond (B) double covalent bond
(C) triple covalent bond (D) ionic bond
A-4. Covalent compounds can be dissolved in -

(A) benzene (B) ether (C) alcohol (D) all of these
A-5. Covalent compounds are generally-

(A) good conductors of electricity. (B) bad conductors of electricity.
(C) semiconductors of electricity. (D) none of these

B-1. Which of the following allotropic form of Carbon used in making Crucibles -
(A) Diamond (B) Graphite (C) Fullerene (D) Coke
B-2. Diamond means :

(A) Transparent (B) Hardness (C) Both A and B (D) Conductor
B-3. Bond length between carbon-carbon atoms in diamond is :

(A) 1.34 A° (B) 1.40 A° (C) 1.54 A° (D) 1.7 A°
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
B-4. Graphite is used in making electrodes because :
(A) It has high melting point (B) It is soft and slippery
(C) It is a good conductor of electricity (D) None of these
B-5. Graphite melts at a high temperature of about :

(A) 4236°C (B) 5326°C (C) 3730°C (D) 6326°C

C-1. The general formula for saturated hydrocarbons is -
(A) CnH2n+2 (B) CnH2n (C) CnH2n–2 (D) CnH2n–n
C-2. Select the alkyne from the following -

(A) C4H8 (B) C5H8 (C) C7H19 (D) None of these
C-3. In order to form branching, a saturated organic compound must have a minimum of -
(A) four carbon atoms (B) three carbon atoms
(C) five carbon atoms (D) any number of carbon atoms
C-4. The number of C–H bonds in ethane (C2H6) molecule is -

(A) four (B) six (C) eight (D) ten
C-5. Which of the following does not belong to alkane ?

(A) C2H4 (B) CH4 (C) C2H6 (D) C4H10

D-1. The IUPAC name of (CH3)2 CHCH2 CH2 Br is
(A) 1-Bromopentane (B) 2-Methyl-4-bromo pentane
(C) 1-Bromo -3- methyl butane (D) 2-Methyl-3-bromo pentane
D-2. IUPAC name of CH3CH2OH is -

(A) wood spirit (B) methyl carbinol (C) ethanol (D) ethyl alcohol
D-3. The IUPAC name of the compound having the formula (CH3)3 CCH = CH2 is -
(A) 3,3,3-Trimethyl-1-propene (B) 1,1,1-Trimethyl-1-propene
(C) 3,3-Dimethyl-1-butene (D) 1,1–Dimethyl-2-butene
D-4. The IUPAC name of (CH3)2CHCH3 is -

(A) 2-Methylpropane (B) 2,2-Dimethylethane
(C) Trimethylmethane (D) none of these
D-5. The IUPAC name of the following compound is -

CH2 = CH – CH (CH3)2
(A) 1,1-Dimethyl-2-propene (B) 3-Methyl-1-butene
(C) 2-Vinyl propane (D) 1-Isopropyl ethylene
D-6. The IUPAC name of CH3 – C(CH3) (OH) CH2 – CH(CH3) CH3 is -
(A) 2,4-Dimethylpentan-2-ol (B) 2,4- Dimethylpentan-4-ol
(C) 2,2-Dimethylbutane (D) Butanol-2-one
D-7. The IUPAC name of neopentane is

(A) 2, 2-dimethylpropane (B) 2-methylpropane
(C) 2, 2-dimethylbutane (D) 2-methylbutane
D-8. The correct decreasing order of priority for the functional groups of organic compounds in the IUPAC
system of nomenclature is
(A) –SO3H, –COOH, –CONH2, –CHO (B) –CHO, –COOH, –SO3H, –CONH2
(C) –CONH2, –CHO, –SO3H, –COOH (D) –COOH, –SO3H, –CONH2, –CHO
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
D-7. IUPAC name of second member of homologous series of carboxylic acids is -
(A) Methanoic acid (B) Ethanoic acid (C) Propanoic acid (D) Butanoic acid
D-10. The IUPAC name of CH3 – C(CH3) (OH) CH2 – CH(CH3) CH3 is -
(A) 2, 4-Dimethylpentan-2-ol (B) 2,4- Dimethylpentan-4-ol
(C) 2, 2-Dimethylbutane (D) Butanol-2-one

ETHANOIC ACID:
E-1. ometimes during cooking the bottom of the vessel becomes black from outside. This means that -
(A) food is not cooked properly. (B) fuel is not burning completely.
(C) fuel is burning completely. (D) fuel is dry.
E-2. Rectified spirit is -

(A) 50% ethanol (B) 80% ethanol (C) 95% ethanol (D) 100% ethanol
E-3. Glacial acetic acid is -

(A) 100% acetic acid free of water. (B) solidified acetic acid.
(C) gaseous acetic acid. (D) frozen acetic acid.
E-4. Which of the following will react with sodium metal ?

(A) Ethanol (B) Ethanal (C) Ethene (D) Ethane
E-5. Power alcohol contains -

(A) 50% petrol and 50% ethanol (B) 80 % petrol and 20% ethanol
(C) 25 % petrol and 75% ethanol (D) 70 % petrol and 30% ethanol
SECTION (F) : SOAPS AND DETERGENTS:
F-1. A by product of soap industry is -

(A) sodium hydroxide (B) sodium palmitate (C) glycerol (D) Both B & C
F-2. Which one of the following statements is incorrect about soaps ?

(A) Soaps are biodegradable.
(B) Soaps are sodium salts of higher fatty acids.
(C) Soaps are prepared from natural oils & fats.
(D) Soaps can be used in acidic solutions.
171
F-3. Which of the following is not correctly matched ?
(A) Hard soaps - sodium salts of fatty acids.
(B) Soft soaps - potassium salts of fatty acids.
(C) Hydrophilic - water insoluble
(D) None of these
F-4. Cleansing action of soaps includes :

(A) formation of micelles . (B) emulsification of oil or grease.
(C) lowering of surface tension of water. (D) all of the above.
F-5. Washing powders contain detergent in the following range -

(A) 10-15% (B) 15-30% (C) 50-60% (D) 40-50%
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
EXERCISE # 2
1. Which of the following is not an use of graphite?

(A) dry lubricant (B) electrodes
(C) black paints (D) high precision thermometers
2. Which of the following is the chemically inactive allotropic form of carbon ?

(A) diamond (B) coal (C) charcoal (D) animal charcoal
3. Which of the following properties is not true regarding organic compounds ?

(A) They are generally covalent compounds.
(B) They have high melting and boiling points.
(C) They are generally insoluble in water.
(D) They generally show isomerism
4. The scientist who gave vital force theory was -

(A) Berzelius (B) Avogadro (C) Wohler (D) Lavoisier
5. Which one of the following is not an organic compound?

(A) Hexane (B) Urea (C) Ammonia (D)Ethyl alcohol
6. Which of the following statements is/are true for fullerene?

(A) It is a non-crystalline form of carbon.
(B) It was discovered by Buckminster fuller.
(C) All the fullerenes have even number of atoms.
(D) All of these
7. In diamond, the bonding between carbon atoms is -

(A) Co - ordinate (B) Ionic (C) Electrostatic (D) Covalent
8. Graphite is a soft solid lubricant extremly difficult to melt. The reason for this anomalous behaviour is
that graphite -
(A) has carbon atoms arranged in large plates of rings of strongly bonded carbon atoms with weak
interpolate bonds.
(B) is a non-crystalline substance
(C) is an allotropic form of carbon
(D) has molecules of variable molecular masses like polymers.
9. The number of sigma and pi bonds in the structure,

CH2 = CH – C ≡ CH
(A) 7 and 3 (B) 6 and 2 (C) 4 and 3 (D) All are sigma bonds
10. Number of σ & π bonds in benzene are :

(A) 6, 3 (B) 3, 3 (C) 12, 3 (D) 6, 6
11. Which of the following is an unsaturated compound ?

(A) C6H14 (B) CH3OH (C) C3H7OH (D) C4H8
172
12. The functional group, present in CH3COOC2H5 is -
(A) ketonic (B) aldehydic (C) ester (D) carboxylic
13. C ≡ C bond length is -

(A) 1.54 Å (B) 1.20 Å (C) 1.34 Å (D) 1.39 Å
14. Which of the following hydrocarbon does not exhibit position isomerism ?
(A) C2H4 (B) C3H6 (C) C3H4 (D) All of these
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
15. Which of the following forms a homologus series -
(A) Ethane, ethylene, acetylene
(B) Ethane, propane, butanol
(C) methanal, ethanol, propanoic acid
(D) Butane, 2-Methylbutane, 2,3-Dimethyl butane
16. The compound which can show chain iosmerism is -

(A) CH4 (B) CH3CH3 (C) CH3CH2CH3 (D) CH3CH2CH2CH3
17. Which of the following statement is/are true about characteristic properties of alkanes ?
(A) Boiling point increases with molecular mass.
(B) All alkane are saturated hydrocarbons.
(C) They mostly show substitution reactions with halogens.
(D) All of these
18. Methane is insoluble in -

(A) ether (B) water (C) alcohol (D) carbon tetrachloride
19. Soaps are sodium salts of fatty acids, RCOONa;

e.g. C17H35COO–Na+. It gives an insoluble precipitate/layer with
(A) Ca2+(aq) (B) Mg2+(aq) (C) HCl (aq) (D) All of these
EXERCISE # 3
NTSE PROBLEMS (PREVIOUS YEARS)

1. Detergents are salts of - [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/07]
(A) strong acid and strong base (B) strong acid and weak base
(C) weak acid and strong base (D) weak acid and weak base
2. Methane with the Molecular formula “CH4” has – [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) 4 Covalent bonds (B) 8 Covalent bonds (C) 6 Covalent bonds (D) 2 Covalent bonds
3. In the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid, acetic acid reacts with alcohol to produce –
[Delhi. NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) aldehyde (B) alcohol (C) ester (D) carboxylic acid
4. Fullerence, an allotrope of carbon contains - [Haryana NTSE Stage-I/13]

(A) 30 six membered rings
(B) 24 five membered rings and 10 six membered rings.
(C) 12 five membered rings and 20 six membered rings
(D) 18 five membered rings and 15 six membered rings.
5. Unsaturated hydrocarbon is - [M.P. NTSE Stage-I/13]

(A) CH4 (B) C2H6 (C) C2H4 (D) C2H5OH
6. How many isomers are possible for an alkane having molecular formula C6H14 ?
[West Bengal NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) 3 (B) 4 (C) 5 (D) 6
7. What is IUPAC name of the following compound ?

CH3—CH2—CH2—OH [Maharashtra NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) Propan-1-ol (B) Propan-2-ol (C) Ethan-1-ol (D) Ethan-2-ol
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
8. The action of cleaning of oily dirt by soap is based on [Rajasthan NTSE Stage-I/14]
(A) solubility in water
(B) hydrophilic property
(C) hydrophobic property
(D) presence of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups
9. Which of the following is represented by general formula CnH2n+2O ? [Haryana NTSE Stage-I/14]
(A) Alcohols only (B) Both alcohols and ethers
(C) Aldehydes only (D) Both Aldehydes and ketones
10. Which of the following series represent only unsaturated hydrocarbons ?

[Karnataka NTSE Stage-I/14]
(A) C2H6, C3H8, C4H10 (B) C2H6, C3H6, C4H10 (C) C2H4, C3H6, C4H6 (D) C2H4, C3H8, C4H6
11. Which of the following formulae represents cycloalkanes ? [Maharashtra NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) C6H12 (B) C4H10 (C) C6H6 (D) C5H14
12. Which of the following is not a straight chain hydrocarbon ? [Maharashtra NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) (B)
(C) (D) CH3 –CH2–CH2–CH2–CH3
13. 1 mole of a hydrocarbon ‘X’ undergoes complete saturation with 1 mole of hydrogen in presence of a
heated catalyst. What would be the formula of ‘X’ ? [West Bengal NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) C2H6 (B) C2H2 (C) C5H10 (D) C7H16
14. Which of the following are isomers ? [West Bengal NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) Butane and Isobutene (B) Ethane and Ethene
(C) Propane and Propyne (D) Butane and Isobutane
15. Which of the following has shortest carbon-carbon bond length ? [Delhi NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) C2H2 (B) C2H4 (C) C2H6 (D) C6H6
16. Which of the following may be isomer of aldehyde having general formula CnH2nO ?
[Delhi NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) Alcohol (B) Ether (C) Ester (D) Ketone
17. IUPAC name of the first member of homologous series of ketones is [Rajasthan NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) Ethanone (B) Propanol (C) Methanone (D) Propanone
18. An alkyne has 4 numbers of hydrogen atoms. What will be the number of carbon atoms in it ?
[Rajasthan NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) Two (B) Three (C) Four (D) Five
19. In saponification process, the fatty acid present in the oils is neutralised by adding
[Karnataka NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Sodium hydroxide (B) Aluminium hydroxide
(C) Calcium hydroxide (D) Magnesium hydroxide
20. This is not true regarding the micelle. [Karnataka NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) The micelle stay in solution as a colloid
(B) Micelle will not come together to precipitate
(C) There is ion-ion repulsion
(D) The dirt suspended in the micelles is very difficult to get rinsed oil
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
21. Acetic acid, with the molecular formula CH3COOH has [West Bengal NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) 8 covalent bonds (B) 7 covalent bonds (C) 9 covalent bonds (D) 10 covalent bonds.
22. Ethanol is made unfit for drinking by adding [Raj. NTSEStage-1/2016]

(A) Propanol (B) Methanal (C) Methanol (D) Ethanal
23. Identify X in the following reaction - [Raj. NTSEStage-1/2016]

CH3–CH2–OH  Hot,conc.
H SO
→ (X) + H2O
2 4
(A) Ethane (B) Methane (C) Ethene (D) Ethanol
24. Which one of the following is a covalent compound: [Chattisgarh NTSEStage-1/2017]

(A) NaCl (B) AlCl3 (C) MgCl2 (D) CCl4
25. A hydrocarbon having one double bond has 100 carbon atoms in its molecule.The number of hydrogen
atoms in its molecule will be: [Chattisgarh NTSEStage-1/2017]
(A) 196 (B) 198 (C) 200 (D) 202
26. The functional group present in ethanol and methanoic acid is: [Chattisgarh NTSEStage-1/2017]
(A) –COOH, –OH (B) –OH, –COOH (C) –CHO, –COOH (D) –OH, –CHO
27. Unsaturated hydrocarbon among the following is- [Uttar Pradesh NTSEStage-1/2017]
(A) Ethane (B) Methane (C) Ethylene (D) Propane
28. The total number of isomers having the molecular formula C4H10 is [Jharkhand NTSEStage-1/2017]
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 6 (D) 4
29. The carbon-carbon bond length in ethane is [Jharkhand NTSEStage-1/2017]

(A) 1.20 (B) 1.34 (C) 1.54 (D) 11.39
30. Buckminster fullerene is [Delhi NTSEStage-1/2017]

(A) Isotope of carbon (B) Isobar of carbon
(C) Allotrope of carbon (D) None of these
31. Write IUPAC name of: [Madhya Pradesh NTSEStage-1/2017]
(A) 2, 2-dimethyl propane (B) 2, methyl butane

(C) 2, 2-dimethyl ethane (D) 2-methyl propane
32. Name of functional group is:

[Madhya Pradesh NTSEStage-1/2017-Delhi NTSE Stage-1/2013]
(A) Aldehyde (B) Ketone (C) Alcohol (D) Carboxylic acid
33. Type of bond present carbon-carbon atoms in Ethene is: [Madhya Pradesh NTSEStage-1/2017]
(A) Single covalent bond (B) Double covalent bond
(C) Triple covalent bond (D) electrovalent bond
175
34. The IUPAC name of is [Rajasthan NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) 1, 1-dimethyl-2-ethene (B) 2-methyl-1-propene

(C) 2, 2-dimethyl ethene (D) 2-methyl prop-2-ene
35. The first organic compound which was synthesized in the laboratory was [Bihar NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) Methane (B) Urea (C) Acetic acid (D) Cane sugar
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
36. Assertion - Reason Question : [Bihar NTSEStage-1/2018]
(a) If the assertion as well as reason are correct and the reason is the correct explanation of the assertion
(b) If the assertion as well as the reason are correct, but reason is not the correct explanation of the assertion
(c) If the assertion is correct but reason is not
(d) If the reason is correct but assertion is not
Assertion : Graphite is chemically more reactive than diamond.
Reason : Diamond is very hard but graphite is soft.
Choose the correct answer :
(A) (a) (B) (b) (C) (d) (D) (a)
37. Which of the following is main ingredient of Biogas and CNG? [Odisa NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) Ethyne (B) Propane (C) Methane (D) Butane
38. The by product of soap industry is: [Odisa NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) Glycol (B) Glucose (C) Glycerol (D) Ethanol
39. Reaction of water with aluminium carbide gives a colourless gas. The gas is:
[Odisa NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) Acetylene (B) Propene (C) Propane (D) Methane
40. Composition of Synthetic gas is _______. [Odisa NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) CO + H2 (B) C + N2 (C) CO + CH4 (D) CO + N2
41. Which one of the following is functional group of propanone? [Odisa NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) Carboxylic acid (B) Aldehyde (C) Ketone (D) Alcohol
42. Which of the following is a main constituent of natural gas and is also a green house gas .....
[Chhattisgarh NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) Sulphur dioxide (B) Oxygen (C) Methane (D) Nitrogen
43. Isomer of ethanol is ..... [Chhattisgarh NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) Di ethyl ether (B) Di methyl ether (C) Ethelene glycol (D) Ethanoic acid
44. Structural formula of ethyne is [Chhattisgarh NTSEStage-1/2018]

(A) H – C ≡ C – H (B) H3C – C ≡ C – H (C) (D)
45. Which of the following compound with underlined carbon is having sp3 hybridisation?
[Andhra Pradesh NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) CH3 –CH2 –CH – CH2 (B) CH3 – CH2 – NH2
(C) CH3 – CO – NH2 (D) CH3 – CH2 – CN
46. Find the incorrect statement. [Andhra Pradesh NTSEStage-1/2018]

(A) Denatured alcohol means 100% alcohol in the form of pure ethanol.
(B) Ethanol is a colourless liquid with characteristic of sweet odour and pure ethanol is called absolute
alcohol.
(C) 10% ethanol in gasoline (gasohol) is a good motor fuel.
(D) Orange colour Cr2O72– changes bluish green Cr3+ during the process of oxidation of ethanol to
ethanal and ethanoic acid.
47. The decreasing order of priority for choosing and naming a principal characteristic group in
nomenclature is [Andhra Pradesh NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) –COOH > –CHO > –COOR > = O > – NH2 > R – OH
(B) –COOR > –CHO > –COOH > = O > R – OH > – NH2
(C) –COOR > –COOH > –CHO > = O > R –OH > – NH2
(D) –COOH > –COOR > –CHO > = O > R –OH > – NH2
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
48. In the presence of concentrated H2SO4 acetic acid reacts with ethyl alcohol to produce
[Chandigarh NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) ln Aldehyde (B) Carboxylic Acid (C) Sulphur Dioxide (D) Ester
49. What is the formula of Propanal? [Chandigarh NTSEStage-1/2018]

(A) CH3CH2CHO (B) CH3CH2CH2CHO (C) CH3COCH2 (D) CH3CH2CO CH2
50. When water gas mixed with half its volume of hydrogen and the mixture is compressed to 300 atm.
pressure and passed over ZnO–Cr2O3 catalyst a colourless liquid is obtained which is used as solvent
for paints & Varnishes. The liquid will be - [Haryana NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) Methanol (B) Ethanol (C) Ether (D) Acetone
51. Reaction with sodium hydrogen carbonate can be used to distinguish between –
[Haryana NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) Ethanoic acid & Methanoic acid (B) Ethanol and Methanol
(C) Ethanol and Ethanoic acid (D) Ethylacetate and Ethanol
52. IUPAC name of following compound will be: [Haryana NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) 3-Methylene hexane (B) 2-Propyle-1-butene

(C) 4-Ethyl-4-pentene (D) 2-Ethyl-1-pentene
53. The number of covalent bonds in Pentane (C5H12) is : [Jharkhand NTSEStage-1/2018]

(A) 5 (B) 12 (C) 17 (D) 16
54. A few drops of ethanoic acid were added to solid sodium carbonate. The observation made was that
[Jharkhand NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) A hissing sound was produced (B) Brown fumes evolved
(C) Brisk effervescence occurred (D) A pungent smelling gas was evolved
Alkaline KMnO + Heat

55. X 
4 → Y [Karnataka NTSEStage-1/2018]
Y + X 
Esterification
(acid)
→Z
Identify X, Y and Z.
(A) Ethanoic acid, Ethanol and Ethylethanoate
(B) Ethanol, Ethylethanoate and Ethanoic acid
(C) Ethanol, Ethanoic acid and Ethylethanoate
(D) Ethanoic acid, Ethylethanoate and Ethanol
56. Identify the solid acid at room temperature. [Karnataka NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) (B) CH3COOH (C) H2CO3 (D) HCOOH
57. Assertion (A): Combustion of 16 g of methane gas liberates 18 g of water.

Reason (R): In the combustion of methane, water is one of the product.
Select the correct option from the given alternatives. [Karnataka NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
(B) A is true but R is false
(C) A is false but R is true
(D) Both A and R are false
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
58. IUPAC name of compound [Himachal Pradesh NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) 2 - Chloro 3-bromo butane (B) 2-Bromo 3-chloro butane

(C) 3 - Chloro 2 - bromo butane (D) 3- Bromo 2- chloro butane
59. Ethane with the molecular formula C2H6 has. [Himachal Pradesh NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) 6 Covalent Bond (B) 7 Covalent Bond (C) 8 Covalent Bond (D) 9 Covalent Bond
60. In water purification Fullerene is used as ……. [Maharashtra NTSEStage-1/2018]

(A) Fuel (B) Insulator (C) Catalyst (D) Reductant
61. What is the condensed structural formula of alcohol ? [Maharashtra NTSEStage-1/2018]

(A) ---- OH (B) ---- CHO (C) ---- COOH (D) ---- NH2
62. To prevent the misuse of the important commercial solvent ethanol is mixed with ………
[Maharashtra NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) Methanol (B) Propanol (C) Ethanoic acid (D) Propane
63. The functional group of ethanal is- [Uttar Pradesh NTSEStage-1/2018]

(A) > C = O (B) –CHO (C) –OH (D) –COOH
64. The IUPAC name of C2H5OH is- [Uttar Pradesh NTSEStage-1/2018]

(A) Ethanol (B) Methanol (C) Methanal (D) Ethanal
65. Aluminium carbide is treated with water, we get- [Uttar Pradesh NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) Ethylene (B) Ethane (C) Methane (D) Acetylene
66. According to IUPAC system which type of compound is shown by the given structure-
[Uttarakhand NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) Ketone (B) Alkene (C) Alkyne (D) Aldehyde
67. The number of covalent bonds present in pentane are- [Uttarakhand NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) 5 (B) 12 (C) 17 (D) 16
68. Which group of compounds shows correct increasing order of boiling points ?
[Uttarakhand NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) CH3COOH, CH3CH2OH, CH4, CHCl3 (B) CHCH2OH, CHCl3, CH4, CH3COOH
(C) CH4, CH3 CH2OH, CHCl3, CH3COOH (D) CH4,CHCl3, CH3CH2OH, CH3COOH
VALUE BASED / PRACTICAL BASED QUESTIONS

1. A student takes about 2 mL ethanoic acid in a dry test and adds a pinch of sodium hydrogen carbonate
to it. He reports the following observations :
(I) Immediately a colourless and odourless gas evolves with a brisk effervescence.
(II) The gas turns lime water milky when passed through it.
(III) The gas burns with an explosion when a burning splinter is brought near it.
(IV) The gas extinguishes the burning splinter that is brought near it.
The correct observations are :
(A) I, II, and III (B) II, III and IV (C) III, IV and I (D) I, II, and IV
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
2. Which of the following observations is true about dilute solution of acetic acid?
(A) It smells like vinegar and turns red litmus blue
(B) It smells like onion and turns blue litmus red
(C) It smells like orange and turns red litmus blue
(D) It smells like vinegar and turns blue litmus red
3. Ram adds acetic acid solution to solid sodium hydrogen carbonate. He would osbserve that :
(A) a white precipitate is obtained (B) a blue coloured solution is obtained
(C) a gas is evolved with brisks effervescence (D) the mixture turns milky
4. Ethanoic acid was added to sodium bicarbonate solution and the gas evolved was tested with a burning
splinter. The following four observations were reported that :
I. the gas burns with the pop sound and the flame gets extinguished.
II. the gas does not burn but the splinter burns with a pop burn.
III. the flame extinguishes and the gas does not burn
IV. the gas burns with a blue flame and the splinter burns brightly
The correct observation is reported in :
(A) I (B) II (C) III (D) IV
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
Answer Key
EXERCISE # 1
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A) : INTRODUCTION, COVALENT BONDING :
A-1. A A-2. C A-3. B A-4. D A-5. B
B-1. B B-2. C B-3. C B-4. C B-5. D
C-1. A C-2. B C-3. A C-4. B C-5. A
D-1. C D-2. C D-3. C D-4. A D-5. B
D-6. A D-7. A D-8. D D-9. B D-10. A
ETHANOIC ACID:
E-1. B E-2. C E-3. A E-4. A E-5. B
SECTION (F) : SOAPS AND DETERGENTS :
F-1. C F-2. D F-3. C F-4. D F-5. B
EXERCISE # 2
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Ans. D A B A C C D A A C D C B D D D D B D
EXERCISE # 3
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. A A C C C C A D B C A B C D A D D B A D
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. A C C |D C B C A C C D D B B B B C C D A
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. C C B A B A D D A A C D D C C A C B B C
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68
Ans. A A C A C B D D
VALUE BASED / PRACTICAL BASED QUESTIONS
1. (D) 2. (D) 3. (C) 4. (C)
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 6
CHAPTER
CONTENTS
• General introduction
• Radioactivity, Group displacement laws, Rate of radioactive decay
• Characteristics of rate of disintegration nuclear reactions
• Application of radioisotopes
SECTION (A) INTRODUCTION & TYPES OF NUCLEUS

Atoms have three fundamental particles that are electrons, protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons
are present inside the nucleus and electrons are present in the extranuclear region. Changes occurring in
the nucleus which are a source of tremendous energy are called nuclear reactions. The branch of science
which deals with the study of atomic nucleus and nuclear changes is called nuclear chemistry.
Nucleus term was firstly introduced by Rutherford. It is defined as the central part of an atom which
contain all the protons and neutrons.
rn ∝ A1/3 ⇒ rn = RoA1/3
Ro = 1.2 × 10–15 m
where : A =mass number,
rn = radius of nucleus
R0 = Rutherford constant
Density of nucleus = 1017 kg/m3
Types of Neucleus :
(a) On the basis of their Z and n values :
(i) Isotopes : The isotopes of an element have the same atomic number but different atomic
masses due to the presence of different number of neutrons.
e.g. 11 H, 12 H, 13 H; 22 23 24
11 Na, 11 Na, 11 Na
(ii) Isobars : The atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, but same mass
number are called isobars.
14 14 40 40
e.g. 6 C, 7 N; 20 Ca and 18 Ar are isobars.
(iii) Isotones : The isotones may be defined as the atoms of different elements containing same
number of neutrons.
13 14 3
e.g. 6C and 7 N; 1 H and 42 He
A1 A2
(iv) Mirror nuclei : Z1 X& Z2 Y are mirror nuclei if Z1 = n2 and Z2 = n1
Z1 = A1 – n1 = n2 ..... (1)
Z2 = A2 – n2 = n1 ...... (2)
from equation(1) n1 = A1 – n2
by putting the value of n1 in equation (2)
A2 – n2 = A1 – n2
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
A1 = A2
So these are defined as those isobars in which the Z and n values are interchanged
e.g. 13 H and 32 He, 13
6 C and 13
7 N
(v) Isodiaphers :
Atoms having the same difference of neutrons and proton.
238 234
e.g. 92 U, 90 Th
ISOSTERS
Molecules having same no. of atoms and same no. of electrons are called isosters.
e.g. CO2 and N2O (There are three atoms and 22 electrons in both the molecules.)
(b) On the basis of stability :
(i) Stable nuclei : Those nuclei which are permanent & their proton and neutron contents remain
unchanged forever (can be changed only under severe conditions of bombardment by external
radiation) are called stable nuclei.
(ii) Unstable nuclei : Those nuclei in which no. of protons and neutrons change with time.
Solved Examples
Example1: Write two examples of each of the following:

(i) Isotopes (ii) Isotones (iii) Isobars
Solution : (i) Atoms of same element having same atomic number but different mass number are known as
Isotopes.
(ii) Atoms of differnet element having same number of neutrons are known as Isotones.
(iii) Atoms of differnet element having same mass number but different atomic number are known
as Isobars.
Example2: Calculate the radius of 70Ge.

Solution : We have,
R = R0 A1/3 = (1.2 fm) (70)1/3
= (1.2 fm) (4.12) = 4.94 fm.
Example3: Define Isosters with example?

Solution : Molecules having same no. of atoms and same no. of electrons are called isosters.
e.g. CO2 and N2O
CHECK POINT 6.1

1. What are mirror nuclei. explain with examples?
2. Classify the nuclei on the basis of stability ?
SECTION (B) STABILITY OF NUCLEUS

Stability of a nucleus can be explained by following two factors.
(a) On the basis of (n/p) ratio :
Neutrons help to hold protons together within the nucleus. The number of neutrons necessary to
create a stable nucleus increases rapidly as the number of protons increases. The number of neutron
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
to proton ratio (n/p) of stable nuclei increases with increasing atomic number. The area of graph in
which all stable nuclei are found is known as the belt of stability. Radioactive nuclei occur outside
this belt.
The type of radioactive decay that a particular radio isotope will undergo depends to a large extent
on its neutrons to protons ratio compared to those of nearby nuclei that are within the belt of
stability.
(i) A nucleus whose high n/p ratio places it above the belt of stability emits a β-particle in order to
lower n/p ratio and move towards the belt of stability.
1
0n → 11 p + 0
−1 e + ν ( ν is Anti neutrino)
 Note :
Antineutrino is the antiparticle of neutrino, which is neutral particle produced in nuclear beta decay.
(ii) A nucleus which has lower n/p ratio, is placed below the belt of stability either emits positrons
or undergoes electron capture. Both modes of decay decrease the number of protons and
increase the number of neutrons in the nucleus and thus, positron emission or electron capture
results in an increase in n/p ratio.
e.g.
→
1
1P  → 1
0n + 0
+1 e +ν (Positron emission)
1
+1 p + 0
−1 e 
→ 1
0n + X-ray (Electron capture)
 Note :
A positron has same mass as electron but carries opposite charge. The positron has a very short life
because it is annihilated when it collides with an electron, producing gamma rays. This phenomenon is
known as pair production.
(iii) The nuclei with atomic number > 83, outside the belt of stability, undergo α-emissions.
Emission of an α-particle decreases both the number of protons and neutrons and thereby
increases n/p ratio.
Thus,
For lighter element if Z = n then nuclei will be stable
For nuclie Z > 20, stability condition is 1.6 ≥ n/p > 1 Unstable nuclei emit radiations to achieve
stability, this property is known as radioactivity.
(b) On the basis of even and odd nature of the number of protons and neutrons :
(i) The number of stable nuclides is maximum when both Z and n are even numbers. About 60%
of stable nuclides have both Z and n even.
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
(ii) The number of stable nuclides in which either the Z or n is odd is about one third of those,
where both are even.
MAGIC NUMBERS
Just as certain numbers of electrons (2,10,18,36,54 and 86) correspond to stable closed shell electron
configuration, certain number of nucleons leads to closed shell in nuclei. The protons and neutrons can
achieve closed shell. Nuclei with 2, 8, 20, 28, 50 or 82 protons or 2,8,20, 28, 50, 82, or 126 neutrons
correspond to closed nuclear shell. Closed shell nuclei are more stable than those that do not have
closed shells. These numbers of nucleons that correspond to closed nuclear shells are called magic
numbers.
Solved Examples
Example1: 14
6 C nuclide undergoes β-decay. Which stable nuclide is formed? Give equation.
Solution: 14
6 C 
→ 14
7 N+ 0
−1 e
Example2: Draw symbols for following particles?

Positron emission, β-decay, α-decay.
Solution: Positron 0
+1 e β-decay 0
−1 e α-decay 2He4
CHECK POINT 6.2

1. The atomic mass of lead is 208 and atomic number is 82. The atomic mass of bismuth is 209 and
atomic number is 83. Which one having higher n/p ratio?
2. What is pair production?
SECTION (C) RADIOACTIVITY

Radioactivity is a process in which nuclei of certain elements undergo spontaneous disintegration
without excitation by any external means.
All heavy elements from bismuth (Bi) to uranium and a few of lighter elements have naturally
occurring isotopes which possess the property of radioactivity. All those substances which have the
tendency to emit these radiations are termed as radioactive materials. Radioactivity is a nuclear
phenomenon i.e., the kind of intensity of the radiation emitted by any radioactive substance is
absolutely the same whether the element is present as such or in any one of its compounds.
E.g. Elements like uranium (U), thorium (Th), polonium (Po), radium (Ra) etc. are radioactive in
nature.
(a) History of the Discovery of Radioactivity :
In 1895, Henri Becquerel was studying the effect of sunlight on various phosphorescent minerals,
one of the substance being studied was uranium ore. He accidently left a crystal of uranium sample;
Potassium uranyl sulphate [K2UO2 (SO4)2. 2H2O] in a drawer along with some photographic plate
wrapped in black paper. Much to his surprise, he discovered that the photographic plate had been
fogged by exposure to some invisible radiations from uranium. He called this mysterious property
of the ore as ‘radioactivity’ (Radioactivity means ray-emitting activity). A year later, in 1896,
Marie Curie found that besides uranium and its compounds, thorium was another element which
possessed the property of radioactivity. 1898 Marie Curie and her husband Pierrie Curie isolated
two new radioactive elements polonium and radium.
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
(b) Natural & Artificial Radioactivity :
If a substance emits radiations by itself it possesses natural radioactivity but if a substance does not
possess radioactivity and starts emitting radiations on exposure to rays from a natural radioactive
substance, it is called induced or artificial radioactivity.
e.g.
When aluminium is bombarded with α- particles, a radioactive isotope of phosphorus is formed
which disintegrate spontaneously with the emission of positrons (which are positively charged
electron, +1e0).
 Note :
Natural radioactivity was discovered by Becquerel while artificial radioactivity was discovered by Irene
Curie and Joliot.
(c) Analysis of Radioactive Radiations :

In 1904, Rutherford and his co-workers observed that when radioactive radiations were subjected to
a magnetic field or a strong electric field, these were split into three types, as shown in the figure.
The rays which are attracted towards the negative plate, are positively charged , and called alpha
(α) rays. The rays which are deflected towards the positive plate are negatively charged and are
called beta (β) rays. The third type of rays which are not deflected on any side but move straight are
known as gamma (γ) rays.
Figure :
(A) Deflection of radioactive rays in electric field and,
(B) Emission of radioactive rays and their deflection in a magnetic field. (The direction of magnetic
field is inward perpendicular to the page).
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
The important properties of α-rays, β-rays and γ-rays are as follows :
(d) Units of Radioactivity :

(i) SI unit is Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as disintegration per sec (dps).
(ii) Earlier radioactivity was given in terms of Curie (Ci).
1 Ci refers to the activity of Radium.
1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 dps = 3.7 × 1010 Bq.
1 Milli Ci = 3.7 × 107 Bq.
1 Micro Ci = 3.7 × 104 Bq.
(iii) Another unit is Rutherford (Rd).
1 Rd = 106 dps
GROUP DISPLACEMENT LAWS

These laws were given by Soddy, Fajans and Russel (1911_1913).The element emitting the α or
β−particle is called parent element and the new element formed is called daughter element.
(i) When an α−particle is emitted, the new element formed is displaced two positions to the left in the
periodic table than that of parent element (because the atomic number decreases by 2).
e.g. 92U238 
→ 90Th234 + 2He4
(ii) When a β−particle is emitted the new element formed is displaced one position to the right in the
periodic table than that of parent element (because the atomic number increases by 1).
e.g.
The emission of β−particle by 6C14 may be represented as follows:
6C → 7N +-1e
14 14 0
(a) Explanation :
The results of the group displacement laws may be explained as follows:
Since an α−particle is simply a helium nucleus (containing two neutrons and two protons)
therefore, loss of α−particle means loss of two neutrons and two protons. Thus, the new
element formed has atomic number less by 2 unit and mass number less by 4 unit.
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
The β−particle is simply an electron and there are no electrons present in nucleus. However, the
loss of β− particle is also found to be a nuclear phenomenon because the change in external
conditions (temperature etc.) has no effect on the rate of the emission of β−particle. It is
therefore, believed that for emission of β−particle to occur, a neutron changes to a proton and
an electron i.e.
Neutron → Proton + Electron (β−particle)
As a result, the number of protons in the nucleus increases by 1 and so does the atomic number.
 Note :
(i) Increase or decrease in the number of protons in the nucleus (due to loss of α−particle or
β−particle) is accompanied simultaneously by the loss or gain of electrons in the extra nuclear part
(from the surroundings) so that the electrical neutrality is maintained in the new atom formed.
(ii) α−decay produces isodiapheres i.e. parent and the daughter nuclides have same isotopic mass
(which is the difference between number of neutrons and protons).
E.g. 92U238 
→ 90Th
234
+ 2He4
No. of neutrons: 146 144
No. of protons: 92 90
Difference 54 54
(iii) β−decay produces isobars i.e. parent and the daughter nuclides have different atomic numbers but
same mass number.
E.g.
6C
14
→ 7N14 +-1e0
(iv) Emission of 1α and 2β particles produces an isotope of parent element.
e.g.
−α −β −β
92U
238
→ 90Th
234
 → 91Pa234  → 92U234
 Note :
The emission of α and β−particles is also known as α−decay and β−decay.
RATE OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Radioactive disintegration is an example of first order reaction, i.e., the rate of decay is directly
proportional to the no. of atoms (amount) of the element present at the particular time.
A 
→ Decay product
No. of atoms at t = 0 
→ N0
No. of atoms left after t = t 

→ N
Hence, rate ≠ [N0 – N]/t because rate continuously decreases with time. Let dN be the change in no. of
atoms in an infinitesimal small time dt, then rate of decay can be written as -
dN
– ∝ [N]1 = λN. The negative sign indicates the decreasing trend of N with increasing time.
dt
where λ is the proportionality constant.
Integration of this equation finally gives -
2.303 N
or λ = log10 0
t N
 Note : λ is also known as decay or disintegration or radioactive constant.
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
CHARACTERISTICS OF RATE OF DISINTEGRATION
(i) Rate of disintegration continuously decreases with time.
(ii) Rate of disintegration as well as λ are independent of P and T.
(iii) (a) Unit of rate of decay : disintegration per time (b) Unit of decay constant : time–1
(iv) Time required to complete a definite fraction is independent of initial no. of atoms (amount) of
radioactive species.
I. HALF-LIFE PERIOD
The time required for the decay of radioactive element to half of the original amount is called half-life
period.
(a) Characteristics of Half-Life Period :
• It is denoted by t1/2 .
• Each radioactive element has a characteristic half-life period .
• Half-life period for an element is a constant.
0.693
• t1/2 =
λ
Where λ is a constant known as disintegration constant or decay constant. It is the characteristic of
the nature of the radioactive element.
 Note :
Half-life period does not depend upon initial amount of element.
(b) Significance of Half-Life Period :
(i) Stability of nuclei : The value of half-life period can give an idea about relative stability of
radio isotopes. All isotopes with longer t1/2 are more stable.
(ii) The amount of substance left after ‘n’ number of half lives can be given as :-
n
1
N = No  
2
Where ;
N = Amount of the substance left after ‘n’ half-lives.
No = Initial amount of the substance.
AVERAGE LIFE
Evidently, the whole of the radioactive element can never disintegrate or in other words, the time
required for the disintegration of the whole of a radioactive element will be infinity.
Thus, it is meaningless to talk of the total life of a radioactive element. However, sometimes another
term is used, called average life (τ) which is the reciprocal of the disintegration constant (λ) i.e.
1 t1
2
Average life (τ)= = = 1.44 t1/2.
λ 0.693
Solved Examples
Example1: Calculate number of α and β - particles emitted when 238

92 U changes into radioactive 206
82 Pb.
Changein mass number 238 − 206 32
Solution: No. of α-particles = = = =8
4 4 4
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
No. of β-particles = 2 × α-particles - (ZA – ZB)
Here ZA and ZB are atomic no. of parent and daughter nuclei respectively.
= 2 × 8 – (92 – 82)
16 – 10 = 6
Thus, no. of α-particles emitted out = 8
No. of β-particles emitted out = 6
Example2: 90Th234 disintegrates to give 82Pb206 as final product. How many alpha and beta particles are emitted
during this process?
Solution: Suppose the no. of α−particles emitted = x and no. of β−particles emitted = y.
Then
90Th
234
→ 82Pb206 + x 2He4 + y -1e0
Equating the mass number on both sides, we get
234 = 206 + 4x + 0y
or 4x = 28 or x=7
Equating the atomic number on both sides, we get
90 = 82 + 2x – y y=6
7α and 6 β particles will be emitted.
Alternative Method:
Difference in atomic mass of reactants and products 234 − 206 28
No. of α-particles = = = =7
4 4 4
No. of β-particle = ( 2 × no. of -particles) – (ZA – ZB)
where, ZA = Atomic number of reactant
ZB = Atomic number of product = (2 × 7) – (90 – 82) = 14 – 8 = 6
(7α and 6 β particles will be emitted)
Example3: The half-life period of 53I125 is 60 days. What percent of the original radioactivity would be present
after 180 days?
Solution: t½ = 60 days, t = 180 days
Total time ( t ) 180
∴n=
( )
= =3
Half − life peiod t 1 60
2
N0
Applying the formula N=
2n
N0 1
we get N = = × 100 = 12.5%
2n 8
Example4: The half -life period of a radioactive element is 27.96 days. Calculate the time taken by a given
sample to reduce to 1/8th of its activity.
Solution: The amount of substance left after ‘n’ number of half lives can be given as :-
n
1
N = No  
2
1
According to question, N = N0
8
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
n
1 1
or N0 = No  
8 2
1 1
or = ⇒n=3
( 2) 3
( 2 )n
So, time taken by the sample to reduce to 1/8th of its reactivity will be -
T = n×t½
T = 3 × 27.96 = 83.88 days
Example5: Half- life period of a radioactive element is 100 seconds. Calculate the disintegration constant.
Solution: t1/2 = 100 Seconds,
0.693 0.693
λ= = = 0.00693 s–1 = 6.93 × 10–3 sec–1
t1 100
2
CHECK POINT 6.3
1. Arrange radioactive radiations in the order of increasing penetrating power.

2. Write nuclear equations for:
(i) the α-decay of 226
88 Ra (ii) the α-decay of 242
94 Pu (iii) the β-decay of 32
15 P
SECTION (D) NUCLEAR REACTIONS

The reactions in which nuclei of atoms interact with other nuclei or elementary particles such as alpha
particle, proton, deutron, neutron etc. resulting in the formation of a new nucleus and one or more
elementary particles are called nuclear reactions. Nuclear reactions are expressed in the same fashion as
chemical reactions. In a nuclear reaction, atomic number and mass number are conserved.
e.g. the nuclear reaction :
14
7 N + 42 He 
→ 17
8O + 11 H
(a) Nuclear Fission :
The process of artificial transmutation in which heavy nucleus is broken down into two lighter
nuclei of nearly comparable masses with release of large amount of energy is termed as nuclear
fission.
e.g.
238 239 239
(i) 92 U is converted into 93 Np and 94 Pu
−β −β
238
92 U + 10 n  → 239
93 Np  → 239
94 Pu
Uranium Neptunium Plutonium
235
(ii) 92 U captures slow neutron and splits up into fragments.
235
92 U + 10 n 
→ 236
92 U 
→ 144
56 Ba + 90
36 Kr + 2 10 n + Energy Unstable
During fission, there is always loss of mass, known as mass defect, which is converted into
energy according to Einstein equation i.e.
E = mc2.
e.g.
235
92 U + 10 n 
→ 144
56 Ba + 90
36 Kr + 2 10 n
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
235.118
 + 1.009
 143.881
 +
89.947
 + 2.018

236.127amu 235.846
∆m = 236.127 – 235.846 = 0.281 amu
E(in MeV) = 0.281 × 931.5 = 261.75 MeV
Energy released in one fission is equal to 261.75 MeV.
(i) Chain reaction : Whatever are the primary products of fission of uranium, it is certain that
neutrons are set free. If the conditions are so arranged that each of these neutrons can, in turn,
bring about the fission, the number of neutrons will increase at a continuously accelerating rate
until whole of the material is exhausted. Such type of reaction is called chain reaction. It takes
very small time and is uncontrolled. It ends in terrible explosion due to release of enormous
amount of energy.
235
92 U + 10 n 
→ 141
56 Ba + 92
36 Kr + 3 10 n + Energy
The chain reaction is shown in the figure.
(ii) Critical mass : The minimum mass which the fissionable material must have so that one of the
neutrons released in every fission hits another nucleus and causes fission so that the chain
reaction continues at a constant rate is called critical mass .If the mass is less than the critical
mass , it is called sub-critical mass. If the mass is more than critical mass, it is called super-
critical mass.
(iii) Applications of Nuclear Fission : Three practical applications of nuclear fission are as follows
(A) Atomic bomb (B) Nuclear reactor (C) Nuclear power plants
(A) Atomic Bomb :
• The basic principle of atomic bomb is uncontrolled nuclear fission reaction (chain
reaction).
• It requires several small samples of U-235 or Pu-239.
• An explosive like TNT (Trinitrotoluene) is placed behind the samples which explodes
to initiate the reaction which causes the small samples to join and form large mass.
• Neutron from Ra-Ba source (s) initiate the reaction which starts the chain reaction
finally leading to explosion and release of large amount of energy.
• The rapid release of energy raises the temperature enormously and generates a very
high pressure front in the atmosphere.
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
Atomic Bomb
 Note :
The first atomic bomb dropped over Hiroshima city during the second world war in 1945 utilized 235U
and the second atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki made use of 239Pu. India exploded her first atomic
bomb at Rajasthan in May 1974, and used 239Pu as the fissionable material.
(B) Nuclear reactor :
• An equipment in which nuclear chain reaction is carried out in a controlled manner is
called a nuclear reactor.
• The energy thus liberated can be used for constructive purposes like generation of
steam to run turbines and produce electricity.
• In a nuclear reactor, fission is controlled by controlling the number of neutrons
released.
• In a nuclear reactor, fission is based on the fact that cadmium and boron can absorb
neutrons thus forming corresponding isotopes which are not radioactive.
113
48 Cd + 10 n 
→ 114
48 Cd + γ-rays
10
5 B + 10 n 
→ 11
5 B + γ-rays
 Note :
The first nuclear reactor was assembled by Fermi and his coworkers at the University of Chicago in the
United states of America, in 1942. In India, the first nuclear reactor was put into operation at Trombay
(Mumbai) in 1956.
(C) Nuclear Power Plants :
When a nuclear reactor is used for the production of electricity it is termed as a nuclear
power plant. The heat produced during a nuclear reaction is utilized in generating steam
which runs the steam turbines. The electric generator is connected to the turbine. The
electric power is then obtained from the generator.
Thus, a nuclear power plant consists essentially of the following four parts:
1. Reactor core 2. Heat exchanger
3. Steam turbine 4. Steam condensing system
Reactor core is the main part of nuclear reactor. It consists of the following parts :
Fuel rod :
The fissionable material used in the reactor is called fuel. The fuel used is enriched uranium
-235. This is obtained from the naturally occurring U-235 (containing about 0.7% of U-
235) by raising the percentage of U-235 to about 2-3%.
• Control rods : Cadmium or boron rods are used to raise or lower and control the
fission process. Because they can absorb neutrons.
• Moderator : The material used to slow down the neutrons (without absorbing them so
that they can be easily captured by the fuel, is known as moderator. Heavy water (D2O)
or graphite is used as moderator material in nuclear power plant.
• Coolant : To carry away the heat produced during fission, a liquid is used. This liquid
is known as coolant. Usually heavy water is used as coolant so that it also acts as a
moderator.
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
• Shield : To prevent the losses of heat and to protect the persons operating the reactor
from the radiation and heat, the entire reactor core is enclosed, in a heavy steel or
concrete dome, called the shield.
Nuclear Reactor
(b) Nuclear Fusion :
A nuclear reaction in which two lighter nuclei are fused together to form a heavier nucleus is called
nuclear fusion. A fusion reaction is difficult to occur because positively charged nuclei repel each
other. At very high temperature of the order of 106 to 107 K, the nuclei may have sufficient energy
to overcome the repulsive forces and fuse. Therefore, fusion reactions are also called thermonuclear
reactions. Fusion reaction are highly exothermic in nature because loss of mass occurs when
heavier nucleus is formed from the two lighter nuclei.
2
1 H + 12 H 
→ 4
2 He + 23.85MeV
3
1H + 13 H 
→ 4
2 He + 2 10 n + 11.3MeV
1
1H + 13 H 
→ 4
2 He + 20.0MeV
2
1 H + 13 H 
→ 4
2 He + 10 n + 17.6MeV
Hydrogen bomb is based on fusion reaction. Energy released is so enormous that it is about 1000
times that of an atomic bomb.
It is believed that the high temperatures of stars including the sun is due to fusion reactions.
(i) Applications of Nuclear Fusion :
(A) Hydrogen bomb :
• Its principle is nuclear fusion.
• It consists of an arrangement of nuclear fission in the centre surrounded by a mixture of
deuterium ( 12 H) and lithium isotopes ( 36 Li).
• The nuclear fission provides heat and neutrons.
• Neutrons convert 36 Li to tritium 13 H and the heat liberated is used for fusion between 12 H &
3
1 H.
• The reactions occurring are :

Fission (in the centre) → heat + 10 n
6
3 Li + 10 n 
→ 3
1H + 42 He + 3.78 MeV
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
2
1 H + 13 H 
→ 4
2 He + 10 n + 17.6 MeV
2
1 H + 12 H 
→ 3
2 He + 10 n + 3.2 MeV
3
1H + 13 H 
→ 4
2 He + 10 n + 13.14 MeV
(B) Fusion in sun : Among the celestial bodies in which energy is produced, the sun is
relatively cooler. There are stars with temperature around 108 K inside. In sun and other
stars, where the temperature is less than or around 107 K, fusion takes place dominantly by
proton-proton cycle.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NUCLEAR FISSION AND NUCLEAR FUSION
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NUCLEAR REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Solved Examples
Example1: Explain one similarity and one dissimilarity between nuclear fission and fusion.
Solution : Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion are dissimilar in the sense that former involves splitting of a
heavy nucleus whereas latter involves fussing of two or more lighter nuclei. The similarity between
the two is that both involve mass defect (∆m) and hence nuclear energy is released in both the
processes as per the relation E = (∆m)c2
Example2: What is the role of Cadmium and Boron rods in nuclear power plants?
Solution : To raise or lower and control the fission process
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
CHECK POINTS 6.4

1. What is critical mass?
2. Explain application of nuclear fission in atomic bomb?
SECTION (E) APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVE AND RADIOISOTOPERS

(a) In Medicine :
Radioisotopes are used to diagnose many diseases.
E.g.
• Co60 for treatment of cancer
• Na24 for circulation of blood
• I131 for thyroid
• Sr90 for treatement of skin & eye
• Fe59 for location of brain tumor
• radiographs of castings and teeth
• arsenic - 74 tracer is used to detect the presence of tumour. It should be noted that the
radioactive isotopes used in medicine have very short half life periods.
(b) In Agriculture :
The use of radioactive phosphorus 32P in fertilizers has revealed how phosphorus is absorbed by
plants. This study has led to an improvement in the preparation of fertilizers. 14C is used to study
the kinetics of photosynthesis.
(c) In Industry :
(i) The thickness of a material (e.g. cigarettes, metal plates etc.) can be determined by placing a
radioactive source on one side of the material and a counting device on the other. From the
amount of radiation reaching the counter, the thickness of the material can be calculated.
(ii) When a single pipe line is used to transfer more than one petroleum derivative, a small amount
of radioactive isotope is placed in last portion of one substance to signal its end and the start of
another.
(d) In Geological Dating :
The age of the earth and rocks can be predicted by geological dating. Age of a rock sample can be
calculated by finding out the amounts of the parent radioactive element and the isotope of lead (e.g.
238
92U and 82Pb206) in rock sample.
(e) In Radio Carbon Dating :
The age of a fallen tree or dead animal can be predicted by measuring the amount of C-14 in dead
plants or animals.
DATING
(i) The determination of age of minerals and rocks, an important part of geological studies involves
determination of either a species formed during a radioactive decay or the residual activity of an
isotope which is undergoing decay. For example 238
92 U undergoes a decay (t1/2 =4.5 × 109 years)
206 238
series forming a stable isotope 82 Pb and He. Helium obtained as a result of decay of 92 U has
almost certainly been formed from α-particles. Thus, if 238
92 U and He contents are known in a rock
238
we can determine the age of rock sample (1g of 92 U in equilibrium with its decay products
produces about 10–7 g He in a year). Also by assuming that initially rock does not contain 206
82 Pb
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
238
and it is present in rocks due to decay of 92 U, we can calculate the age of rocks and minerals by
238 206 206
measuring the ratio of 92 U and 82 Pb. The amount of 82 Pb is supposed to be obtained by decay
238
of U. Thus,
238
92 U 
→ 206
82 Pb82 + 8 42 He + 6 −01 e
Mole of 238U left = N at time t i.e., Nt
Mole of 206Pb formed = N’ at time t
∴ Initial mole of 238U = N + N’ i.e., (N0)
Thus, time t can be evaluated by-
2.303 N
t= log 0
λ Nt
(ii) To determine the age of animals or objects of vegetable origin such as wood, charcoal and textiles
by radio carbon dating technique.
 Note :
Radio carbon dating technique was given by Willard Libby and was awarded Nobel Prize.
Carbon-14 has been used to determine the age of organic material. The procedure is based on the
formation of 14C by neutron capture in the upper atmosphere.
14
7N + 10 n 
→ 14
6C + 11 H
This reaction provides a small, but reasonably constant source of 14C. The 14C isotope is radioactive,
undergoing β- decay with a half life of 5730 years.
14
6C 
→ 14
7N + 0
−1 e
In using radio carbon dating, we generally assume that the ratio of 14C to 12C in the atmosphere has
been constant for at least 50,000 years. The 14C is incorporated into CO2, which is in turn incorporated
through photosynthesis, into more complex carbon containing molecules within plants. When these
plants are eaten by animals, the 14C becomes incorporated within them. Because a living plant or animal
has a constant intake of carbon compounds, it also has to maintain 14C to 12C ratio that is identical with
that of atmosphere . However, once the organism dies, it no longer ingests carbon compounds to
compensate 14C which is lost through radioactive decay. The ratio of 14C to 12C therefore, decreases.
Thus, by knowing the equilibrium concentration of 14C in a living matter as well as in a dead piece of
matter at a particular time, the age of material can be determined.
HAZARDS OF RADIATIONS
(i) Radioactive radiations cause atmospheric pollution.
(ii) When living organisms are exposed to radiations, the complex organic molecules get ionized, break
up and disrupt the normal functioning of the organisms.
(iii) Effects of radiations :
(A) Pathological damage : i.e. permanent damage to living body which causes death and
development of diseases e.g. cancers or leukemia etc.
(B) Genetic damage : i.e. effect on chromosomes causing mutations.
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION
Radioactive pollution is a special form of physical pollution, relating to all systems air, water and soil.
This type of pollution is not only harmful for the present generation but also for future generations. The
radioactive substances with long half-life are usually the main sources of environmental concern.
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
Neutrons released during nuclear tests make other materials radioactive in the surrounding. These
materials include 90Sr, 137Ba and 131I. The radioactive materials are converted into gases. These gases
and fine particles are thrown high up into the air and carried away by wind to distant areas. They
ultimately settle down and cause pollution to water and soil. From soil the radioactive substances enter
in the food chain and thus affect all forms of life including man. Cosmic radiations and explosion of a
hydrogen bomb produce 14C in air. Nuclear power plants and reprocessing plants discharge 90Sr, 137Cs,
131 140
I, Ba, 140La, 144Rh, etc. Coal based thermal power stations release radioactive gases such as 85Kr,
133
Xe and particulates such as 137I, 60Co, 54Mn and 137Cs through chimney.
Nuclear dumping within land or in ocean leads to radiation pollution.
(a) Effects of Radioactive Pollution :
(i) Radiations induce mutations and breaks in chromosomes particularly at the time of cell
division.
(ii) Higher doses of radiations can cause cancer, leukaemia, anaemia and sterility. Excessive use of
X-rays causes death of tissues.
(iii) Radiations induce mutations in plants also. Morphological deformities occur.
(b) Control of Radiation Pollution :
(i) Manufacture and use of nuclear weapons should be stopped.
(ii) Nuclear tests and further development should be suspended.
(iii) Ocean dumping of nuclear wastes should be suspended.
(iii) Proper handling of radio isotopes during their use in various fields should be done.
Solved Examples
Example 1: What are the uses of following Isotopes?

(i) Na24 (ii) I131 (iii) Sr90
Solution : • Na24 for circulation of blood
• I131 for thyroid
• Sr90 for treatment of skin & eye
• Fe59 for location of brain tumor
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
EXERCISE # 1
SECTION (A):- INTRODUCTION AND TYPES OF NUCLEUS:
A-1. Classify the nuclides based on the number of protons and neutrons of the nuclei?
A-2. Write relation between radius of nucleus and mass number?
SECTION (B):- STABILITY OF NUCLEUS :

B-1. Find whether 90Th231 is stable or not?
B-2. What are magic numbers?
SECTION (C):- RADIOACTIVITY:

C-1. Define Radioactivity?
C-2. Explain Alpha, Beta and Gamma rays?
C-3. Find number of protons and mass number of Y in given reaction below.
92X
234
+ β- + α → Y + γ + 2β+
C-4. Find X and Y in given reactions.

i. 19K38 → 18Ar38 + X
ii. 80Hg197 + Y → 79Au197
C-5. Describe how α, β, γ rays each behave when they pass through an electric field?
SECTION (D):- NUCLEAR REACTIONS:

D-1. Define nuclear fission ?
D-2. Define nuclear fusion?
D-3. What is the principle of working of an atom bomb ?
SECTION (E) :- APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVE AND RADIOISOTOPERS:

E-1. Explain the use of radioisotopes in agriculture?
E-2. What is Carbon dating?
E-3. What are hazards of radiation?
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A) :- INTRODUCTION AND TYPES OF NUCLEUS:
A-1. Isodiaphers are atoms having -
(A) p/n constant (B) (p + n) constant (C) (n–p) constant (D) (n–p) different
A-2. The first nuclear explosion by India was carried out at -

(A) Pushkar (B) Narora (C) Pokhran (D) Mumbai
A-3. The rays are given off by a radioactive element from -

(A) nucleus (B) valence electrons (C) all the orbits (D) outer orbit
SECTION (B) :- STABILITY OF NUCLEUS:

60
B-1. 27 Co is radioactive because -
(A) its atomic no. is high (B) it has high p/n ratio
(C) it has high n/p ratio (D) None of these
B-2. Radioactivity is due to -

(A) stable electronic configuration. (B) unstable electronic configuration.
(C) stable nucleus. (D) unstable nucleus.
B-3. Rate of decay-

(A) increases with time (B) decreases with time
(C) remains constant (D) first increases, then decreases with time

C-1. Radium is a radioactive substance. It dissolves in dilute H2SO4 and forms compound radium sulphate.
The compound is -
(A) no longer radioactive. (B) half as radioactive as radium content.
(C) as radioactive as the radium content. (D) twice as radioactive as the radium content.
C-2. A radioactive disintegration differs from a chemical change in being -

(A) an exothermic change. (B) a spontaneous process.
(C) a nuclear process. (D) none of these
D-1. In the nuclear reaction -

14
7 N + 42 He 
→ 17
8 O + ----------
The missing particle is -
(A) 42 He (B) 11 H (C) 10 n (D) γ
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
D-2. 11
6 C 
→ 11
5 B decay produces -
(A) positron (B) β-particle (C) α-particle (D) None of these
D-3. In the nuclear reaction 92U238 → 82Pb206 the number of α and β particles emitted is :
(A) 7α,5β (B)6α,4β (C) 4α,3β (D) 8α,6β
D-4. Which does not take place by α-disintegration ?

(A) 92U238 → 90Th234 (B) 90Th232 → 88Ra228 (C) 88Ra226 → 86Rn222 (D) 83Bi213 → 84Po213
D-5. The half -life period of radioactive element depends upon -

(A) the amount of the element. (B) the temperature.
(C) the pressure. (D) none of these.

E-1. A radioactive sample has a half-life period 1500 years. A sealed tube containing 1 g of the sample will
contain after 3000 year -
(A) 1 g of the sample (B) 0.5 g of the sample
(C) 0.25 g of the sample (D) 0.025g of the sample
E-2. In a nuclear reactor chain reaction is controlled by introducing -

(A) iron rods (B) silicon rods (C) cadmium rods (D) platinum rods
E-3. In treatment of cancer, which of the following is used ?

131 32 60
(A) 53 I (B) 15 P (C) 27 Co (D) 12 H
EXERCISE # 2
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The activity of radioisotope changes with -
(A) temperature (B) pressure
(C) chemical environment (D) none of the above
2. 210
84 Po 
→ 206
82 Pb + 42 He. In this reaction predict the position of group of Po when lead is in the IV A
group.
(A) II A (B) IV B (C) VI B (D) VI A
3. 90Th a member of III group on losing α-particles forms a new element belonging to -
(A) I group (B) III group (C) II group (D) IV group
4. Which of the following isotopes is likely to be most stable ?

71 66 40
(A) 30 Zn (B) 30 Zn (C) 20 Ca (D) None of these
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
5. As compared to 12C atom, 14C atom has -
(A) two extra protons and two extra electrons. (B) two extra protons and no extra electron.
(C) two extra neutrons and no extra electron. (D) two extra neutrons and two extra electrons.
6. If 2 g of an isotope has a half-life period of 7 days, the half -life period of 1 g sample is -
(A) 3.5 days (B) 7 days (C) 14 days (D) 28 days
7. The half-life period of a radioactive substance is 20 minutes. The time taken for 1 g of the substance to
reduce to 0.25g will be:
(A) 30 minutes (B) 40 minutes (C) 60 minutes (D) 10 minutes
8. Half life of a Radioactive element is 100 years its average life will be -
(A) 13.4 years (B) 1.44 years (C) 144 years (D) None of these
9. When one α and one β particle are emitted by an element, the new element formed will have:
(A)atomic number greater by 1 and mass number greater by 4
(B) atomic number less by 1 and mass number less by 4
(C)atomic number greater by 1 and mass number less by 4
(D)atomic number less by 1 and mass number greater by 4
10. In radioactive decay 234

90 Th 
→ 234
92 U the number of α and β−particles emitted respectively are -
(A) 1, 2 (B) 2, 0 (C) 0, 2 (D) 2, 1
11. Consider the nuclear change,

−α −β −α
237
93 Np → A  → B → C
Which of the following statements is not correct ?
(A) Mass number of B is 233. (B) Atomic number of A is 91.
(C) C is an isotope of A. (D) B is an isobar of A.
12. When 13Al27 is bombarded with α-particles a radioactive isotope of 15P30 with the emission of......... is
formed.
(A) protons (B) neutrons (C) positrons (D) electrons
13. Energy in the sun is mainly generated by -

(A) fusion of radioactive materials. (B) fission of helium nuclei.
(C) fusion of hydrogen nuclei. (D) chemical reaction
14. Boron rods in a nuclear reactor are used to -

(A) absorb excess neutrons. (B) absorb alpha particles.
(C) slow down the speed of neutrons. (D) speed up the reaction.
15. Nuclear fusion takes place in -

(A) atom bomb (B) hydrogen bomb (C) neutron bomb (D) nuclear reactor
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
16. An example of nuclear fusion reaction is -
(A) 233
90 Th + 10 n 
→ 234
90 Th (B) 113
48 Cd + 10 n 
→ 114
48 Cd γ-rays
(C) 13 H + 11 H 
→ 4
2 He (D) 239
92 U 
→ 239
93 Np + 0
−1 e
17. The reaction 12 H + 12 H 

→ 3
2 He + 10 n is called -
(A) fusion. (B) fission.
(C) endothermic reaction. (D) spontaneous reaction
23 24
18. Na is the more stable isotope of Na. By which process 11 Na can undergo radioactive decay ?
(A) β–-emission (B) α-emission (C) β+-emission (D) None of these
19. Number of neutrons in a parent nucleus X, which gives 14

7N after two successive β-emission, would be-
(A) 6 (B) 7 (C) 8 (D) 9
20. Two radioactive elements X and Y have half lives of 50 and 100 minutes respectively. Initial sample of
both the elements have same no. of atoms. The ratio of the remaining number of atoms of X and Y after
200 minute is-
(A) 2 (B) ½ (C) 4 (D) 1/4
21. If 12 g of sample is taken, then 6 g of a sample decays in 1 hour. The amount of sample showing decay
in next hour is -
(A) 6 g (B) 3 g (C) 2g (D) 1 g
22. The number of neutrons in the element L in the following nuclear changes is -
239
92 M 
→ x
y N + 42 He; xy N 
→ A
BL + 2β+
(A) 146 (B) 144 (C) 140 (D) 142
23. Proportionality constant λ is also known as -

(A) decay constant (B) disintegration constant
(C) radioactive constant (D) All of these
24. Unit of decay constant is-

(A) time2 (B) time–2 (C) time–1 (D) time3
60 60
25. The half-life of 27 Co is 5.3 years. How much of 20 g of 27 Co will remain radioactive after 21.2 years ?
(A) 10 g (B) 1.25 g (C) 2.5 g (D) 3.0 g
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
EXERCISE # 3

1. The half-life time of a radioisotope is 5 years. Number of disintegrated atoms after 15 years will be-
[Raj NTSE Stage - I/05]
1 7 3 1
(A) (B) (C) (D)
8 8 4 4
2. On adding a neutron to the nucelus of an atom, change will be observed in its

(A) atomic number (B) mass number
(C) electronic configuration (D) chemical properties
3. 16 grams of a radioisotope reduces to one gram in one hour. Its half-life period in minutes is -
(A) 15 (B) 30 (C) 45 (D) 60
4. The number of neutrons in the nucleus of the daughter element formed by emission of one alpha
particle from 92X238 will be - [Raj. NTSE Stage - I/07]
(A) 144 (B) 146 (C) 142 (D) 92
5. In the nuclear reaction H2 + H2 → He3 + X. X stands for - [Karnataka NTSE Stage - I/13]
(A) +1e0 (B) 0n1 (C) –1e0 (D) 1H1
6. Which of the following statements is correct ? [Karnataka NTSE Stage - I/13]

(A) Fusion of 1 gram of hydrogen gives more energy than fission of 1 gram of uranium 235
(B) Fusion of 1 gram of hydrogen gives less energy than fission of 1 gram of uranium 235
(C) Fusion of 1 gram of hydrogen gives same energy as in fission of 1 gram of uranium 235
(D) Fission of 1 gram of uranium gives less energy than the combustion of 1 ton of coal
7. Adding an alpha particle to nucleus of sodium atom, product will be- [Rajasthan NTSE Stage - I/14]
(A) Na+ (B) Mg2+ (C) Al2+ (D) Al
8. The half-life of radioactive 14C is 5760 years. In how many years 200 mg sample will reduce to 25 mg ?
[Karnataka NTSE Stage - I/14]
(A) 23,040 years (B) 17,280 years (C) 11,520 years (D) 5,760 years
9. Which of the following statement is correct ? [Karnataka NTSE Stage - I/14]

(A) All isotopes are radioactive
(B) Alpha rays are negatively charged
(C) Beta rays are not reflected by an electric field
(D) Gamma rays are not reflected by magnetic field
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10. Which of the following insotope is used in treatment of blood cancer ? [Haryana_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) P – 32 (B) I – 131 (C) Co – 60 (D) U – 235
11. Adding an alpha particle to the nucleus of sodium atom produces which new element ?
[West Bengal NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Mg (B) P (C) Al (D) Ne.
12. Which of the following is correct for X-Rays ? [Gujarat NTSE Stage-1/ 2017]
(A) lt is beam of electrons (B) lt is electro magnatic waves
(C) It is positively charged particle (D) lt is negatively charged particles
13. Who descovered γ- rays ? [Gujarat NTSE Stage-1/ 2017]

(A) Rutherford (B) Thomsan (C) Willard (D) Dalton
14. Which radiation was discovered by Rutherford ? [Gujarat NTSE Stage-1/ 2017]
(A) α & β (B) β & γ (C) α & γ (D) α, β & γ
15. The reaction that take place in nuclear reactor is [Uttar Pradesh NTSE Stage-1/ 2017]
(A) Nuclear fusion (B) Nuclear fission
(C) Controlled nuclear fission (D) Double decomposition
16. Which elements are used in Atomic Reactors to control the speed of neutrons?
[Delhi NTSE Stage-1/ 2017]
(A) Boron and Cadmium (B) Cadmium and Aluminium
(C) Boron and Iron (D) Sodium and Potassium
17. The half life of a radioisotope is 4 hours. If the initial mass of the isotope was 200 g, the mass
remaining after 24 hours undecayed [Karnataka NTSE Stage - I/18]
(A) 1.042 g (B) 3.125 g (C) 2.084 g (D) 4.167 g
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
Answer Key
EXERCISE # 1
0 0
C-3. number of protons = 91; mass number = 237 C-4. X = +1 e; Y= −1 e 0
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A) :- INTRODUCTION AND TYPES OF NUCLEUS:
A-1. C A-2. C A-3. A
SECTION (B) :- STABILITY OF NUCLEUS:

B-1. C B-2. D B-3. B

C-1. C C-2. C

D-1. B D-2. A D-3. D D-4. D D-5. D

E-1. C E-2. C E-3. C
EXERCISE # 2
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. D D C C C B B C B C C B C A B C A D D D
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25
Ans. B A D C B
EXERCISE # 3

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Ans. B B A A B A D B D C C B C A C A B
COAL, PETROLEUM AND
POLYMERS 7
CHAPTER
CONTENTS
• Natural resources, Fossil fuels, Coal
• Distructive distillation of coal and uses
• Petroleum refining and hydrocarbons
• Natural gas
• Polymers and plastics
• Chloro-fluoro carbon or Freons
NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural resources indicate the potential wealth of a country. The variety of substances that man gets
from earth and nature to meet his basic needs are called natural resources. The word resource means a
source of supplying a material generally held in reserve. Natural resources are both living and non
living. Some of these resources are found in abundance, while others are found in limited quantities and
that too in some restricted parts of our land. For this reason, the natural resources have to be wisely
used. However, in reality it is not so. They are being used indiscriminately.
(a) Types of Natural Resources :
Depending upon the abundance and availability, the natural resources are categorized into two types,
i.e.
(i) Inexhaustible natural resources
(ii) Exhaustible natural resources.
FOSSIL FUELS
Exhaustible natural resources like coal, petroleum or natural gas were formed from the dead remains of
living organisms (fossils). So, these are called fossil fuels.
Coal and petroleum are very important natural resources and play a vital role in modern society. They
are found in the earth’s crust. Their easy availability and specific characteristics make them very
important in the growth of industry. At present they are the chief sources of energy worldwide.
(a) Coal :
Coal is a mineral of dark brown or black colour formed from the remains of plants buried in the earth’s
crust millions of years ago.
(i) Composition : Coal is a very impure form of carbon. It mainly consists of atoms of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. A small amount of sulphur is also present in it.
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(ii) Deposits : The distribution of coal deposits is not uniform in the earth’s crust. To the total coal
reserves in the world, Asia contributes about one third, whereas North and South America
contribute more than half. India has large deposits of coal. It is estimated that India has about 80
billion tones of proven coal deposits. The coal deposits are spread over in the states of Jharkhand,
Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal.
(iii) Formation : It is believed that millions of years ago, the ground below the forests was split open
by natural forces such as earthquakes and volcanoes. The forests were buried in the chasms. Thus,
the plants had no contact with oxygen. Successive layers of sediments sealed the buried plants.
Over millions of years these deposits were subjected to tremendous pressure and heat which finally
transformed them into coal.
The chemical process involved in the transformation of plant matter into coal is called the
carbonization of plant matter.
201 1
 Note :
Coal occurs in four main varieties viz., peat, lignite, anthracite and bituminous. Peat is the most inferior
while Anthracite is the most superior quality of coal among various varieties of coal.
FLOW CHART
(iv) Destructive Distillation of Coal : The process of heating coal in the absence of air is called the
destructive distillation of coal. Coal contains a number of elements such as carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. When coal is heated in the absence of air, a number of products are
obtained
Experimental set up for the destructive distillation of coal
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The main products obtained by the destructive distillation of coal are as follows :
(A) Coke (B) Coal tar (C) Ammoniacal liquor (D) Coal gas
(A) Coke : Coke contains 98% carbon. It is porous, tough, black and the purest form of coal.
Like charcoal, it is a good fuel and burns without smoke. But it is seldom employed as a
fuel because it can be put to more valuable use . It is largely employed as a reducing agent
in the extraction of metals from their ores. It is also used in making fuel gases like water
gas and producer gas.
 Note :
Water gas is an equimolar mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
201
It is obtained by passing steam over red- hot coke.
C + H2O  → (CO + H2)
Coke Steam Water gas
11
 Note :
Producer gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and nitrogen.
It is obtained when air is passed over red hot coke.
2C + O2 + 4N2 → (2CO + 4N2)
Producer gas
(B) Coal tar : Coal tar is a mixture of different carbon compounds. It is a thick, black liquid
with unpleasant smell. The fractional distillation of coal tar gives many chemical
substances which are used in the preparation of synthetic dyes, perfumes, explosives,
paints, synthetic fibres, drugs and pesticides. Some of these chemical substances are
benzene, toluene, phenol and aniline.
Naphthalene balls (used to repel moths and other insects) are also obtained from coal tar.
 Note :
Now-a-days, bitumen, a petroleum product is used in place of coal tar in making of roads.
(C) Ammoniacal liquor : The ammonia produced as a result of destructive distillation of coal is
absorbed in water. The aqueous solution of ammonia, i.e. ammonium hydroxide solution, is
called ammoniacal liquor. It is used in the preparation of fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate
and ammonium superphosphate.
(D) Coal gas : Coal gas is mainly a mixture of hydrogen, methane and carbon monoxide. The gases
present in coal gas are combustible, and hence it is an excellent fuel. It has high calorific value.
It was used for lighting houses, factories and streets in Mumbai (Bombay) until 1950. It was
also used for cooking until recently.
 Note :
Coal gas was used for street lighting for the first time in London in 1810 and in New York around
1820. Now - a - days, it is used as a source of heat rather than light.
(v) Uses :
(A) Coal is used as a fuel to convert water into steam to run thermal power plants for the generation
of electricity. It is also used as a fuel in homes and factories and to run steam engines.
(B) Coal is used in the preparation of fuel gases, such as coal gas.
(C) Coal is used in the preparation of synthetic petrol.
(D) Coal is also used in preparation of synthetic natural gas.
(E) The destructive distillation of coal gives coke, coal tar, coal gas etc.
(F) Coal is the source from which a number of organic compounds such as benzene, toluene,
phenol, aniline, naphthalene and anthracene are obtained.
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PETROLEUM
Petroleum is a naturally occurring oil that consists chiefly of hydrocarbons with some other elements
such as sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen. The unrefined form of petroleum is called crude oil.
 Note :
Petroleum is also called rock oil i.e. petra = rock, oleum = oil.
(a) Deposits :
The major reserves of petroleum are in Saudi Arabia (largest producer of petroleum), Kuwait, Iraq,
Russia, China, USA, Libya etc. The oil is obtained by drilling an oil well. When a well is drilled,
natural gas comes out with great force. The crude oil comes out on its own due to gas pressure. After
the pressure has subsided, it is pumped out of the well.
202
11
(b) Formation :
It is believed that petroleum was formed from organisms living in the sea. The remains of these
organisms were deposited in shallow depressions in the sea bed long long ago. These were covered by
layers of sand and clay which compressed these remains. Over a period of millions of years, the organic
matter present in the dead organisms underwent a series of processes before being finally transformed
into petroleum. The petroleum so formed migrated from the source rock to be entrapped in large
underground reservoirs beneath impermeable rocks. It often floats over a layer of water and is held in
this position under pressure beneath a layer of natural gas.
(c) Refining :
Petroleum is a mixture of several hydrocarbons. It is a foul - smelling brown black liquid. It also
contains water, salt and rocky materials. It cannot be used in this crude form either as a fuel or as a
basic material to produce other useful components. Before being put to use, it has to be purified or
refined. The process of separating the various components of petroleum from one another is known as
the refining of petroleum. This is done by a process called fractional distillation which is based on the
fact that the different components of petroleum have distinctly different boiling points.
 Note :
The first oil well was found in Pennsylvania in USA in 1859. In India ,first oil well was found in 1867
in Digboi, Assam.
The components of petroleum are separated in a large fractionating column. Crude oil is piped to the
refinery from a well. It is washed with acid and alkali solutions to remove the basic and acidic
impurities respectively. Crude oil is now heated to about 673K and fed at the base of fractionating
column. All the components except asphalt are converted in the vapour state. As the mixture of hot
vapours rises up in the column, it begins to cool. The component with the highest boiling point
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
condenses first and is collected. Those with low boiling points condense later. The residual gases
escape uncondensed from the upper part of the column. The various components condensed at different
heights of the column are collected separately. The components obtained at different heights in order
from the bottom are asphalt, lubricating oil, paraffin wax, fuel oil, diesel, kerosene, petrol and
petroleum gas.
Fractional distillation of petroleum

201 1
(d) Products :
(i) Residual oil : The residual oil obtained from the primary distillation of petroleum is known as
reduced crude. Reduced crude is distilled in vacuum to yield bitumen (asphalt) as residue. Bitumen
is largely used in making road surfaces, and also for coating cables to provide electrical insulation.
(ii) Paraffin wax : It boils at above 673K. It is obtained by the fractionation of residual oil. It is used
for making candles, ointments, vaseline, grease, polishes etc. It is also used for water proofing of
paper cartons.
(iii) Lubricating oil : Its boiling range is 623 K to 673 K. It is obtained by the fractionation of residual
oil. It is used for lubricating machinery.
(iv) Fuel oil : The boiling range of fuel oil is 573 K to 623 K. It is used in industries to heat boilers and
furnace. It is a better fuel than coal because it burns completely leaving behind no ash, whereas coal
burns producing a large amount of ash which has to be removed regularly.
(v) Diesel oil : Its boiling range is 573 K to 623K. It contains straight chain alkanes with the number of
carbon atoms varying from 16 - 20. It is used in cars, trucks, buses and locomotives. It is also used
to run pumps in fields and in electric generators.
(vi) Kerosene : Its boiling range is 423 K to 573 K. It contains straight chain alkanes with 11 -16
carbon atoms. It is used for domestic purpose, for lighting petromax, lanterns, lamps, stoves, etc. It
is also used for making oil gas. A special grade of kerosene is used as aviation fuel in aeroplane jet
engines.
(vii) Petrol : Its boiling range is 343K to 393 K. It is also called gasoline. It contains straight chain
alkanes with 7 - 9 carbon atoms. It is used as a fuel in two - wheelers, three - wheelers and cars. It is
also used as a solvent for the dry-cleaning of clothes.
(viii) Petroleum Gas : It is a mixture of ethane, propane and butane. Its main constituent is butane
which burns by giving off a lot of heat. Butane is easily liquefied under high pressure. In the liquid
form it is supplied in cylinders and is commonly known as Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG). It is a
colourless, odourless and inflammable gas. A domestic gas cylinder contains about 14.2 kg of LPG.
A strong smelling substance called ethyl mercaptan (C2H5SH) is added to LPG to detect the
leakage of gas from the cylinder. On being lighted, it burns with a blue flame. One gram of LPG
produces about 50 KJ of heat.
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
LPG should be used with care. Any accidental leakage can cause an explosion. If there is any
leakage of gas from the cylinder, the following precautions should be immediately taken -
(A) Any open flame in the vicinity of the gas should immediately be extinguished.
(B) All doors and windows of the room in which the cylinder is kept should be opened to allow the
gas to escape.
(C) The tube and joints attached to the cylinder should be systematically checked for defects.
FRACTIONATION OF PETROLEUM
11
 Note :
The Indian Petrochemical Corporation Limited (IPCL) in Vadodara (Baroda) is one of the largest
petrochemical units in the world.
NATURAL GAS
Natural gas is a naturally occurring mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons. It is found in porous sedimentary
rocks in the earth’s crust, usually in association with petroleum deposits.
In India natural gas has been found in Tripura, Rajasthan, Maharastra and in Krishna-Godavari delta.
Natural gas consists mainly of methane (about 85%), ethane (up to about 10%), propane (about 3%) and
butane. Carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen sulphide and sometimes helium may also be present.
Natural gas may be obtained from the earth’s crust by digging wells in prospective areas. There are
some wells which give out only natural gas, but most wells produce natural gas as well as petroleum. In
fact, natural gas is obtained as a co-product in petroleum mining. Natural gas is formed from the
decomposition of organic matter buried under sea beds millions of years ago.
(a) Uses :
1. Natural gas is used as a domestic and industrial fuel. Natural gas burns readily to produce a lot of
heat. So, in many areas, natural gas is used as the main fuel for domestic and industrial heating
purposes.
Natural gas is called a clean fuel because it burns without producing smoke and causes no air pollution.
Natural gas also does not produce any poisonous gases on burning. Moreover, it does not leave
behind any residue on burning.
2. These days natural gas is being used as a fuel in automobiles (cars, buses and trucks) in place of
petrol and diesel. Natural gas is used as Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) in vehicles. CNG is being
used as a fuel in automobiles to reduce air pollution.
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
3. Natural gas is used for the manufacture of hydrogen gas (needed in fertiliser industry). This is done
as follows :
(i) Natural gas is heated with steam at a temperature of 900°C in the presence of nickel catalyst to
form a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas :
(ii) This hydrogen gas is heated with nitrogen under pressure and in the presence of finely divided
iron and molybdenum as catalyst to make ammonia gas :
The combination of nitrogen and hydrogen to form ammonia is called Haber’s process. The
temperature required in this reaction is 450°C and pressure is 200 atmospheres. The ammonia
thus produced is used for manufacturing nitrogenous fertilizers (like ammonium sulphate,
ammonium nitrate etc.) by treatment with suitable acids.
4. Natural gas is used as a source of carbon needed in tyre industry. When natural gas is heated
strongly, then methane present in it decomposes to form carbon and hydrogen :
The carbon thus formed is called ‘carbon black’ and it is used as a ‘filler’ in the manufacture of tyres.
 Note : Natural gas is an almost ideal fuel. It produces large amount of heat (calorific value 55 KJ/g) when burnt.
CONSERVATION OF FOSSIL FUELS

Coal and petroleum are fossil fuels, which took millions of years to form, will last only a few hundred years.
This is so because they are being used recklessly. Moreover, burning of these fuels is a major cause of
air pollution. It is thus necessary to use these fuels only when absolutely necessary.
In India, the Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) has provided some tips to advise
people how to save petrol/diesel. These tips are :
205 (a) drive at a constant and moderate speed as far as possible.
(b) switch off the engine at traffic lights or at a place where you have to wait.
(c) ensure correct tyre pressure.
(d) ensure regular maintenance of the vehicle.
POLYMER
A polymer is a compound of high molecular mass formed by combination of a large number of small
molecules.
The small molecules which constitute the repeating units in a polymer are called monomer units. The
process by which monomers are transformed into a polymer is called polymerization.
n (monomer)  Polymerisation
→ (monomer)n
Polymer
where n is an integer.
In this section, we will study common synthetic polymers -
(a) Fibres (b) Plastics
Plastics and synthetic fibres are categorized as a class of substance known as polymers. This is because they
consist of many repeating molecular units or monomers.
 Note : “poly” means many and “mer” means unit in Latin.
SEMI-SYNTHETIC AND SYNTHETIC CLOTHING MATERIALS

(a) Rayon :
Rayon is the first man-made (semi-synthetic) fiber. It is composed of regenerated cellulose, a component of
green plants. It can imitate the feel and the texture of silk, wool, cotton and linen. Rayon was first made in
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
the USA and later on its method of preparation was modified in Europe. The process of making it in Europe
is known as viscose process. The rayon thus obtained is known as viscose in Europe.
Preparation of Rayon :
The raw material for the preparation of rayon is wood. Wood is changed into wood pulp. The wood
pulp is changed into a viscous solution, known as viscose, with the help of chemicals.
The viscose solution is then passed through the fine holes of a shower head of a spinneret into an acid bath.
Finally, these cellulose filaments are spun into rayon yarn.
2061 1
(i) Properties :
• It has tendency to absorb moisture. Because of its tendency to absorb moisture, rayon can absorb sweat.
Therefore, it is generally preferred over other synthetic fabrics in summer.
• It is shiny and lustrous and resembles to silk in appearance. So, it is also called artificial silk.
(ii) Uses :
• Shirts, ties, linings etc. are made up of rayon fabric.
• It is used in home furnishing materials (bed sheets, curtains, table clothes, sofa covers etc.) and
bandages.
(b) Nylon :
It is the first fully synthetic fibre. It was prepared in 1931 using coal, water and air.
(i) Properties : Nylon is a high strength fibre. It is elastic and so does not lose strength even after
repeated use. It is one of the light synthetic fabrics. It is lustrous and easy to wash.
(ii) Uses :
• It is used in making sarees, socks, stockings etc.
• It is blended with wool to increase the strength.
• It is used for making tents, umbrellas, parachutes and tarpaulins.
• Its fibers are used for making tooth brush bristles.
• Due to their high strength and elasticity, nylon threads are used to make fishing nets, climbing
ropes, seat belts, sleeping bags and strings in badminton and tennis racquets.
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 Note :
Nylon is an acronym obtained from the name of the cities New York (NY) and London (LON). Most
common nylon is nylon-66. It’s monomer units are adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine.
(c) Polyester :
It is made of repeating units of a chemical called ester which has fruit like smell. Most polyester fabrics
have excellent wash and wear characteristics and therefore, require minimum care.
(i) Properties :
• It absorbs very little water and hence dry quickly after washing.
• It is a strong, lightweight and elastic fabric.
• It resists wrinkling and springs back into shape when creased.
(ii) Uses :
• Polyester fibres are widely used in textile industry for making a variety of textiles such as sarees,
dress materials, curtains etc.
• Terrywool, a blend of Terylene (a type of polyester) and wool, is used for making suits.
• Terrycot, a blend of Terylene and cotton is commonly used for making skirts, shirts and other
dress materials.
• It is light weight and strong. This property makes it suitable for making light weight sails.
• Terylene is used for making conveyor belts as it is very elastic.
• Polyester films (commonly known as mylar) are also used for making magnetic recording tapes in
audio cassettes, video cassettes and floppy discs.
 Note :
Terylene is also called Dacron or Mylar.
(d) Acrylic :
Acrylic fabric closely resembles to wool in its properties.
(i) Properties : It is warm, soft, light and flexible fibre. Acrylic yarn can be easily knitted. It is
cheaper than natural wool and is available in a variety of colours.
2071 1
 Note :
Acrylic fabrics are also known as ORLON or ACRILAN fabrics.
(ii) Uses :
• Acrylic fabric is used for making sweaters, socks and shawls.
• It is used for making carpets and blankets.
(e) Spandex :
• These fabrics have excellent elasticity. The high elasticity of these fabrics make them suitable for
use in clothes that require snug fitting, for example swimming costumes.
• Spandex is mixed with other fabrics, such as cotton, to get stretch fabrics, which are used for
making T-shirts and caps
(i) Uses :
• It is used in the making of swimming costumes, caps, T-shirts etc.
 Note : Spandex is also known as LYCRA .
(f) Koroseal :
It has a trade name of high polymer of vinyl chloride.
(i) Uses of Koroseal :
Koroseal is water proof as well as air proof. It is used for coating fabrics of silk, rayon or cotton to
make them water proof. Water proof fabrics so obtained can be used on rainy days or as bathroom
curtains.
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(g) Blended fibres :
Mixing of two different fibres results in the formation of blended fibres. More often, a synthetic fibre is
mixed with a natural fibre. Two similar fibres, for example, both natural fibres, may also be mixed to
form blended fabrics. A few examples of blended fibres are given in table 4.1 below :
Table : Examples of blended fibres :
Natural and synthetic fibres have their own advantages and disadvantages. For example, natural fibres
are comfortable to wear as they retain moisture and breathe. However, they are not very strong. Also,
they shrink when washed and are readily attacked by moth.
Synthetic fibres are very strong, do not shrink and are resistant to moth attack, though they are not very
comfortable to wear. Hence, the best fibres are obtained by blending two types of fibres which combine
the advantages of both and are free from their disadvantages.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SYNTHETIC FABRICS

Different properties of synthetic fabrics like moisture absorbing capacity, tensile strength, elasticity etc.
make synthetic fabrics very advantageous but they need great care also.
(a) Advantages :
(i) Most synthetic fabrics can handle heavy loads without breaking : The ability to withstand loads
is due to a property called tensile strength.
(ii) Most synthetic fabrics are elastic : Elasticity refers to the ability of a material to regain its
original shape, after it has been stretched or compressed.
(iii) Most synthetic fabrics do not wrinkle easily : If wrinkled and released, they retain their original
shape.
Hence, people find them convenient to wash and wear.
In addition to these properties, synthetic fibres drawn from the spinneret can be made very fine and
thin. Thus, the texture of the synthetic fabrics produced is generally soft.
(iv) They are less expensive and readily available : Synthetic fibres are cheaper than natural fibre.
2081 1
(b) Disadvantages :
(i) Most synthetic fabrics can absorb very little moisture. They become sticky when the body sweat.
On the other hand, most natural fabrics absorb moisture readily. As a result when we sweat, the
sweat is not trapped between the fabric and the skin. It keeps on evaporating from the fabric and we
feel that our skin can breathe.
(ii) Most synthetic fabrics melt very easily thus they should not be worn while working in the kitchen
and in laboratory. They require very careful ironing.
 Note :
Ropes made of nylon and polyester are commonly used in cranes and elevators because of their high
elasticity and tensile strength.
PLASTICS
A plastic is a polymeric material which can be easily moulded or set into any desired shape and size.
(a) Types of Plastics :
(I) On the basis of arrangement of monomer units.
(i) Linear plastics : The monomer units are joined together to form long straight chains of
polymer molecules. These chains are stacked over one another to give a well packed structure.
Ex: HDPE, PVC, polythene, etc.
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
(ii) Branched chain plastics : The monomer units not only combine to produce the linear chain
but also form branches of different length along the main chain.
Ex : LDPE, etc.
(iii) Cross-linked or three dimensional network plastics : The initially formed linear polymer
chains are joined together to form a three - dimensional network structure. These polymers are
hard and rigid.
Ex : Bakelite, melamine-formaldehyde etc.
(II) On the basis of their reaction to heat :

(i) Thermoplastics : Thermoplastics can be melted by heating and there after moulded into
desired shapes and sizes. These plastics soften on heating and become fluids, but on cooling
they become hard. These are capable of undergoing such reversible changes on heating and
cooling repeatedly. Examples of thermoplastics are polyethene (polyethylene),
polyvinylchloride (PVC), polystyrene etc.
(ii) Thermosetting Plastics : Thermosetting plastics are harder and stronger than thermoplastics
and can retain their shape and size even at high temperature. These polymers once set in a
given shape on heating cannot be softened or melted on being reheated. These polymers
undergo a permanent change upon melting and set to a solid which cannot be remelted. For
example bakelite, melamine.
(A) Melamine :
Melamine is a thermosetting polymer. It is hard and a high polish polymer. Melamine is used
for making unbreakable dinner-ware, and decorative objects.
(B) Bakelite :
Bakelite is also a thermosetting polymer. Once set into a shape, bakelite does not melt/soften
and retains its shape. Bakelite is obtained by reacting phenol with formaldehyde in the presence
of a catalyst.
Properties :
• Bakelite is hard and stiff.
• Bakelite is an insulator.
209
Uses :
Bakelite is used :
• for making electrical switches and plugs.
• for making gear wheels and table top laminates.
• for making combs, fountain pen bodies, phonograph records.
 Note :
Bakelite, the first completely synthetic substance, is a thermosetting plastic. It was created by Leo
Baekeland in 1907.
(b) Uses of Plastics :

Plastics can be recycled, reused, coloured, melted, rolled into thin sheets or made into wires. Thus, they
find a variety of uses, some of which are listed below:
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
Teflon :
Teflon is the brand name of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). It’s monomer unit is tetrafluoro ethylene (CF2
= CF2) Teflon coatings are widely used in nonstick cooking pans and other cookwares. Teflon does not stick
to materials easily and has a high melting point which makes it effective for the use in pans for easy cooking
and cleaning. Teflon is a type of plastic discovered by US based company DuPont in 1938.
 Note :
Although synthetic plastic catch fire easily, yet there are some fire-proof synthetic plastic, like
melamine, which are used to coat the uniforms of firemen to make them fire resistant.
RUBER
Rubber is probably the most useful polymer that we come across. It is the backbone of our industry,
automobile industry in particular. The rubber obtained from natural sources is called natural rubber
while the rubber which is made by man is called synthetic rubber.
(a) Natural Rubber :

It is obtained in the form of colloidal suspension of rubber in water and is called latex. Chemically
natural rubber is polyisoprene in which monomer units are of isoprene i.e. , 2 -Methyl-1,3-butadiene.
210
(b) Vulcanisation of Rubber :
Rubber as such is used in temperature range of 283 to 335 K. At higher temperature, it becomes very
soft and below this temperature, it tends to become brittle. To make it more useful, natural rubber is
subjected to vulcanisation.
Vulcanised rubber is better than natural rubber in the sense that it is more elastic, has less water
absorbing tendency and is more resistance to oxidation and towards organic solvents. Cross-linking of
chains also makes synthetic rubber more stiff as compared to natural rubber. In nut shell, vulcanised
rubber can withstand, wear and tear better than natural rubber.
Chemically, vulcanisation has resulted in the cross linking in the linear chains of natural rubber through
sulphur atoms. The carbon atoms involved in the double bonds and the allylic methylene (–CH2) groups
which are at positions α-to the double bond act as reactive sites. Sulphur atoms can link at these
positions and cause cross-linking as shown :
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
Because of cross linking , stiffness is introduced and other physical properties of rubber ore also
influenced. The extent of stiffness depends upon amount of sulphur added. For example, rubber
containing about 5 per cent sulphur is used making rubber tyres. Similarly, vulcanised rubber
containing about 30 per cent sulphur is employed for making cases of batteries etc.
Vulcanized rubber has the following improved properties over natural rubber.
(i) It is hard and non-sticky
(ii) It has higher elasticity which remains over wide range of temperature.
(iii) It is not oxidised readily and exhibits the same behaviours in all weathers.
(iv) It is quite resistant to attack by organic acids.
(c) Synthetic Rubber :

Natural rubber cannot meet ever increasing demand of industry . A few varieties of synthetic rubber and
their utility are briefly discussed.
(i) Neoprene :
It is prepared by the polymerisation of chloroprene (2-Chloro-1,3-butadiene ) in the presence of
traces of oxygen.
(A) Properties and uses : Neoprene is a thermoplastic polymer and is a synthetic rubber. Though it
is inferior to natural rubber in some of its characteristics, it is superior in its stability to aerial
oxidation and in its resistance to oils, gasoline and other solvents. Neoprene is used :
• in the manufacture of containers for storing petrol ,oil and other solvents.
• in making neoprene belts to be used in coal mines as they do not catch fire.
• in making hoses, shoe-heels, stoppers etc.
(ii) Buna-S : It is a co-polymer of 1,3 butadiene and styrene and is prepared by the polymerisation of
these components in the ratio of 3 : 1 in the presence of sodium.
211
(A) Properties and uses : Buna-S is a synthetic polymer and is popularly know as S.B.R. i.e.
styrene butadiene rubber. It is quite tough and less tensile than natural rubber. It is used :
• in the manufacture of tyres for automobiles
• for making rubber soles, belts, hoses, floor tiles etc.)
(iii) Buna-N (Nitrile rubber) : It is a co-polymer of buta-1,3-diene and acrylonitrile. It is formed as

follows :
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
(A) Properties and uses : Buna - N is resistant to the action of petrol lubricating oil and organic
solvents and is used in making oil seals, tank linings etc.
CHLORO-FLUORO CARBON OR FREONS
“Poly chloro-fluoro alkanes are called freons”. When chlorine and fluorine on combination with carbon
atom form a compound, then such a compound is called chloro-fluoro carbon (CFC), which is also
called freon. Freons are the commonly refrigerants in air conditioners and refrigerators.
Out of the various freons mentioned, Freon-12, Freon is most common refrigerant. It is prepared by
passing hydrogen fluoride through carbon tetrachloride in the presence of antimony trichloride catalyst.
In addition to their use as refrigerants, freons are also used as propellants in aerosols and foams. But
these have been found to be very harmful since they cause the destruction of the ozone layer and their
use as aerosols has been banned in U.S.A. and other developed countries.
Actually freons are chemically inert under ordinary conditions. However, as they reach the upper
atmosphere, they react with ozone (O3) and destroy the ozone layer. Moreover, they also absorb
radiations emitted by earth and contribute towards green house effect leading to global warming.
NOMENCLATURE OF FREON
The nomenclature of freon is based on number of carbon, hydrogen and fluorine atoms present in the
molecular formula of freon.
e.g., freon -XYZ
Where X = Number of carbon atoms in freon molecule –1 i.e. (C–1)
Y = Number of hydrogen atoms present in freon molecule +1 i.e. (H+1)
Z = Number of fluorine atoms present in freon molecule.
212
Nomenclature of Main Freons
Uses of Freons :
1. Used in the form of non-reaction solvent.
2. Used as coolant in refrigerators, air-conditioners and cold storage.
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
EXERCISE # 1
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Correct order of products in which they are extracted from crude oil in fractional distillation column
from top to bottom is -
(A) Natural gas, Petrol, Diesel, Paraffin (B) Natural gas, Diesel, Petrol, Paraffin
(C) Natural gas, Parafin, Diesel, Petrol (D) Parafin, Natural gas, Petrol, Diesel
2. Main constituents of coal gas are -

(A) H2O, C2H6, O2 (B) CH4, CO2, O2 (C) CH4, H2, CO (D) C2H6, N2, O2
3. Producer gas is a mixture of :

(A) CO and H2 (B) CO and N2 (C) Co and H2 (D) none of these
4. The head of a safety match contains

(A) antimony trisulphide and potassium chlorate.
(B) antimony chloride and potassium sulphide.
(C) antimony carbonate.
(D) potassium sulphide.
5. Which of the following substances is used in refining of petroleum?

(A) NaCl (B) NaOH (C) Na2CO3 (D) NaHCO3
6. Which of the following is used as an anti - knocking compound?

(A) TEL (B) C2H5OH (C) Glyoxal (D) Freon
7. Separation of fractions of petroleum is done by-

(A) simple distillation (B) destructive distillation
(C) fractional distillation (D) sedimentation
8. Out of the different types of fuels the one which is excellent is :

(A) the solid fuel (B) the liquid fuel (C) the gaseous fuel (D) none of these
9. When a well is drilled through the rock, ________ comes out first.
(A) petroleum (B) natural gas (C) crude oil (D) residual oil
10. Which of the following is correct ?

(A) LPG is liquefied isobutane (B) LPG is liquefied methane
(C) LPG is liquefied methane and propane (D) LPG is mixture of methane and ethane
11. While leakage in L.P.G. gas cylinders which gas gives fowl smell -
(A) butane (B) propane (C) methane (D) ethyl mercaptan
12. Which of the following names represents the foul smelling, black, thick, viscous liquid obtained from
destructive distillation of coal ?
(A) Coke (B) Coal tar (C) Coal gas (D) None of these
13. Kerosene is a mixture of -
(A) alkanes (B) aromatic compounds
(C) alcohols (D) aliphatic acid
14. The petroleum product that has replaced coal-tar for metalling the road is :
(A) peat (B) bitumen (C) lignite (D) anthracite
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
15. Coal is a fossil fuel and it cannot be prepared in a laboratory or industry because the formation of coal.
a. is very slow process.
b. needs very low pressure and low temperature.
c. needs very high pressure and high temperature.
d. causes air pollution.
Select the correct alternative.
(A) a and b (B) b and d (C) c and a (D) d and c
16. Which of the following products obtained by destructive distillation of coal is not properly matched ?
(A) Coal tar - Dyes, explosives, paints. (B) Coal gas - Fuel.
(C) Coke - Drinking purposes. (D) Ammoniacal liquor - Fertilizers.
17. Natural rubber is heated with an element X to make it hard, strong and more elastic. X is :
(A) zinc (B) sulphur (C) lead (D) H2
18. Which of the following are linear polymers ?

(A) Cellulose (B) Natural Rubber
(C) Both (A) & (B) (D) None of these
19. The structure of isoprene is :

(A) CH2 = C (C2H5) – CH = CH2 (B) CH2 = C (OCOCH3) – CH = CH2
(C) CH2 = C (CH3) – CH = CH2 (D) CH2 = CH – C = CH
20. Pick out the incorrect statement amongst the following

(A) Nylon clothing can stand high temperature and are therefore good to wear in summers.
(B) Thermosetting plastics do not become soft on heating.
(C) Addition polymers are formed without the elimination of by- product molecules.
(D) Natural rubber is obtained as latex from rubber trees.
21. Rubber is heated with sulphur and the process is known as -

(A) galvanization (B) vulcanization (C) bessemerization (D) sulphonation
22. Thermoplastics are -

(A) linear polymers.
(B) soften or melt on heating.
(C) molten polymer can be moulded in desired shape.
(D) All of these
23. Which of the following acids is used in preparation of Nylon-66 ?

(A) Acetic acid (B) Ascorbic acid (C) Adipic acid (D) Amino acid
24. When formaldehyde is heated with phenol in the presence of an alkali, the product formed is -
(A) rubber (B) bakelite (C) chloroprene (D) neoprene
25. Synthetic fibres are obtained from -

(A) plants (B) animals (C) petroleum (D) minerals
26. The monomer of Buna-S are -

(A) styrene and butadiene (B) isoprene and butadiene
(C) vinyl chloride and sulphur (D) butadiene.
27. Natural rubber is a polymer of -

(A) butadiene (B) ethane (C) styrene (D) isoprene
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
28. Match the terms of column A correctly with the phrases given in column B.
Column-A Column-B
(i) Polyester (a) Prepared by using wood pulp
(ii) Teflon (b) Used for making parachutes and stockings
(iii) Rayon (c) Electrical switches
(iv) Nylon (d) Fabrics do not wrinkle easily
(v) Bakelite (e) Fire - resistant clothes
(vi) Melamine (f) Used to make non-stick cookwares
(A) (i) (d), (ii) (f), (iii) (a), (iv) (b), (v) (c), (vi) (e)
(B) (i) (f), (ii) (d), (iii) (a), (iv) (b), (v) (c), (vi) (e)
(C) (i) (d), (ii) (f), (iii) (b), (iv) (a), (v) (c), (vi) (e)
(D) (i) (a), (ii) (f), (iii) (d), (iv) (b), (v) (c), (vi) (e)
214
29. Match the column A and B
Column A Column B
i. Thermoplastics a. Handles of utensils, floor tiles
ii. Thermosetting plastics b. Melamine
iii. Biodegradable c. Teflon
iv. Fire proof plastic d. Wood
v. Oil and water do not stick. e. Combs, containers
(A) i-d, ii-e, iii-a, iv-b, v-c (B) i-e, ii-a, iii-d, iv-b, v-c
(C) i-a, ii-d, iii-b, iv-c, v-e (D) i-c, ii-b, iii-a, iv-e, v-d
30. Condensation polymer among the following is -

(A) teflon (B) polystyrene (C) PVC (D) dacron
EXERCISE # 2

1. Which of the following is not an example of synthetic fibre ? [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/05]
(A) Rayon (B) Nylon (C) Polyacrylonitrile (D) Fullerene
2. Buna–S is - [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/06]
(A) artificial fibre (B) plastic (C) synthetic rubber (D) synthetic detergent
3. Fuel which contains 90 % methane is - [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/06]
(A) oil gas (B) Biogas
(C) liquefied petroleum gas (D) natural gas
4. Formula of Freon-11 is - [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/06]
(A) CCl3 F (B) CCl2 F2 (C) Cl3C–CCl2 F (D) CCl2F CCl2F
5. The Freon containing two carbon atoms, two fluorine atoms and four chlorine atoms is -
[Raj. NTSE Stage-I/07]
(A) Freon- 112 (B) Freon- 114 (C) Freon- 113 (D) Freon- 111
6. Method used for purifying petroleum is - [M.P. NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) simple distillation (B) steam distillation (C) vacuum distillation (D) fractional distillation
7. Among the following compounds which one is used for cooling refrigerator ?
[West Bengal NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) NH4 Cl (B) CO (C) NH4OH (D) Liquid NH3
8. In the process of vulcanization - [Karnataka. NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) natural rubber is heated with sulphur (B) natural rubber is heated with carbon
(C) natural rubber is heated with phosphorus (D) natural rubber is heated with sodium
CHEMISTRY-X-PCCP
9. Which gas will probably be important energy source for future ? [Gujrat. NTSE Stage-I/14]
(A) Methane (B) Natural Gas (C) Dihydrogen (D) Nitrogen
10. Which is the important constituent (95%) of natural gas ? [M. P._NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) Methane (B) Propane (C) Ethane (D) Chlorine
11. Which of the following is thermoresistant polymer ? [M. P._NTSE Stage-I/15]

(A) Orlon (B) Polythene (C) Teflon (D) Bakelite
215
12. Which of the following is known as Freon ? [Bihar_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) CCl2F2 (B) CHCl3 (C) CH2F2 (D) CF4
14. Which among the following coal contains highest % of Carbon - [Uttar Pradesh NTSEStage-1/2017]
(A) Peat (B) Bituminous (C) Anthracite (D) Lignite
15. Renewable source of energy is [Uttar Pradesh NTSEStage-1/2017]

(A) Coal (B) Petroleum (C) Natural gas (D) Energy of flowing water
16. Which of the following are the Green house gases? [Delhi NTSEStage-1/2018]
(A) CO2, CH4, N2O and O3 (B) CO2, Octane, Chlorine, Nitrogen
(C) Methane, Oxygen, Helium, Neon (D) None of these
17. Structure of PVC is: [Madhya Pradesh NTSEStage-1/2017]

(A) (B) (C) (D)
18. The polymer formed by condensation of adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine is :
[Rajasthan NTSEStage-1/2017]
(A) isoprene (B) rayon (C) terylene (D) nylon-6, 6
19. Formula of Freon-112 is : [Rajasthan NTSEStage-1/2017]

(A) C2F2Cl4 (B) CF2Cl2 (C) CFCl3 (D) CCl3F
20. The polymer of acrylonitrile is [Rajasthan NTSE Stage-1/2018]

(A) Polythene (B) Polyvinyl chloride (C) Polyvinyl cyanide (D) Polystyrene
Answer Key
EXERCISE # 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. A C B A B A C C B A D B A B C C B C C A
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. B D C B C A D A B D
EXERCISE # 2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. D C D A A D D A B A D A C C D A A D A C

NTSE 10th Chem Part 2

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An Important Note to Parents and Students

1. CHEMICAL REACTIONS & CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 1 - 36

2. PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS 37 - 68

3. ACIDS BASES AND SALTS 69 -107

4. METALS AND NON METALS 108 - 147

5. CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 148 - 196

6. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 197 - 221

7. COAL, PETROLEUM AND POLYMERS 222 - 239

(A) INTRODUCTION, COVALENT BONDING:

MODERN DEFINITION OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

VITAL FORCE THEORY OR BERZELIUS HYPOTHESIS

 Note : Urea is the first organic compound synthesized in the laboratory.

(b) Different Kinds of Covalent Bonds :

VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON

CHECK POINT 5.1

1. Why do atoms take part in bond formation ?

(B) ALLOTROPIC FORMS OF CARBON:

(ii) Properties of Diamond :

(iii) Uses of Diamond :

(ii) Properties of Graphite

(iii) Uses of graphite :

Shape of C60 fullerene

(i) Formula of fullerene

COMPARISON OF GRAPHITE AND FULLERENE

Example.1 Why graphite is differ from Diamond?

CHECK POINT 5.2

1. Describe the structure of graphite ?

(C) HYDROCARBONS AND HOMOLOGOUS SERIES:

(a) Open Chain Compounds :

n-Butane is a straight chain alkane while 2-Methylpropane is branched alkane.

(b) Closed Chain or Cyclic Compounds :

 Note : Benzene is the parent compound of majority of aromatic organic compounds.

(ii) Unsaturated hydrocarbons :

(a) Characteristics of Homologous Series :

(ii) Homologous series of alkenes

(iii) Homologous series of alkynes

CHECK POINT 5.3

1. What is catenation ? Why does carbon show maximum tendency to catenate ?

(D) NOMENCLATURE AND ISOMERISM :

(a) Some common names of hydrocarbon groups

A compound having group is called iso alkyl group

(ii) Neo alkyl group

Compound having group is called neo alkyl group.

(iii) Trivial and Derived naming of organic compounds

(b) Basic rules of IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds :

Each systematic name has the following parts :

(B) Primary suffix :

(A) (B) 143

Rule 5 : Naming of different alkyl substituents at the equivalent positions :

Word root : Hex -

Word root : Prop -

Word root : But -

Word root : Hex -

Hydrocarbon radical Functional group

(a) Main Functional Groups :

(b) Nomenclature of Compounds Containing only one Functional Group :

Steps of naming of an organic compound containing functional group :

Some more examples :

Word root : Hept-

Word root : Pent -

(iii) CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – NH2

Word root : But -

Word root : But -